{{Short description|Major Hindu tradition that reveres Vishnu as the Supreme Being}} {{Use Indian English|date=March 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox | title = Vaishnavism | image = [[File:Hindu God Vishnu as Narayana witth Consorts 10 AD Sculpture at LA County Museum of Art.tif|225px]] | caption = Vaishnava traditions centre on god [[Vishnu]] (center), depicted in a 1000 AD Sculpture. }} {{Vaishnavism}} {{Hinduism}}
'''Vaishnavism''' ({{langx|sa|वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः|Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ|translit-std=IAST|engvar=gb}}), also called '''Vishnuism''', is one of the major [[Hindu denominations|Hindu religious traditions]], that considers [[Vishnu]] as the [[Para Brahman|supreme being]] leading all other [[Hindu deities]], that is, ''[[Mahavishnu]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Pratapaditya Pal |title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 BCE–700 CE |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC |year=1986 |publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=24–25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Stephan Schuhmacher |title=The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Zen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpP8770qVakC |date=1994 |publisher=Shambhala |isbn=978-0-87773-980-7 |page=397}}</ref> It is one of the major Hindu denominations along with [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], and [[Smartism]].{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}} Its followers are called Vaishnavites or ''Vaishnava''s ({{IAST3|Vaiṣṇava}}), and it includes sub-sects like [[Krishnaism]] and [[Ramanandi Sampradaya|Ramaism]], which consider [[Krishna]] and [[Rama]] as the supreme beings respectively.{{sfn|Hardy|1987}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=117}}
The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, and broadly hypothesised as the rise of various regional non-Vedic religions which [[History of Hinduism|fused]] with one another and with worship of [[Vishnu]]. Those popular non-Vedic theistic traditions, particularly the [[Bhagavata]] cults of [[Vāsudeva|Vāsudeva-Krishna]]{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}}<ref name=ucsm>{{cite web |title=Vaishnava |publisher=philtar.ucsm.ac.uk |url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html |access-date=22 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212183626/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html |archive-date=12 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and ''[[Gopala-Krishna]]'',{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=120}} as well as the [[Pancaratra]]-cult of [[Narayana]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=119,120-121}} developed in the 7th to 4th century BCE,{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eliade |first1=Mircea |last2=Adams |first2=Charles J. |title=The Encyclopedia of religion |date=1987 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-909880-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre15elia/page/168 168] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre15elia |url-access=registration}}</ref> and were identified with the Vedic God Vishnu in the early centuries CE, and finalised as Vaishnavism,{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}}{{sfn|Gonda|1993|p=163}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=206–217, 251–252}} when it developed the [[avatar]] doctrine, wherein the various non-Vedic deities are revered as distinct incarnations of the supreme God Vishnu. Narayana, [[Hari]], [[Rama]], [[Krishna]], [[Kalki]], [[Perumal (deity)|Perumal]], [[Shrinathji]], [[Vithoba]], [[Venkateswara]], [[Guruvayurappan]], [[Ranganatha]], [[Jagannath]], [[Badrinath Temple|Badrinath]] and [[Muktinath]] are revered as forms or avatars of Vishnu, all seen as different aspects of the same supreme being.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=3-9}}{{sfn|Anna King|2005|pp=32–33}}{{sfnm|1a1=Mukherjee|1y=1981|1p= |2a1=Eschmann|2a2=Kulke|2a3=Tripathi|2y=1978|2p=|3a1=Hardy|3y=1987|3pp=387–392 |4a1=Patnaik|4y=2005|4p= |5a1=Miśra|5y=2005|5loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism|6a1=Patra|6y=2011|6p=}}
The Vaishnavite tradition is known for the loving devotion to an avatar of Vishnu (often Krishna), and as such was key to the spread of the [[Bhakti movement]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] in the 2nd millennium CE.{{sfn|Hawley|2015|pp=10–12, 33–34}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|pp=731–733}} It has four [[Vedanta]] - schools of numerous denominations (''sampradaya''): the medieval-era [[Vishishtadvaita]] school of [[Ramanuja]], the [[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]] school of [[Madhvacharya]], the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school of [[Nimbarkacharya]], and the [[Shuddhadvaita]] of [[Vallabha]]charya.{{sfn|Beck|2005a|pp=76–77}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=288–304, 340–350}} There are also several other Vishnu-traditions. [[Ramananda]] (14th century) created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia.{{sfn|Raj|Harman|2007|pp=165–166}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|pp=553–554}}
Key texts in Vaishnavism include the [[Veda]]s, the [[Upanishad]]s, the [[Bhagavad Gita]], the ''[[Pancharatra]]'' (Agama) texts, [[Naalayira Divya Prabhandham]], and the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''.<ref name=johnson400/>{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Schrader|1973|pp=2–21}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}
According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University's Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), Vaishnavism is the largest Hindu sect, constituting about 399 million [[Hindus]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Preston |first=Charles |title=List of religious populations {{!}} Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations |access-date=2025-01-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
==History== {{Main|Historical Vishnuism}}
===Origins===
====Northern India==== [[File:Deity Krishna-Vasudeva on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria 190-180 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Vāsudeva]] on a coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria]], circa 190–180 BCE.<ref name="US">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |pages=436–438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA437}}</ref><ref>[[Osmund Bopearachchi]], [https://www.academia.edu/25807197 Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence], 2016.</ref> This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Doris |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |date=1997 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA215}}</ref>]] [[File:Heliodorus_pillar_Rapson_rubbing_inverted.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The inscription of the [[Heliodorus pillar]] that was made by [[Indo-Greek]] envoy Heliodorus in 110 BCE, in what is modern Vidisha ([[Madhya Pradesh]]). The inscription states Heliodorus is a [[Bhagavata]] devoted to the "God of gods" [[Vāsudeva]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=F. R. Allchin |author2=George Erdosy |title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C |date=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-37695-2|pages=303–304 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Radhakumud Mookerji |title=The Gupta Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC |year=1959|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0440-1 |page=3}}</ref>]] {{See also|Vāsudeva Krishna|Bala Krishna}}
The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, with evidence inconsistent and scanty.{{sfn|Preciado-Solís|1984|p=1–16}} In the [[Rg Veda|Rig Veda]] Vishnu is "a benevolent, solar deity,"{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=114}}{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=33}} who is mentioned in just a few hymns,{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=33}}{{sfn|Gonda|1954|p=1-2}} and rose to prominence mid-first century BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=114}}{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=33}}<!-- BEGIN OF NOTE -->{{refn|group=note|name="prominence"|This rise to prominence had been related by older publictions to various hymns of the Rig Veda, such as 1.154.5, 1.56.3 and 10.15.3, which state that Vishnu resides in the ''paramam pada'' ("highest place"),{{sfn|Gonda|1969|p=1-2}}{{sfn|Macdonell|1996|p=9–11, 167–169}}{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=33-34}} which is "seen by the wise."{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=33-34}} This "highest place" came to be interpretated as the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'s (Self) final goal after death, as reflected in the [[Katha Upanishad]].{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=33-34}} Yet, according to [[Jan Gonda]], this interpretation is insufficient to explain the ascendance of Vishnu in post-Vedic times.{{sfn|Gonda|1969|p=1-2}}<br>For the Rg Vedic verses in question, see:<br>* Rg Veda 1.22.20: {{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2021-08-27 |title=Rig Veda 1.22.20 [English translation] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/rig-veda-english-translation/d/doc829114.html |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}<br>* Rg Veda 1.22.21{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2021-08-27 |title=Rig Veda 1.22.21 [English translation] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/rig-veda-english-translation/d/doc829115.html |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}<br>* Rg Veda 1.154.6: {{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2021-08-27 |title=Rig Veda 1.154.1 [English translation] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/rig-veda-english-translation/d/doc830646.html |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}<br>{{harvtxt|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=33}} relates this elevation also to Vishnu's 'third step: "The long strides which he takes, and the three steps by which he measures the universe, are always described with an enthusiastic spirit. His first two steps can be discerned and approached by men, but the third no one can dare transgress, and it is beyond the flight of birds (RV. I. 155) 5)."<br>See also [[Vishnu#Vedas]].}}<!-- END OF NOTE --> Syncretism of various local traditions and deities (Vasudeva-Krishna, Narayana, Krishna-Gopala) with Vishnu resulted in Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Gonda|1993|p=163}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=206–217, 251–252}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=117}}{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=34-35}}
According to [[R. G. Bhandarkar|Bhandarkar]], Vaishnavism formed in the Purnaic period through the identification of Vishnu with [[Narayana]] and with [[Vasudeva-Krishna]], following his elevation as the "Supreme Spirit". He suggests that this elevation appears linked to reverence for Vishnu's "third step" or for his "highest place" (''paramam pada''), described in the Rig Veda as being "seen by the wise" and later reinterpreted in [[Katha Upanishad]] as the soul's final goal.{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|pp=33-34}}{{refn|group=note|name="prominence"}} Yet, according to Jan Gonda, this interpretation is insufficient to explain the ascendance of Vishnu in post-Vedic times.{{sfn|Gonda|1969|p=2}} Gonda argues that the Vedic poets did not give a complete description of his qualities, and that he may have had a greater appeal among the Aryan and non-Aryan "masses" of the early Vedic times than reflected in the Vedas.{{sfn|Gonda|1954|p=10}} Gonda concludes that, for the Vedic people, the complex powers which were experienced as "the presence and the activity of a divine personality called Visnu may be the best described as the 'idea' of universal penetration or pervasiveness, as the axis mundi and otherwise, of the omnipresence of a mighty and beneficent energy, in which all beings abide".{{sfn|Gonda|1976|pp=9-10}}
According to [[Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar|Dandekar]], what is understood today as Vaishnavism did not originate in Vedism, but emerged from the merger of several popular theistic traditions after the decline of Brahmanism at the end of the Vedic period, shortly before the [[History of India#"Second urbanization" (500–200 BCE)|second urbanisation]] of northern India, in the 7th to 4th century BCE.{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}}: "The origin of Vaiṣṇavism as a theistic sect can by no means be traced back to the Ṛgvedic god Viṣṇu. In fact, Vaiṣṇavism is in no sense Vedic in origin. (...) Strangely, the available evidence shows that the worship of Vāsudeva, and not that of Viṣṇu, marks the beginning of what we today understand by Vaiṣṇavism. This Vāsudevism, which represents the earliest known phase of Vaiṣṇavism, must already have become stabilized in the days of Pāṇini (Seventh to fifth centuries bce)."}}
According to Dandekar, Vaishnavism initially formed as Vasudevism around [[Vāsudeva]], a deified leader of the [[Vrishnis]], and one of the [[Vrishni heroes]].{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}} Later, Vāsudeva was amalgamated with [[Krishna]] "the deified tribal hero and religious leader of the Yadavas",{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}}<ref name="ucsm" /> to form the merged deity ''Bhagavan Vāsudeva-Krishna'',{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}} due to the close relation between the tribes of the Vrishnis and the Yadavas.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}} This was followed by a merger with the cult of ''[[Gopala-Krishna]]'' of the cowherd community of the Abhıras{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}} in the 4th century CE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=120}} The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic.<ref>{{cite book |author= Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar |author-link= Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar |author2= Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar |title= Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar as an Indologist: A Symposium |publisher= Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|location=India |year= 1976 |pages= 38–40}}</ref> According to Dandekar, such mergers positioned [[Krishnaism]] between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}} The "Greater Krsnaism", states Dandekar, then adopted the [[Historical Vishnuism|Rigvedic Vishnu]] as Supreme deity to appeal to orthodox elements.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9499}}
According to [[Klaus Klostermaier|Klostermaier]], Vaishnavism originates in the last centuries BCE and the early centuries CE, with the cult of the heroic Vāsudeva, a leading member of the [[Vrishni heroes]], which was then later amalgamated with [[Krishna]], hero of the [[Yadavas]], and still several centuries later with the "divine child" [[Bala Krishna]] of the [[Gopala-Krishna|Gopala]] traditions.{{refn|group=note|name="Klostermaier-Krishna"|Klostermaier: "Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies [[Krishna-Vasudeva]] worship already flourished in and around [[Mathura]] several centuries before Christ. Next came the sect of Krishna Govinda. Later the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna was added — a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom [[Radha]] occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion."{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007}}}} According to Klostermaier, "In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the [[Bhagavata]] religion."{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007}} According to Dalal, "The term Bhagavata seems to have developed from the concept of the Vedic deity [[Bhaga]], and initially it seems to have been a monotheistic sect, independent of the Brahmanical pantheon."{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=54–55}}
The development of the Krishna-traditions was followed by a syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions with the [[Mahabharata]] canon, thus affiliating itself with [[Vedism]] in order to become acceptable to the [[Āstika and nāstika|orthodox]] establishment. The Vishnu of the [[Rig Veda]] was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism and became the equivalent of the Supreme God.<ref name=ucsm/> The appearance of Krishna as one of the ''[[Avatar]]s'' of Vishnu dates to the period of the [[Sanskrit epics]] in the early centuries CE. The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]] -'' initially, a Krishnaite scripture, according to [[Friedhelm Hardy]] - was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text of Krishnaism.{{sfn|Hardy|1987}}{{sfn|Dandekar|1971|p=270}}
Finally, the Narayana worshippers were also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}} The Nara-Narayana worshippers may have originated in Badari, a northern ridge of the Hindu Kush, and was absorbed into the Vedic orthodoxy as Purusa Narayana.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}} Purusa Narayana may have later been turned into Arjuna and Krsna.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}}
In the late Vedic texts (~1000 to 500 BCE), the concept of a metaphysical [[Brahman]] grew in prominence. The Vaishnavism tradition considered Vishnu to be identical to Brahman, just like Shaivism and Shaktism consider Shiva and Devi to be Brahman respectively.<ref>{{cite book |author=William K. Mahony |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998 |publisher=SUNY Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |pages=13–14}}</ref>
This complex history is reflected in the two main early denominations of Vaishnavism: the [[Krishnaism|Bhagavats]], worshipping Vāsudeva-Krishna{{sfn|Welbon|2005a|pp=9500-9509}} and follow Brahmanic Vaishnavism, and the Panchratris, who regarded Narayana as their founder and follow the Tantric Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}}{{sfn|Welbon|2005b|pp=9509-9510}}
====Southern India==== {{See also|Sri Vaishnavism|Perumal (deity)|Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam}} [[S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar]] states that the Vaishnava [[Alvars]] lived in the first half of the 12th century with their works flourishing about the time of the revival of Brahminism and Hinduism in the north and speculates that Vaishnavism might have spread to the south as early as the first century CE.{{sfn|Aiyangar|2019|p=16}} Secular literature also ascribes the tradition in the south to the 3rd century CE. [[U. V. Swaminatha Iyer]], a scholar of Tamil literature, published the [[Paripāṭal|Paripatal]] ([[Sangam literature|Sangam]] period), which contains seven poems in praise of Vishnu, including references to Krishna and Balarama. Aiyangar notes an invasion of the south by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryas]] in some of the older poems of the Sangam, suggesting that opposition to northern conquest may have an element of religion, with orthodox Brahmanism resisting the spread of Buddhism under [[Ashoka]]. Tamil literature of this period also records the settlement of Brahman colonies in the south, and exhibit considerable Brahmanical influence.{{sfn|Aiyangar|2019|pp=93–94}}
[[File:6th century Vishnu avatar Narasimha in Cave 3, Badami Hindu cave temple Karnataka 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A 6th century sculpture of Narasimha at the Badami cave temple, constructed by the Chalukyas]] The [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] dynasty of Tamilakam patronised Vaishnavism. [[Mahendravarman I|Mahendra Varman]] built shrines both of Vishnu and Shiva, several of his cave-temples exhibiting shrines to Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. In the age of the Pallava domination, which followed immediately, both Vaishnavism and Shaivism flourished, fighting the insurgent Buddhists and Jains.{{sfn|Aiyangar|2019|p=95}} The Pallavas were also the first of various dynasties that offered land and wealth to the [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala|Venkatesvara temple]] at Tirumala, which would soon become the most revered religious site of South India.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}} The [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava]] [[acharya]] [[Ramanuja]] is credited with the conversion of the [[Hoysala Kingdom|Hoysala]] king [[Vishnuvardhana]] (originally called Bittideva) from Jainism to Vaishnavism, consolidating the faith in Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Y02AiEu1kcC&dq=hoysala+dynasty+vaishnava&pg=PT243 |title=A History of India |date=1990-06-28 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-194976-5}}</ref> The [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]] and their rivals of the Pallavas appear to have employed Vaishnavism as an assertion of divine kingship, one of them proclaiming themselves as terrestrial emanations of Vishnu while the other promptly adopted Shaivism as their favoured tradition, neither of them offering much importance to the other's deity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Inden |first=Ronald B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N658caH-C74C&dq=chalukya+vishnu&pg=PA249 |title=Imagining India |date=2000 |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |isbn=978-1-85065-520-6 |pages=249}}</ref> The Sri Vaishnava [[sampradaya]] of Ramanuja would hold sway in the south, the Vadakalai denomination subscribing to Vedanta philosophy and the Tenkalai adhering to regional liturgies known as Prabandham.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chari |first=S. M. Srinivasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TwHhuZrZ-wC&dq=vadakalai+vedanta+desika&pg=PA244 |title=Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Āl̲vārs |date=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1342-7 |pages=244}}</ref>
According to [[Friedhelm Hardy|Hardy]],{{refn|group=note|Friedhelm Hardy in his "Viraha-bhakti" analyses the history of Krishnaism, specifically all pre-11th-century sources starting with the stories of Krishna and the [[gopi]], and [[Thirumal|Mayon]] mysticism of the Vaishnava [[Tamil people|Tamil]] saints, Sangam [[Tamil literature]] and [[Alvars]]' Krishna-centred devotion in the [[rasa (theology)|rasa]] of the emotional union and the dating and history of the [[Bhagavata Purana]].<ref name="Hardy">{{cite book |author=Hardy, Friedhelm |title=Viraha-Bhakti: The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India (Oxford University South Asian Studies Series) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-564916-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ier.sagepub.com/cgi/pdf_extract/23/4/443?ck=nck |title=Book review - FRIEDHELM HARDY, Viraha Bhakti: The Early History of Krishna Devotion in South India. Oxford University Press, Nagaswamy 23 (4): 443 – Indian Economic & Social History Review |publisher=ier.sagepub.com |access-date=29 July 2008 }}</ref>}} there is evidence of early "southern Krishnaism", despite the tendency to allocate the Krishna-traditions to the Northern traditions.<ref name="Hardy" /> South Indian texts, including the ''[[Manimekalai]]'' and the ''[[Cilappatikaram]]'', show close parallel with the Sanskrit traditions of Krishna and his gopi companions, later widespread in North Indian text and imagery.{{sfn|Monius|2005|pp=139–149}} Hardy argues that the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana is essentially a Sanskrit "translation" of the [[bhakti]] of the Tamil [[alvars]].<ref>Norman Cutler (1987) ''Songs of Experience: The Poetics of Tamil Devotion'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=veSItWingx8C&dq=Friedhelm+Hardy+Viraha+Bhakti&pg=PA13 p. 13]</ref>
Devotion to the southern Indian Mal ([[Perumal (deity)|Perumal]]) may be an early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some elements of Vishnu.<ref name=mal>{{cite web |url=http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/mal.html |title=Devotion to Mal (Mayon) |publisher=philtar.ucsm.ac.uk |access-date=22 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212183649/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/mal.html |archive-date=12 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Alvars]], whose name can be translated "immersed", were devotees of Perumal. They codified the Vaishnava canon of the south with their most significant liturgy, the [[Naalayira Divya Prabandham]], traced to the 10th century as a compilation by Nathamuni.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&dq=nalayira+divya+prabandham+history+nathamuni+century&pg=PA617 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |pages=617}}</ref> Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal. But they do not make the distinction between [[Krishna]] and [[Vishnu]] on the basis of the concept of the [[avatar]]s.<ref name = mal/> Yet, according to Hardy, the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when referring to Mal or Mayon.<ref name = Hardy/> The early Alvars glorified ''Vishnu bhakti'', but also expressed sympathy for ''Shiva bhakti'', sometimes even describing Shiva and Vishnu as one, although they do recognise their united form as Vishnu.{{sfn|Aiyangar|2019|pp=77–78}}
===Gupta era=== [[File:The God Vishnu in Three Incarnations. Northern India (Mathura), Gupta period, mid-5th century AD. Boston Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Vishnu]] in three incarnations (''[[Vaikuntha Chaturmurti]]''): [[Vishnu]] himself or [[Krishna]] in human form, [[Varaha]] as a boar, [[Narasimha]] as a lion. [[Gupta art]], [[Mathura]], mid-5th century CE. [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Boston Museum]]<ref name="CS">For English summary, see p. 80 {{cite journal |last1=Schmid |first1=Charlotte |title=Les Vaikuṇṭha gupta de Mathura : Viṣṇu ou Kṛṣṇa? |journal=Arts Asiatiques |date=1997 |volume=52 |pages=60–88 |doi=10.3406/arasi.1997.1401 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/arasi_0004-3958_1997_num_52_1_1401}}</ref>]] Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with [[Chandragupta II]] (Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or [[Bhagavata]] [[Vaishnavas]].{{sfn|Ganguli|1988|p=36}}{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}} But following the [[Huna people|Huna]] invasions, especially those of the [[Alchon Huns]] circa 500 CE, the [[Gupta Empire]] declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting.<ref name="HTB98"/> The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the [[Aulikaras]], the [[Maukharis]], the [[Maitrakas]], the [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalacuris]] or the [[Vardhanas]] preferred adopting [[Saivism]] instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of [[Shiva]], and its ideology of power.<ref name="HTB98"/> Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: [[South India]] and [[Kashmir]].<ref name="HTB98">{{cite book |last1=Bakker |first1=Hans T. |title=The Alkhan: A Hunnic People in South Asia |date=12 March 2020 |publisher=Barkhuis |isbn=978-94-93194-00-7 |pages=98–99, 93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLnVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98}}</ref>
===Early medieval period=== {{Main|Alvars}}
After the Gupta age, Krishnaism became a major current of Vaishnavism,{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007}} and Vaishnavism developed into various sects and subsects, most of them emphasising ''bhakti'', which was strongly influenced by south Indian religiosity.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}} Modern scholarship places [[Nimbarkacharya]] (c.7th century CE) in this period; he propounded [[Radha Krishna|Radha-Krishna]] worship and his doctrine later came to be known as [[Dvaitadvaita Vedanta|Dvaita-advaita]].{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=180}}
Vaishnavism in the 10th century started to employ Vedanta-arguments, possibly continuing an older tradition of Vishnu-oriented Vedanta predating [[Advaita Vedanta]]. Many of the early Vaishnava scholars such as Nathamuni, Yamunacharya and Ramanuja, contested [[Adi Shankara|Adi Shankara']]s Advaita, instead emphasising devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author= S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title= Tattva-muktā-kalāpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un1i5icdpdoC |year=1988|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0266-7 |pages=2–5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author= Klaus K. Klostermaier |title=Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-1QJMu80UIC | year=1984|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-158-3 |pages=101–103}}</ref> Vaishnavism flourished in predominantly [[Shaivite]] [[Tamil Nadu]] during the seventh to tenth centuries CE with the twelve [[Alvars]], saints who spread the sect to the common people with their devotional [[hymn]]s. The temples that the Alvars visited or founded are now known as [[Divya Desams]]. Their poems in praise of [[Vishnu]] and Krishna in the [[Tamil language]] are collectively known as ''Naalayira'' [[Divya Prabandha]] (4000 divine verses).{{sfn|Annangaracariyar|1971}}{{sfn|Seth|1962}}
===Later medieval period=== {{See also|Bhakti movement}} [[File:Indischer Maler um 1660 002.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|[[Krishna]] with [[Gopi]]s, painted c. 1660.]]
The [[Bhakti movement]] of late medieval Hinduism started in the 7th century, but rapidly expanded after the 12th century.{{sfn|Smith|1976|pages=143–156}} It was supported by the Puranic literature such as the [[Bhagavata Purana]], poetic works, as well as many scholarly [[bhasya]]s and [[samhitas]].{{sfn|Gupta |Valpey |2013 |pp=2–10}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India |editor1-first=Karine |editor1-last=Schomer |editor2-first=W. H. |editor2-last=McLeod |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-208-0277-3|pages=1–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=C. J. Bartley |title=The Theology of Ramanuja: Realism and Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SpTAQAAQBAJ| year=2013| publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-85306-7|pages=1–4, 52–53, 79}}</ref>
This period saw the growth of Vaishnava sampradayas (denominations or communities) under the influence of scholars such as [[Ramanuja]], [[Nimbarka]], [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] and [[Vallabha]].{{sfn|Beck|2005|p=6}} Bhakti poets or teachers such as [[Manavala Mamunigal]], [[Namdev]], [[Ramananda]], [[Sankardev]], [[Surdas]], [[Tulsidas]], [[Eknath]], [[Tyagaraja]], [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] and many others influenced the expansion of Vaishnavism. [[Mirabai]] was also part of this movement.{{sfn|Jackson|1992}}{{sfn|Jackson|1991}}<ref>John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-674-18746-7}}, pp. 304–310</ref> These scholars rejected [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]'s doctrines of Advaita Vedanta, particularly [[Ramanuja]] in the 12th century, and [[Vedanta Desika]] and [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]] in the 13th century, building their theology on the devotional tradition of the [[Alvars]] ([[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnavas]]).<ref name="Bartley2013p1"/>
In North and Eastern India, Vaishnavism gave rise to various late Medieval movements such as [[Ramananda]] in the 14th century, [[Sankaradeva]] in the 15th and [[Vallabha]] and [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya]] in the 16th century. Historically, it was [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] who founded congregational chanting of holy names of Krishna in the early 16th century after becoming a [[sannyasi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bhajankutir.net/essays/nama-theology.pdf|title=Caitanya Vais.n. avism and the Holy Names|last=Delmonico|first=Neal|date=4 April 2004|website=Bhajan Kutir|access-date=29 May 2017}}</ref>
===Modern times=== During the 20th century, Vaishnavism spread from India and is now practised in many places around the globe, including North America, Europe, Africa, Russia and South America. A pioneer of Vaishnavite mission to the West was sannyasi ''Baba Premananda Bharati'' (1858–1914), the author of the first full-length treatment of Bengali Vaishnavism in English, ''Sree Krishna—the Lord of Love''. He founded the "Krishna Samaj" society in [[New York City]] in 1902 and a temple in [[Los Angeles]].{{sfnm|1a1=Carney|1y=2020|2a1=Jones|2a2=Ryan|2y=2007|2pp=79–80|2loc=Bharati, Baba Premanand}} The global status of Vaishnavism is largely due to the growth of the [[ISKCON]] movement, founded by [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] in 1966.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Selengut |first=Charles |title=Charisma and Religious Innovation:Prabhupada and the Founding of ISKCON |journal=ISKCON Communications Journal |volume=4 |issue=2 |year=1996 |url=http://content.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713061921/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/4_2/4_2charisma.html |archive-date=13 July 2011 }}</ref><ref name=Herzig2004>{{Cite book |author = Herzig, T.|author2=Valpey, K |year = 2004 |chapter= Re—visioning Iskcon |title= The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn = 978-0-231-12256-6 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&q=meanings+name+Krishna+Gopala&pg=PA416|access-date = 10 January 2008 }}</ref><ref>''Prabhupada - He Built a House, [[Satsvarupa dasa Goswami]], Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1983, {{ISBN|0-89213-133-0}}'' p. xv</ref>
==Beliefs==
===Theism with many varieties=== Vaishnavism is centred on the devotion of Vishnu and his avatars. According to Schweig, it can be "characterized as a polymorphic monotheism, i.e. a theology that recognises many forms (''ananta rupa'') of the one, single unitary divinity," since there are many forms of one original deity, with Vishnu taking many forms.{{sfn|Schweig|2013|p=18}} In contrast, Okita states that the different denominations within Vaishnavism are best described as theism, [[pantheism]] and [[panentheism]].<ref>Kiyokazu Okita (2010), "Theism, Pantheism, and Panentheism: Three Medieval Vaishnava Views of Nature and their Possible Ecological Implications", ''Journal of Vaishnava Studies'', Volume 18, Number 2, pp. 5–26</ref>
The Vaishnava sampradaya started by Madhvacharya is a monotheistic tradition in which Vishnu (Krishna) is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=360–361}} The [[Sri Vaishnavism]] sampradaya associated with Ramanuja also has monotheistic elements, but differs in several ways, such as goddess Lakshmi and god Vishnu are considered inseparable and equal divinities.<ref>William Wainwright (2013), [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/monotheism/#ShrVaiMon Monotheism], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University Press</ref> According to some scholars, Sri Vaishnavism emphasises panentheism, and not monotheism, with a theology of "transcendence and immanence",<ref>{{cite book|author1=Harold Coward |author2=Daniel C. Maguire |title=Visions of a New Earth: Religious Perspectives on Population, Consumption, and Ecology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YBfpS4B0mCwC |year=2000|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4457-3 |pages=113–114}}</ref><ref>Ankur Barua (2010), God's body at work: Ramanuja and Panentheism, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Volume 14, Number 1, pp. 1–30</ref> in which God interpenetrates everything in the universe, and empirical reality is God's body.<ref>Anne Hunt Overzee (1992). The Body Divine: The Symbol of the Body in the Works of Teilhard de Chardin and Ramanuja. Cambridge University Press. pp. 63–85. {{ISBN|978-0-521-38516-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Julius Lipner |title=The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Ramanuja |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjR2xuu4L8EC |year=1986|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn= 978-0-88706-038-0|pages=37–48 }}</ref> The Vaishnava sampradaya associated with Vallabhacharya is a form of pantheism, in contrast with other Vaishnavism traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ursula King|author-link=Ursula King (academic)|title=Teilhard De Chardin and Eastern Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YdgU0QTqGmAC |year=2011|publisher=Paulist Press|location=New York|pages=267–268}}</ref> According to Schweig, the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] tradition of Chaitanya is closer to a "polymorphic bi-monotheism" because both goddess Radha and god Krishna are simultaneously regarded as supreme.{{sfn|Schweig|2013|pp=18–19}}
Vaishnavism includes the doctrine of [[avatar]] (divine incarnation), wherein Vishnu incarnates numerous times, in different forms, to restore cosmic order.{{sfn|Kinsley|2005|pp=707–708}}<ref name=ryanjonesavatar>{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D. Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |year=2006|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |page=474 }}</ref>{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=228}} These avatars include Narayana, Vasudeva, Rama, and Krishna; with each associated tradition regarding one of them as supreme.{{sfn|Matchett|2000|p=254}}
====Vishnuism and Krishnaism==== The term "[[Krishnaism]]" ({{IAST|Kṛṣṇaism}}) has been used by scholars to describe a large group of independent traditions ([[sampradaya]]s) within Vaishnavism that regard [[Krishna]] as the Supreme God, while "Vishnuism" may be used for sects that focus on Vishnu and see Krishna as an [[Avatar]] rather than a transcended Supreme Being.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|p=387-392}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=117}} While most Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an [[avatar]] of Vishnu, only Krishna-centred traditions identify the Supreme Being ([[Svayam Bhagavan]], [[Brahman]], the source of the Trimurti) with Krishna and his forms ([[Radha Krishna]], [[Vithoba]] and others). This is its difference from such groups as [[Ramanandi|Ramaism]], [[Radha-vallabha|Radhaism]], Sitaism, etc.{{sfn|Hardy|1987}}{{sfn|Matchett|2001|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}} [[File:Scuola di bilaspur, vishnu e lakshmi, 1810 ca.jpg|thumb|Vishnu and Lakshmi, the chief deities of veneration in Sri Vaishnavism]]
====Vishnu==== In [[Vishnuism|Vishnu-centred]] sects, Vishnu ([[Narayana]]) is regarded as the one supreme God. Texts such as the Epics and [[Puranas]] describe Vishnu as the source of many incarnations (avatars), through which his supremacy is expressed. Other deities such as [[Shiva]], [[Ganesha]], [[Surya]], or [[Durga]] are acknowledged, but are understood as subordinate.{{Sfn|Rosen|2006|p=155-156}} To the devotees of [[Srivaishnava|Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya]], "Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Being and the foundation of all existence."<ref name="Ramanuja">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Ramanuja/Ramanuja&vaishna.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225015818/http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Ramanuja/Ramanuja%26vaishna.html|url-status=dead|title=Page 1–Ramanuja and Sri Vaishnavism|archivedate=25 February 2008}}</ref> Lakshmi, his consort, is described to act as the mediatrix between Vishnu and his devotees, intervening to offer her grace and forgiveness.{{Sfn|Rosen|2006|p=155-156}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Carman |first=John Braisted |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyVfKEmEK2QC&pg=PA281 |title=Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God |date=1994 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-0693-2 |pages=281 |language=en}}</ref> According to [[Vedanta Desika]], the divine couple [[Lakshmi Narayana]] pervade and transcend the universe, which is described to be their body. They are described to support all life, both material and spiritual.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Bron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4mvAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA773 |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature |date=2008-06-10 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4411-2278-0 |pages=773 |language=en}}</ref> In this theology, Lakshmi is conceived as the supreme mother and Narayana as the supreme father of creation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=D. Dennis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UXlMCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT311 |title=The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram |date=2008-09-25 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-045140-0 |pages=311 |language=en}}</ref>
====Krishna==== [[File:Krishna as the supreme deity in relation to Vishnu.png|thumb|right|Relationship between different forms of Krishna as ''[[Avatar|Paripurna avatara]]'' of Vishnu and as Svayam Bhagavan in Chaitanya school of Vaishnavism{{sfn|Schweig|2013|pp=17–19}}]] {{Main|Krishna}}
In the Krishna-centred Vaishnavism traditions, such as the [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]] (the first Krishnaite Sampradaya attributed to [[Nimbarka]]), [[Ekasarana Dharma]], [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], [[Mahanubhava]], [[Rudra Sampradaya]] ([[Pushtimarg]]), [[Vaishnava-Sahajiya]], and [[Warkari]], Krishna is worshipped as the One Supreme form of [[God]] and source of all avatars, [[Svayam Bhagavan]].{{sfn|Hardy|1987}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Latourette|first=Kenneth Scott |date=1961 |title=Review of India and Christendom: The Historical Connections between Their Religions |journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=34|issue=3|pages=317–318 |doi=10.2307/2753385 |jstor=2753385}}</ref>
Krishnaism is often also called Bhagavatism—perhaps the earliest Krishnite movement centred on Krishna-[[Vasudeva]] (about 2nd century BCE).{{sfn|Welbon|2005a|pp=9500-9509}} The [[Bhagavata Purana]] asserts Krishna as "Bhagavan Himself," and subordinates to itself all other forms: [[Vishnu]], [[Narayana]], [[Purusha]], [[Ishvara]], [[Hari]], [[Vasudeva]], [[Janardana]] etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Sheridan|1986|p=53}}. "It becomes clear that the personality of Bhagvan Krishna subordinates to itself the titles and identities of Vishnu, Narayana, Purusha, Ishvara, Hari, Vasudeva, Janardana etc. The pervasive theme, then, of the ''Bhagavata Puran'' is the identification of Bhagavan with Krishna."</ref>
Krishna is often described as dark-skinned and depicted as a young cowherd boy playing a [[Bansuri|flute]] or as a youthful prince giving philosophical direction and guidance, as in the [[Bhagavad Gita]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Geoffrey Parrinder |title=Sexual Morality in the World's Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7LsnAAAAYAAJ |date=1996 |publisher= Oneword |isbn= 978-1-85168-108-2|pages=9–10 }}</ref> His stories appear across a wide range of Hindu traditions, where it is believed that [[God]] appears to his devoted worshippers in many different forms, depending on their particular desires.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chaitanya Charitamrita ''Madhya'' 20.165 |url=http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en |access-date=7 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917122404/http://vedabase.net/cc/madhya/20/165/en |archive-date=17 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Thomson">{{cite journal |author1=Richard Thompson |date=June 1993 |title=Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism |journal=ISKCON Communications Journal |volume=1 |issue=2 |url=http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html |access-date=12 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104040530/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html |archive-date=4 January 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Radha Krishna==== [[File:Delhi-National Museum-Jayadeva worshipping Radha and Krishna-20131006.jpg|thumb|Jayadeva worships Radha Krishna, c. 1730 painting by [[Manaku]].]] {{Main|Radha Krishna}}
Radha Krishna is the combination of both the feminine as well as the masculine aspects of God. Krishna is often referred as ''[[Svayam bhagavan]]'' in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] theology and [[Radha]] is Krishna's internal potency and supreme beloved.{{sfn|Schweig|2005|p=3}} With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the supreme goddess, for it is said that she controls Krishna with her love.{{sfn|Rosen|2002|p=50}} It is believed that Krishna enchants the world, but Radha enchants even him. Therefore, she is the supreme goddess of all.{{sfn|Rosen|2002|p=52}}<ref>[[Chaitanya-charitamrita]] [http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en Adi-lila 4.95] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080824092217/http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en |date=24 August 2008 }}</ref> Radha and Krishna are avatars of [[Lakshmi]] and [[Vishnu]] respectively. In the region of India called Braj, Radha and Krishna are worshipped together, and their separation cannot even be conceived. And, some communities ascribe more devotional significance to Radha.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Krishna: a sourcebook |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-514892-3 |editor-last=Bryant |editor-first=Edwin Francis |location=Oxford |editor-last2=Bryant |editor-first2=Edwin F.}}</ref>
While there are much earlier references to the worship of this form of God, it is since [[Jayadeva]] wrote the poem ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' in the twelfth century CE, that the topic of the spiritual love affair between the divine Krishna and his consort Radha, became a theme celebrated throughout India.{{sfn|Schwartz|2004|p=49}} It is believed that Krishna has left the "circle" of the [[rasa dance]] to search for Radha. The Chaitanya school believes that the name and identity of Radha are both revealed and concealed in the verse describing this incident in [[Bhagavata Purana]].{{sfn|Schweig|2005|pp=41–42}} It is also believed that Radha is not just one cowherd maiden, but is the origin of all the [[gopis]], or divine personalities that participate in the [[rasa (theology)|rasa]] dance.{{sfn|Schweig|2005|p=43}}
====''Avatar''s==== {{main|Dashavatara}}
According to The Bhagavata Purana, there are twenty-two avatars of Vishnu, including [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]]. The Dashavatara is a later concept.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}}
====''Vyuha''s==== {{main|Caturvyūha}}
The Pancaratrins follow the ''vyuha''s doctrine, which says that God has four manifestations (''vyuha''s), namely Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha. These four manifestations represent "the Highest Self, the individual self, mind, and egoism."{{sfn|Dandekar|1987|p=9500}}
===Restoration of dharma=== Vaishnavism theology has developed the concept of avatar (incarnation) around Vishnu as the preserver or sustainer. His avataras, asserts Vaishnavism, descend to empower the good and fight evil, thereby restoring [[dharma]]. This is reflected in the passages of the ancient [[Bhagavad Gita]] as:{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Kinsley|2005|p=15}} {{Blockquote| <poem> Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth. For the protection of the good and for the destruction of evil, and for the establishment of righteousness, I come into being age after age. </poem> |Bhagavad Gita 4.7–8{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=339–340}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mircea Eliade |author2=Charles J. Adams |title=The Encyclopedia of Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L74iAAAAYAAJ |volume=2 |year=1987 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-02-909710-6|page=14}}</ref> }}
In Vaishnava theology, such as is presented in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Pancaratra]]'', whenever the cosmos is in crisis, typically because the evil has grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of its balance, an avatar of Vishnu appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore the cosmic balance between the everpresent forces of good and evil.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=228}} The most known and celebrated avatars of Vishnu, within the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism, are [[Krishna]], [[Rama]], [[Narayana]] and [[Vasudeva]]. These names have extensive literature associated with them; each has its own characteristics, legends, and associated arts.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=3–4}} The ''Mahabharata'', for example, includes Krishna, while the ''Ramayana'' includes Rama.{{sfn|Anna King|2005|pp=32–33}}
==Texts== The Vedas, the Upanishads, the ''Bhagavad Gita,'' and the [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]] are the scriptural sources of Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}<ref name=goodallix>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20778-3}}, pp. ix–xliii</ref><ref>RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, {{ISBN|978-0-679-41078-2}}, pp. 1–11 and Preface</ref> The Bhagavata Purana is a revered and widely celebrated text, parts of which, a few scholars such as Dominic Goodall, include as a scripture.<ref name=goodallix/> Other important texts in the tradition include the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as texts by various ''sampradayas'' (denominations within Vaishnavism). In many Vaishnava traditions, Krishna is accepted as a teacher whose teachings are in the ''Bhagavad Gita'' and the ''Bhagavata Purana''.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007}}{{refn|group=note|name="Klostermaier-Krishna"}}
===Scriptures===
====Vedas and Upanishads==== Vaishnavism, just like all Hindu traditions, considers the [[Vedas]] as the scriptural authority.<ref name="JonesRyan2006p474">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones |author2=James D. Ryan |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |page=474 }}</ref><ref name="Dhavamony1999p33">{{cite book|author=Mariasusai Dhavamony |title=Hindu Spirituality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |date=1999 |publisher=Gregorian Press |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |pages=32–34 }}</ref> All traditions within Vaishnavism consider the [[Brahmana]]s, the [[Aranyaka]]s and the [[Upanishad]]s embedded within the four Vedas as [[Sruti]], while Smritis, which include all the epics, the Puranas and its Samhitas, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, are considered as "exegetical or expository literature" of the Vedic texts.<ref name="Dhavamony1999p33"/>
The Vedanta schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], which interpreted the Upanishads and the ''[[Brahma Sutra]]'', provided the philosophical foundations of Vaishnavism. Due to the ancient and archaic language of the Vedic texts, interpretations varied among different schools, leading to differences between the denominations (sampradayas) of Vaishnavism.<ref name="Inden1990p109">{{cite book|author=Ronald B. Inden |title=Imagining India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxSSdU8btwIC |date=1990 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21358-7 |pages=109–115 }}</ref> These interpretations have created different traditions within Vaishnavism, from dualistic (''Dvaita'') Vedanta of [[Madhvacharya]],{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=288–309}} to nondualistic (''Advaita'') Vedanta of [[Madhusudana Sarasvati]].{{sfn|Gupta|2013|pp=1–12}}
{{Quote box |quote = '''[[Axiology]] in a Vaishnava Upanishad''' <poem> The [[Dāna|charity or gift]] is the armour in the world, All beings live on the gift of the other, Through gifts strangers become friends, Through gifts, they ward off difficulties, On gifts and giving, everything rests, That is why charity is the highest. </poem> |source = —''Mahanarayana Upanishad'' 63.6{{sfn|Deussen|1997a|p=264; Note: This hymn appears in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa as well}}<ref>Sanskrit original: Quote: दानं यज्ञानां वरूथं दक्षिणा लोके दातार | सर्वभूतान्युपजीवन्ति दानेनारातीरपानुदन्त दानेन | द्विषन्तो मित्रा भवन्ति दाने सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितं तस्माद्दानं परमं वदन्ति ॥ ६॥; Source: {{Cite web|url=http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/mahanarayana.pdf |title= महानारायणोपनिषत् (Mahanarayana Upanishad)|access-date=23 January 2016|language=sa|last= Hattangadi| first= Sunder| year= 1999}}</ref> |width = |bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align = right }}
=====Vaishnava Upanishads===== Along with the reverence and exegetical analysis of the ancient [[Principal Upanishads]], Vaishnava-inspired scholars authored 14 Vishnu avatar-focussed Upanishads that are called the Vaishnava Upanishads.<ref name=ayyangarminor>{{cite book| last=Ayyangar| first = TRS| year=1941 | title=The Vaisnavopanisads| publisher = Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2006)|isbn= 978-0-89581-986-4|pages= i–vi, 1–11}}</ref> These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the [[Muktikā]] Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature.<ref name=ayyangarminor/><ref>Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions, New York University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8147-3650-0}}, pp. 60–88</ref> The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era.<ref>{{cite book| last=Olivelle| first=Patrick| title=Upaniṣads| publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1998| isbn=978-0-19-283576-5| pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlyupanishadsa00oliv/page/n33 11]–14| url=https://archive.org/details/earlyupanishadsa00oliv| url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name=pedumont338>{{cite journal|translator-first=PE |translator-last=Dumont |year=1940 |title=The Avyakta Upaniṣad |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=60 |number=3|pages=338–355 |doi=10.2307/594420|jstor=594420|last1=Dumont |first1=P. -E }}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2013|p=42}}
All of the Vaishnava Upanishads either directly reference and quote from the ancient Principal Upanishads or incorporate some ideas found in them; most cited texts include the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]], [[Chandogya Upanishad]], [[Katha Upanishad]], [[Isha Upanishad]], [[Mundaka Upanishad]], [[Taittiriya Upanishad]] and others.<ref name=pdeussen247268/><ref name=ayyangarvupa/> In some cases, they cite fragments from the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layers of the [[Rigveda]] and the [[Yajurveda]].<ref name=pdeussen247268/>
The Vaishnava Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from [[bhakti]]-style theistic themes to a synthesis of Vaishnava ideas with Advaitic, Yoga, Shaiva and Shakti themes.<ref name=pdeussen247268/><ref name=dorissrini112120>{{cite book|last=Srinivasan |first=Doris |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes| publisher=BRILL Academic| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC | isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |year=1997 |pages=112–120}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" align=center style = " background: transparent; " |+ Vaishnava Upanishads |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px style="background: #ffad66;" | Vaishnava Upanishad | width=60px style="background: #ffdd00;"| Vishnu Avatar | width= 60px | Composition date | width= 240px | Topics | width=40px | Reference |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Mahanarayana Upanishad]] | width=60px | Narayana | width= 60px | 6AD - 100 CE | width= 240px | Narayana, Atman, Brahman, Rudra, Sannyasa | width=40px | <ref name=pdeussen247268/><ref name=dorissrini112120/> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Narayana Upanishad]] | width=60px | Narayana | width= 60px | Medieval | width= 200px | Mantra, Narayana is one without a second, eternal, same as all gods and universe | width=40px | <ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Deussen |translator1=V. M. Bedekar |translator2=G. B. Palsule |title=Sixty Upanisads of the Veda |volume=2 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1469-1 |year=2010 |orig-year=1980 |pages=803–805}}</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Rama Rahasya Upanishad]] | width=60px | Rama | width= 60px | ~17th century CE | width= 240px | Rama, Sita, Hanuman, Atman, Brahman, mantra | width=40px | <ref name=rlamb191193>{{cite book|last= Lamb |first=Ramdas |title=Rapt in the Name |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dv1nxyOTgN0C |year =2002|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5386-5|pages=191–193 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author=Catherine Ludvik| title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C |year=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1122-5| pages=10–13}}</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Rama tapaniya Upanishad]] | width=60px | Rama | width= 60px | ~11th to 16th century | width= 240px | Rama, Sita, Atman, Brahman, mantra, sannyasa | width=40px | <ref name=rlamb191193/>{{sfn|Deussen|1997b|pp=859–864, 879–884}} |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Kali-Santarana Upanishad]] | width=60px | Rama, Krishna | width= 60px | ~14th century | width= 200px | [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna Maha Mantra]] | width=40px | {{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2013|pp=35–45}} |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Gopala Tapani Upanishad]] | width=60px | Krishna | width= 60px | before the 14th century | width= 240px | Krishna, Radha, Atman, Brahman, mantra, bhakti | width=40px | <ref>{{Cite book|author=B. V. Tripurari |title=Gopala-tapani Upanisad |publisher=Audarya |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-932771-12-1 |pages= xi–xiii, 3–11 }}</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Krishna Upanishad]] | width=60px | Krishna | width= 60px | ~12th-16th century | width= 240px | Rama predicting Krishna birth, symbolism, bhakti | width=40px | <ref>{{cite book| last=Ayyangar| first = TRS| year=1941 | title=The Vaisnavopanisads| publisher = Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2006)|isbn= 978-0-89581-986-4|pages= 22–31}}</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Vasudeva Upanishad]] | width=60px | Krishna, Vasudeva | width= 60px | ~2nd millennium | width= 240px | Brahman, Atman, Vasudeva, Krishna, [[Urdhva Pundra]], Yoga | width=40px | <ref>{{Cite journal|first = George| last= Jacob|year=1887| title= The Vasudeva and Gopichandana Upanishads| journal=The Indian Antiquary, A Journal of Oriental Research |volume=XVI |issue=March, Part CXCIV}}</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Garuda Upanishad]] | width=60px | Vishnu | width= 60px | Medieval | width= 200px | The kite-like bird ''vahana'' (vehicle) of Vishnu | width=40px | <ref>Jean Varenne (1972), The Garuda Upanishad, Brill, {{ISBN|978-2-02-005872-8}}</ref>{{sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=663–664}} |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Hayagriva Upanishad]] | width=60px | Hayagriva | width= 60px | medieval, after the 10th century CE | width= 200px | Mahavakya of Principal Upanishads, Pancaratra, Tantra | width=40px | <ref name=ayyangarvupa>{{cite book| last=Ayyangar| first = TRS| year=1941 | title=The Vaisnavopanisads| publisher = Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2006)|isbn= 978-0-89581-986-4 }}</ref><ref>DS Babu (1990), [https://archive.org/stream/hayagriva014842mbp#page/n3/mode/2up Hayagriva - the horse headed deity], Oriental Research Institute, Tirupati</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Dattatreya Upanishad]] | width=60px | Narayana, Dattatreya | width= 60px | 14th to 15th century | width= 200px | Tantra, yoga, Brahman, Atman, Shaivism, Shaktism | width=40px | <ref>{{cite book|first=Antonio |last= Rigopoulos|title=Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the Transformative and Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity|date=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3696-7|pages= 64–77}}</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Tarasara Upanishad]] | width=60px | Rama, Narayana | width= 60px | ~11th to 16th century | width= 200px | Om, Atman, Brahman, Narayana, Rama, Ramayana | width=40px | <ref>{{Cite web|last= Aiyar |first= Narayanasvami| url=https://archive.org/stream/thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft#page/n3/mode/2up |title=Thirty minor Upanishads|access-date=16 January 2016|year=1914|publisher=Archive Organization|pages=124–127}}</ref> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Avyakta Upanishad]] | width=60px | Narasimha | width= 60px | before the 7th century | width= 240px | Primordial nature, cosmology, [[Ardhanarishvara]], Brahman, Atman | width=40px | <ref name=pedumont338/> |-style="text-align: center;" | width=200px | [[Nrisimha Tapaniya Upanishad]] | width=60px | Narasimha | width= 60px | before the 7th century CE | width= 200px | Atman, Brahman, Advaita, Shaivism, Avatars of Vishnu, [[Om]] | width=40px | {{sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=809–858}} |}
====Bhagavad Gita==== The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' is a central text in Vaishnavism, and especially in the context of Krishna.<ref>James Mulhern (1959) A History of Education: A Social Interpretation p. 93</ref><ref>[[Franklin Edgerton]] (1925) The Bhagavad Gita: Or, Song of the Blessed One, India's Favorite Bible [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1guGAfGr6UC&dq=%22bible+of+Krsnaism%22&pg=RA2-PA87 pp. 87-91]</ref><ref>[[Charlotte Vaudeville]] has said, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC&dq=%22bible+of+Krsnaism%22&pg=PT119 it is the 'real Bible of Krsnaism']. Quoted in: {{harvnb|Matchett|2000}}</ref> The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is an important scripture not only within Vaishnavism, but also to other traditions of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=124–128}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard H. Davis |title=The "Bhagavad Gita": A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5197-3 |pages=4–8 }}</ref> It is one of three important texts of the [[Vedanta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]], and has been central to all Vaishnavism sampradayas.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=124–128}}<ref>{{cite book|author=E. Allen Richardson |title=Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West |isbn=978-0-7864-5973-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWQMBAAAQBAJ |date=2014 |publisher=McFarland |pages=5–6, 11–14, 134–145}}</ref>
The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, and presents Bhakti, Jnana and Karma yoga as alternate ways to spiritual liberation, with the choice left to the individual.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=124–128}} The text discusses [[dharma]], and its pursuit as duty without craving for fruits of one's actions, as a form of spiritual path to liberation.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=125–126}} The text, state Clooney and Stewart, succinctly summarises the foundations of Vaishnava theology that the entire universe exists within Vishnu, and all aspects of life and living is not only a divine order but divinity itself.{{sfn|Francis Clooney|Tony Stewart|2004|p=163}} Bhakti, in Bhagavad Gita, is an act of sharing, and a deeply personal awareness of spirituality within and without.{{sfn|Francis Clooney|Tony Stewart|2004|p=163}}
The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is a summary of the classical Upanishads and Vedic philosophy, and closely associated with the Bhagavata and related traditions of Vaishnavism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard H. Davis |title=The "Bhagavad Gita": A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5197-3 |pages=58–59, 170 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Georg Feuerstein |author2=Brenda Feuerstein |title=The Bhagavad-Gita |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0exkVFiyvcC |date=2011 |publisher=Shambhala Publications |isbn=978-1-59030-893-6 |pages=64–69 }}</ref> The text has been commented upon and integrated into diverse Vaishnava denominations, such as by the medieval era Madhvacharya's [[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]] Vedanta school and Ramanuja's [[Vishishtadvaita]] Vedanta school, as well as 20th century Vaishnava movements such as the Hare Krishna movement by His Divine Grace [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=124–125}}
====Vaishnava Agamas==== The ''[[Pancharatra|Pancaratra]] Samhitas'' (literally, five nights) is a genre of texts where Vishnu is presented as Narayana and Vasudeva, and this genre of Vaishnava texts is also known as the Vaishnava [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=121–122}}{{sfn|Schrader|1973|pp=2–21}} Its doctrines are found embedded in the stories within the Narayaniya section of the ''Mahabharata''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=121}} Narayana is presented as the ultimate unchanging truth and reality (Brahman), who pervades the entirety of the universe and is asserted to be the preceptor of all religions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=121}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Guy L. Beck |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgybmMnWpaUC |date=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1261-1 |pages=173–180 }}</ref>
The Pancaratra texts present the ''Vyuhas'' theory of avatars to explain how the absolute reality (Brahman) manifests into material form of ever changing reality (Vishnu avatar).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=121}}{{sfn|Schrader|1973|pp=31–49, 79–118}} Vasudeva, state the Pancaratra texts, goes through a series of emanations, where new avatars of him appear. This theory of avatar formation syncretically integrates the theories of evolution of matter and life developed by the [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=122}}{{sfn|Schrader|1973|pp=31–49, 79–118}} These texts also present cosmology, methods of worship, tantra, Yoga and principles behind the design and building of Vaishnava temples (''Mandira nirmana'').{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=122}}{{sfn|Schrader|1973|pp=30, 150–157}}<ref name="HarperBrown2012p133"/> These texts have guided religiosity and temple ceremonies in many Vaishnava communities, particularly in South India.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=122}}
The ''Pancaratra Samhitas'' are tantric in emphasis, and at the foundation of tantric Vaishnava traditions such as the Sri Vaishnava tradition.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=122–123}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Teun Goudriaan |author2=Sanjukta Gupta |title=Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2q1h7q-JWMC |date=1981 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-02091-6 |pages=105–111 }}</ref> They complement and compete with the vedic Vaishnava traditions such as the Bhagavata tradition, which emphasise the more ancient Vedic texts, ritual grammar and procedures.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=122–123}}<ref name="HarperBrown2012p133">{{cite book|author=Dennis Hudson |editor1=Katherine Anne Harper |editor2=Robert L Brown |title=The Roots of Tantra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NtKrbKIOL5wC |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-8890-4 |pages=133–156 }}</ref> While the practices vary, the philosophy of Pancaratra is primarily derived from the Upanishads, its ideas synthesise Vedic concepts and incorporate Vedic teachings.<ref>{{cite book|author=Harvey P. Alper |title=Mantra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMPibh4_XuoC |date=1989 |publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn= 978-0-88706-599-6 |pages=242–243 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari|title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=xxviii–xxxi }}</ref>
The three most studied texts of this genre of Vaishnava religious texts are ''Paushkara Samhita'', ''Sattvata Samhita'' and ''Jayakhya Samhita''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=122}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=H. Daniel |last=Smith |date=1972 |title=The three gems of the Pancharatra canon - An appraisal |journal=Vimarsa |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=45–51}} Reprinted in {{cite book |publisher=Brill Academic |title=Ex Orbe Religionum |editor=C. J. Bleeker |year=1972}}</ref> The other important Pancaratra texts include the ''Lakshmi Tantra'' and ''Ahirbudhnya Samhita''.{{sfn|Schrader|1973|pp=2–21}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Sanjukta Gupta |date=2000 |title=Lakṣmī Tantra: A Pāñcarātra Text |pages=xv–xix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pENlKmZ4r94C |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1735-7}}</ref> Scholars place the start of this genre of texts to about the 7th or 8th century CE, and later.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=122}}{{sfn|Schrader|1973|pp=22–27, 112–114}}
===Other texts===
====Mahabharata and Ramayana==== {{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana}}
The two [[Indian epic poetry|Indian]] [[Epic poetry|epic]]s, the [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Ramayana]] present Vaishnava philosophy and culture embedded in legends and dialogues.<ref>{{cite book|author1=J. Gordon Melton |author2= Martin Baumann|title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices|edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C |date=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 |pages=1417–1418 }}</ref> The epics are considered the fifth Veda in Hindu culture.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alf Hiltebeitel |title=Reading the Fifth Veda: Studies on the Mahābhārata |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lLfHSOWKB-sC |date=2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-18566-1|pages=59–60, 308}}</ref> The Ramayana describes the story of [[Rama]], an avatara of Vishnu, and is taken as a history of the 'ideal king', based on the principles of [[dharma]], morality and ethics.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ramashraya Sharma |title=A Socio-political Study of the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Vo0OJtO6DQC |date=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0078-6 |pages=149–150 }}</ref> Rama's wife [[Sita]], his brother [[Lakshmana|Lakshman]], with his devotee and follower [[Hanuman]] all play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behaviour. [[Ravana]], the evil king and villain of the epic, is presented as an epitome of ''adharma'', playing the opposite role of how not to behave.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ashok Banker |title=Vengeance of Ravana: Book Seven of the Ramayana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpiqv2cs1zYC |year=2011|publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-306699-6 |pages=270–271 }}</ref>
The Mahabharata is centred around [[Krishna]], presents him as the avatar of transcendental supreme being.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=113–115}} The epic details the story of a war between good and evil, each side represented by two families of cousins with wealth and power, one depicted as driven by virtues and values while other by vice and deception, with Krishna playing pivotal role in the drama.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=69 with note 150, 81–82, 95–98, 333–340}} The philosophical highlight of the work is the Bhagavad Gita.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=77–94}}<ref name="JonesRyan2006p474"/>
====Puranas==== {{Main|Bhagavata Purana|Vishnu Purana}}
[[File:Shrinika Purohit.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Krishna stories have inspired numerous dramatic and dance arts in Indian culture.{{sfn|Gupta |Valpey |2013 |pp=162–180}}<ref>ML Varadpande (1987), History of Indian Theatre, Vol 1, Abhinav, {{ISBN|978-81-7017-221-5}}, pp. 98–99</ref>]] The [[Puranas]] are an important source of entertaining narratives and histories, states Mahony, that are embedded with "philosophical, theological and mystical modes of experience and expression" as well as reflective "moral and soteriological instructions".<ref name = "Mahony87">{{cite journal |author = Mahony, William K. |year = 1987 |title = Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities |journal = History of Religions |volume = 26 |issue = 3 |pages = 333–335 |jstor = 1062381 |doi = 10.1086/463085 |s2cid = 164194548 }}</ref>
More broadly, the Puranic literature is encyclopedic,<ref name=merriam>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature |year=1995 |edition=1995 |article=Puranas |isbn=0-877790426 |page=915}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rocher|1986|pp=1–5, 12–21, 79–80, 96–98}}; "These are the true encyclopedic Puranas. in which detached chapters or sections, dealing with any imaginable subject, follow one another, without connection or transition."</ref> and it includes diverse topics such as [[cosmogony]], [[cosmology]], genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, travel guides and pilgrimages,<ref>{{cite book|author=Ariel Glucklich| title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective| publisher=Oxford University Press| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC| year=2008| isbn=978-0-19-971825-2 |page=146|quote= '''Quote:''' The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas''.}}</ref> temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gregory Bailey |year=2001 |title=Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy |editor=Oliver Leaman |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-17281-3 |pages=437–439}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Gregory Bailey |year=2003 |title=The Study of Hinduism |editor=Arvind Sharma |publisher=The University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-57003-449-7 |page=139}}</ref>{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=1–5, 12–21}} The Puranas were a living genre of texts because they were routinely revised,{{sfn|Rocher|1986|p=153}} their content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent.<ref name=johncort185/><ref name=dimmittp5/> The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries.<ref name=johncort185>{{cite book |author=John Cort |year=1993 |title=Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts |editor=Wendy Doniger |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1382-1 |pages=185–204}}</ref><ref name=dimmittp5>{{cite book |author1=Cornelia Dimmitt |author2=J. A. B. van Buitenen |title=Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=re7CR2jKn3QC|publisher=Temple University Press |orig-year=1977 |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4399-0464-0 |pages=4–5}}</ref>
Of the 18 Mahapuranas (great Puranas), many have titles based on one of the avatars of Vishnu. However, quite many of these are actually, in large part, Shiva-related Puranas, likely because these texts were revised over their history.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=35, 185, 199, 239–242}} Some were revised into Vaishnava treatises, such as the ''[[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]]'', which originated as a Puranic text dedicated to the [[Surya]] (Sun god). Textual cross referencing evidence suggests that in or after 15th/16th century CE, it went through a series of major revisions, and almost all extant manuscripts of ''Brahma Vaivarta Purana'' are now Vaishnava (Krishna) bhakti oriented.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=161–164}} Of the extant manuscripts, the main Vaishnava Puranas are ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'', ''[[Nāradeya Purana]]'', ''[[Garuda Purana]]'', ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' and ''[[Varaha Purana]]''.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=59–61}} The ''[[Brahmanda Purana]]'' is notable for the ''Adhyatma-ramayana'', a Rama-focussed embedded text in it, which philosophically attempts to synthesise [[Bhakti]] in god Rama with [[Shaktism]] and [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rocher|1986|pp=158–159 with footnotes}}, "Among the texts considered to be connected with the ''Brahmanda'', the ''Adhyatma-ramayana'' is undoubtedly the most important one".</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Winternitz |first=Maurice |author-link=Moriz Winternitz |title=History of Indian Literature |volume=1 |orig-year=1922 in German, translated 1981 into English |translator=V. Srinivasa Sarma |year=2010 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=New Delhi |isbn= 978-81-208-0264-3 |page=552}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ramdas Lamb |title=Rapt in the Name |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R51OEErb9g8C |date=1 February 2012|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-8856-0 |pages=29–30 }}</ref> While an avatar of Vishnu is the main focus of the Puranas of Vaishnavism, these texts also include chapters that revere Shiva, Shakti (goddess power), Brahma and a pantheon of Hindu deities.<ref>Barbara Holdrege (2015), Bhakti and Embodiment, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-67070-8}}, pp. 113–114</ref><ref>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-14-191337-7}}, pp. 10–12</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rocher|1986|pp=104–106 with footnotes}}, "I want to stress the fact that it would be irresponsible and highly misleading to speak of or pretend to describe the religion of the Puranas."</ref>
The philosophy and teachings of the Vaishnava Puranas are [[bhakti]] oriented (often Krishna, but Rama features in some), but they show an absence of a "narrow, sectarian spirit". To its bhakti ideas, these texts show a synthesis of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] and [[Advaita Vedanta]] ideas.<ref>{{cite book| editor=Wayman, Alex |title=Researches in Indian and Buddhist philosophy | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | last = Rukmani | first=T. S. |chapter = Siddhis in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa and in the Yogasutras of Patanjali – a Comparison | year=1993 | pages=217–226 | isbn=978-81-208-0994-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i1ffdTIbNJkC}};<br />{{cite journal| last=Brown| first=C. Mackenzie|year=1983| title=The Origin and Transmission of the Two "Bhāgavata Purāṇas": A Canonical and Theological Dilemma| journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion| volume=51 | issue=4| pages=551–567| jstor=1462581| doi=10.1093/jaarel/li.4.551}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Dasgupta| first= Surendranath| title = A history of Indian philosophy, Vol. IV: Indian pluralism| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year = 1979 |page=49}}</ref>{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}}
In [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]], [[Vallabha Sampradaya]] and [[Nimbarka sampradaya]], Krishna is believed to be a transcendent, Supreme Being and source of all avatars in the Bhagavata Purana.<ref name="Krishna153">{{Harvnb|Matchett|2000|p=153}}, Bhag. Purana 1.3.28 :''{{IAST|ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam}}'' :''{{IAST|indrāri-vyākulaṁ lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge}}''</ref> The text describes modes of loving devotion to Krishna, wherein his devotees constantly think about him, feel grief and longing when Krishna is called away on a heroic mission.{{sfn|Matchett|2000|loc=10th canto transl.}}
[[File:JivaGoswami.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|Jiva Gosvami's [[Bhajan Kutir]] at [[Radha-kunda]]. Jiva Goswamis ''Sandarbhas'' summarise Vedic sources of [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] tradition's accretion of the concept Krishna to be the supreme Lord.{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p={{page needed|date=July 2022}}}}]]
==Practices==
===Bhakti=== The [[Bhakti movement]] originated among Vaishnavas of [[South India]] during the 7th-century CE,{{sfn|Smith|1976|pages=143–144}} spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]] towards the end of 13th-century,{{sfn|Smith|1976|pages=154–155}} and gained wide acceptance by the fifteenth-century throughout India during an era of political uncertainty and Hindu-Islam conflicts.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India |editor1-first=Karine |editor1-last=Schomer |editor2-first=W. H. |editor2-last=McLeod |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-208-0277-3|pages=1–3}}</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=131}}{{sfn|Smith|1976|pages=143–169}}
The [[Alvars]], which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they travelled from one place to another.<ref>{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Carl|title=The many colors of Hinduism: a thematic-historical introduction|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2007|page=231|isbn=978-0-8135-4068-9}}</ref> They established temple sites such as [[Srirangam]], and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as [[Divya Prabhandham]], developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The [[Bhagavata Purana]]'s references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on ''bhakti'', have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that ''bhakti'' movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|p={{page needed|date=February 2021}}}}<ref>{{cite book | last=J. A. B. van Buitenen | author-link=J. A. B. van Buitenen | chapter=The Archaism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |title=Encyclopedia Indica | year = 1996| editor=S.S. Shashi | isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 | pages=28–45 | publisher=Anmol Publications }}</ref>
Vaishnava bhakti practices involve loving devotion to a Vishnu avatar (often Krishna), an emotional connection, a longing and continuous feeling of presence.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karen Pechilis Prentiss |title=The Embodiment of Bhakti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu95WgeUBfEC |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535190-3 |pages=17–24 }}</ref> All aspects of life and living is not only a divine order but divinity itself in Vaishnava bhakti.{{sfn|Francis Clooney|Tony Stewart|2004|p=163}} Community practices such as singing songs together (''[[kirtan]]'' or ''[[bhajan]] ''), praising or ecstatically celebrating the presence of god together, usually inside temples, but sometimes in open public are part of varying Vaishnava practices.{{sfn|Lorenzen|1995|pp=23–24}} Early Vaishnava practices noted by [[Patanjali]] also included festive gatherings in temples with musical instruments.{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=13}} Other practical methods includes devotional practices such as chanting mantras (japa), performing rituals, and engaging in acts of service (seva) within the community.{{Sfn|Francis Clooney|Tony Stewart|p=178|2004}} These help Vaishnavas socialise and form a community identity.{{sfn|Lorenzen|1995|pp=107–112}}
===Tilaka=== {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Gaze of a priest.JPG | width1 = 178 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Sadhu Vârânasî.jpg | width2 = 185 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Left: A Vaishnava Hindu with Tilaka ([[Urdhva Pundra]]).{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002b|loc="Urdhvapundra"|p=724}}<br />Right: A Shaiva Hindu with Tilaka ([[Tripundra]]){{sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&pg=PA789 789–790]}}<ref name=chatterjeeshs11>Gautam Chatterjee (2003), Sacred Hindu Symbols, Abhinav Publications, {{ISBN|978-81-7017-397-7}}, pp. 11, 42, 57–58</ref> }} Vaishnavas mark their foreheads with ''[[tilaka]]'' made up of chandana (sandalwwood), either as a daily ritual, or on special occasions. The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have their own distinctive [[Tilak (Vaishnava)|style of tilaka]], which depicts the [[siddhanta]] of their particular lineage. The general tilaka pattern is of a parabolic shape resembling the letter U or two or more connected vertical lines on and another optional line on the nose resembling the letter Y, in which the two parallel lines represent the Lotus feet of Krishna and the bottom part on the nose represents the [[tulsi]] leaf.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-621641/Vaishnavism|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080127133553/http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-621641/Vaishnavism|url-status=dead|title=britannica.com Vaishnavism|archivedate=27 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.stephen-knapp.com/tilak_why_wear_it.htm |title = Tilak: Why Wear It}}</ref>
===Initiation=== In tantric traditions of Vaishnavism, during the initiation ([[diksha]]) given by a [[guru]] under whom they are trained to understand Vaishnava practices, the initiates accept Vishnu as supreme. At the time of initiation, the disciple is traditionally given a specific [[mantra]], which the disciple will repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is known as [[japa]].
In the Gaudiya Vaishnava group, one who performs an act of worship with the name of Vishnu or Krishna can be considered a Vaishnava by practice, "Who chants the holy name of Krishna just once may be considered a Vaishnava."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bvml.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011204044612/http://bvml.org/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=4 December 2001|title=bvml.org|website=#}}</ref>{{Specify|date=April 2026}}
===Pilgrimage sites=== {{Map/Pilgrimage in Vaishnavism}}
Important sites of pilgrimage for Vaishnavas include [[Guruvayur Temple]], [[Srirangam]], [[Kanchipuram]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], [[Ayodhya]], [[Tirupati (city)|Tirupati]], [[Pandharpur|Pandharpur (Vitthal)]], [[Puri|Puri (Jaggannath)]], [[Shri Laxmi Narsimha Temple|Nira Narsingpur (Narasimha)]], [[Mayapur]], [[Nathdwara]], [[Dwarka]], Udipi (Karnataka), [[Shree Govindajee Temple|Shree Govindajee Temple (Imphal)]], [[Govind Dev Ji Temple|Govind Dev Ji Temple (Jaipur)]] and [[Muktinath]].<ref name="Klostermaier">{{Cite book |first = Klaus K. |last = Klostermaier |author-link = Oxford University |title = Hinduism: A Short History |place = Oxford |publisher = Oneworld Publications |year = 2000 |isbn = 978-1-85168-213-3 |url = https://archive.org/details/hinduismshorthis0000klos }}</ref><ref name="Valpey2004">{{cite book |author = Valpey, K.R. |year = 2004 |title = The Grammar and Poetics of Murti-Seva: Chaitanya Vaishnava Image Worship as Discourse, Ritual, and Narrative |publisher = University of Oxford }}</ref>
===Holy places=== {{Main|Vrindavana|Goloka}}
[[Vrindavana]] is considered to be a holy place by several traditions of Krishnaism. It is a centre of Krishna worship and the area includes places like [[Govardhan Hill|Govardhana]] and [[Gokula]] associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions of ''bhaktas'' or devotees of [[Krishna]] visit these places of pilgrimage every year and participate in a number of festivals that relate to the scenes from Krishna's life on Earth.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007}}{{refn|group=note|name=Klostermaier|Klostermaier: "[[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Bhagavata Purana]], certainly the most popular religious books in the whole of India. Not only was Krsnaism influenced by the identification of Krsna with Vishnu, but also Vaishnavism as a whole was partly transformed and reinvented in the light of the popular and powerful Krishna religion. Bhagavatism may have brought an element of cosmic religion into Krishna worship; Krishna has certainly brought a strongly human element into Bhagavatism [...] The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time [[Braj]]bhumi, the district of [[Mathura]] that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna from time immemorial. Many millions of Krishna ''bhaktas'' visit these places ever year and participate in the numerous festivals that reenact scenes from Krshna's life on Earth."{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007}}}}
On the other hand, [[Goloka]] is considered the eternal abode of [[Krishna]], [[Svayam bhagavan]] according to some [[Vaishnava]] schools, including [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] and the [[Swaminarayan Sampraday]]a. The scriptural basis for this is taken in [[Brahma Samhita]] and [[Bhagavata Purana]].{{sfn|Schweig|2005|p=10}}
==Traditions== The Vaishnavism traditions may be grouped within four [[sampradaya]]s, each exemplified by a specific Vedic personality. They have been associated with a specific founder, providing the following scheme: Sri Sampradaya ([[Ramanuja]]), Brahma Sampradaya ([[Madhvacharya]]),{{sfn|Sharma|2000|loc=Front matter}} Rudra Sampradaya ([[Vishnuswami]], [[Vallabhacharya]]),<ref>{{cite book|author=E. Allen Richardson |title=Seeing Krishna in America: The Hindu Bhakti Tradition of Vallabhacharya in India and Its Movement to the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWQMBAAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5973-5 |pages=19–21 }}</ref> Kumaras Sampradaya ([[Nimbarka]]).{{sfn|Klostermaier|1998}}<!--** START OF NOTE **-->{{refn|group=note|'''(a)''' Steven Rosen and William Deadwyler III: "the word sampradaya literally means 'a community'."<ref name=rosendeadwyler/><br />'''(b)''' Federico Squarcini traces the semantic history of the word ''sampradaya'', calling it a tradition, and adds, "Besides its employment in the ancient Buddhist literature, the term sampradaya circulated widely in Brahamanic circles, as it became the most common word designating a specific religious tradition or denomination".<ref>{{cite book|author=Federico Squarcini |title=Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia |pages=20–27 |publisher=Anthem Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1etcIIqQq9QC&pg=PA19|date=2011 |isbn=978-0-85728-430-3}}</ref>}}<!--** END OF NOTE **--> These four sampradayas emerged in early centuries of the 2nd millennium CE, by the 14th century, influencing and sanctioning the [[Bhakti movement]].{{sfn|Beck|2005|p=6}}
The philosophical systems of Vaishnava sampradayas range from qualified [[monism|monistic]] [[Vishishtadvaita]] of Ramanuja, to theistic [[Dvaita]] of Madhvacharya, to pure [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualistic]] [[Shuddhadvaita]] of Vallabhacharya. They all revere an avatar of Vishnu, but have varying theories on the relationship between the soul ([[jiva]]) and [[Brahman]],<ref name="Mahony87"/>{{sfn|Beck|2005a|pp=74–77}} on the nature of changing and unchanging reality, methods of worship, as well as on spiritual liberation for the householder stage of life versus [[sannyasa]] (renunciation) stage.{{sfn|Beck|2005a|pp=76–77}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=288–304, 340–350}}
Beyond the four major sampradayas, the situation is more complicated,{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=134–135}} with the Vaikhanasas being much older{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=123}} than those four sampradayas, and a number of additional traditions and sects which originated later,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=135}} or aligned themselves with one of those four sampradayas.<ref name=rosendeadwyler/> Krishna sampradayas continued to be founded late into late medieval and during the [[Mughal Empire]] era, such as the [[Radha Vallabh Sampradaya]], [[Haridasa]], [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya]] and others.{{sfn|Beck|2005a|pp=70–79}}
=== Traditions List === {| class="wikitable" ! Sampradaya ! Main theological preceptor ! Philosophy ! Founder ! (Sub)schools ! Founded ! (Sub)school-founder ! Worship |- | rowspan=3 align=center | [[Historical Vishnuism|Historical traditions]] | rowspan=3 align=center | | rowspan=3 align=center | | rowspan=3 align=center | | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Bhagavata|Bhagavatism]] (Vasudevism){{sfn|Dandekar|1987}}{{sfn|Welbon|2005a|pp=9500-9509}} | rowspan=1 align=center | 1st millennium BCE | rowspan=1 align=center | unknown | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vāsudeva]], <br />[[Bala Krishna]], [[Gopala-Krishna]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Pancharatra]]{{sfn|Welbon|2005b|pp=9509-9510}} | rowspan=1 align=center | 3rd century BCE | rowspan=1 align=center | Sage [[Narayana]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vishnu]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vaikhanasa]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 4th century CE | rowspan=1 align=center | Sage Vaikhanasa | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vishnu]] |- | rowspan=2 align=center | [[Sri Sampradaya]]<br /> | rowspan=2 align=center | [[Laksmi]] | rowspan=2 align=center | [[Vishishtadvaita]]<br />("qualified monism") | rowspan=2 align=center | [[Nathamuni]] (10th century){{sfn|Flood|1996|p=136}}<br />[[Ramanujacharya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Iyengar]] [[Thenkalai]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 12th–14th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Pillai Lokacharya]]<br />[[Manavala Mamunigal]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vishnu]] & [[Lakshmi]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Iyengar]] [[Vadakalai]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 14th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vedanta Desika]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vishnu]] & [[Lakshmi]] |- | rowspan=3 align=center | [[Brahma Sampradaya]] | rowspan=3 align=center | [[Brahma]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Tattvavada]] ("the realist viewpoint")<br />or [[Dvaita]] ("dualism") | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Madhvacharya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Haridasa]] and [[Sadh Vaishnavism]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 13th-14th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Narahari Tirtha]] / [[Sripadaraja]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Narayana]] / [[Hari]] ([[Vishnu]]) & [[Lakshmi]] |- | rowspan=2 align=center | [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]]<br />("difference and non-difference") | rowspan=2 align=center | | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]]{{refn|group=note|Based on a list of gurus found in Baladeva Vidyabhusana's ''Govinda-bhasya'' and ''Prameya-ratnavali'', ISKCON situates Gaudiya Vaishnavism within the Brahma sampradaya, calling it ''Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya Vaisnava Sampradaya''.<ref name=rosendeadwyler/>}} | rowspan=1 align=center | 16th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Radha Krishna]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Mahanam Sampraday]]a | rowspan=1 align=center | 1890s | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Prabhu Jagadbandhu]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Radha Krishna]] |- | align="center" | [[Rudra Sampradaya]] | align="center" | [[Shiva]] | align="center" | [[Shuddhadvaita]]<br />("pure nondualism") | align="center" | [[Vishnuswami]]{{refn|group=note|Stephen Knapp: "Actually there is some confusion about him, as it seems there have been three Vishnu Svamis: Adi Vishnu Svami (around the 3rd century BCE, who introduced the traditional 108 categories of sannyasa), Raja Gopala Vishnu Svami (8th or 9th century CE), and Andhra Vishnu Svami (14th century)."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stephen-knapp.com/four_sampradayas.htm|title=The Four Sampradayas|website=www.stephen-knapp.com}}</ref>}} | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Pushtimarg]] | rowspan=1 align=center | c. 1500 | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vallabha Acharya|Vallabhacharya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | Krishna and his svarūpas, notably [[Shrinathji]]. |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Nimbarka Sampradaya]]<br /> | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Four Kumaras]] [[Narada]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Dvaitadvaita]]<br />("duality in unity") | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Nimbarkacharya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | | rowspan=1 align=center | 7th or 12th–13th century | rowspan=1 align=center | | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Radha Krishna]] |- | rowspan="7" align="center" | [[Sant (religion)|Sant]] ([[Sant Mat]]) traditions | rowspan="7" align="center" | | rowspan="7" align="center" | | rowspan="7" align="center" | | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Warkari|Warkari Sampradaya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 13th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Dnyaneshwar]]<br />(Jñāneśvar){{refn|group=note|Gavin Flood notes that Jñāneśvar is sometimes regarded as the founder of the Warkari sect, but that Vithoba-worship predates him.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=143}}}} | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vithoba]] ([[Krishna]]) |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Ramanandi Sampradaya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 14th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Ramananda]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Rama]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Bishnoi Panth]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 1485 CE | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Guru Jambheshwar]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vishnu]] ([[Narayana]]/[[Hari]]) and [[Lakshami]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Kabir panth]]{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}}<ref name=britannica_Kabir>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kabir-Indian-mystic-and-poet ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', "Kabir"] Accessed: 23 April 2019</ref> | rowspan=1 align=center | 15th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Kabir]], a disciple of Ramananda | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vishnu]], [[Narayana]], [[Govinda]],<ref>{{cite book |page=661 |title=The Ādi-Granth, Or: The Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs |editor=Ernst Trumpp |quote=On my tongue Vishnu, in my eyes Narayana, in my heart dwells Govinda.}} [[Adi Granth]] IV.XXV.I</ref> [[Rama]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | Dadu panth{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}} | rowspan=1 align=center | 16th–17th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Dadu Dayal]] | rowspan=1 align=center | non-sectarian |- | rowspan="1" |[[Pranami Sampradaya]] | rowspan="1" |17th century | rowspan="1" |Devchandra Maharaj | rowspan="1" |[[Krishna]] |- | rowspan="1" |Charan Dasi | rowspan="1" |18th century{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=143}} | rowspan="1" |[[Sant Charandas]] | rowspan="1" |[[Radha Krishna]] |- | rowspan="10" align="center" | Other traditions | rowspan="10" align="center" | | rowspan="10" align="center" | | rowspan="10" align="center" | | rowspan="1" align="center" | [[Odisha|Odia]] Vaishnavism ([[Jagannath]]ism){{sfnm|1a1=Mukherjee|1y=1981|1p= |2a1=Eschmann|2a2=Kulke|2a3=Tripathi|2y=1978|2p=|3a1=Hardy|3y=1987|3pp=387–392|4a1=Patnaik|4y=2005|4p=|5a1=Miśra|5y=2005|5loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism|6a1=Patra|6y=2011|6p=}} | rowspan="1" align="center" | [[Early Middle Ages]] | rowspan="1" align="center" | | rowspan="1" align="center" | [[Jagannath]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Mahanubhava|Mahanubhava Sampradaya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 12–13th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Chakradhar Swami|Chakradhara]] | rowspan=1 align=center | Pancha-[[Krishna]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vaishnava-Sahajiya]]<br />([[tantra|tantric]]) | rowspan=1 align=center | 15th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Vidyapati]], [[Chandidas]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Radha Krishna]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Ekasarana Dharma]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 15th–16th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Srimanta Sankardeva|Srimanta Sankaradeva]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Krishna]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Radha Vallabh Sampradaya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 16th century | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Radha]], [[Radha Krishna]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Swaminarayan Sampradaya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 1801 | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Swaminarayan]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Swaminarayan]], [[Radha Krishna]], [[Lakshmi Narayana]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Ramsnehi Sampradaya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | 1817 | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Ram Charan (guru)|Ram Charan]] (inspirator) | rowspan=1 align=center | Rama |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Kapadi|Kapadi Sampradaya]] | rowspan=1 align=center | | rowspan=1 align=center | | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Rama]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | Haridasi Sampradaya<ref>{{cite book|title=Krishna in History, Thoughts and Culture|year=2016|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ|pages=222–224|author=Lavanya Vemsani|publisher=Abc-Clio |isbn=9781610692113 }}</ref> |rowspan=1 align=center |16th century |rowspan=1 align=center | [[Swami Haridas]] |rowspan=1 align=center |[[Radha Krishna]], [[Banke Bihari Temple|Banke Bihari]] |- | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Balmikism]] | rowspan=1 align=center | | rowspan=1 align=center | Sage [[Valmiki]] | rowspan=1 align=center | [[Rama]], [[Valmiki]] |}
===Early traditions===
====Bhagavats==== The Bhagavats were the early worshippers of Krishna, the followers of ''Bhagavat'', the Lord, in the person of [[Krishna]], [[Vasudeva]], [[Vishnu]] or [[Bhagavan]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=123–124}} The term ''bhagavata'' may have denoted a general religious tradition or attitude of theistic worship which prevailed until the 11th century, and not a specific sect,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=123}}{{sfn|Welbon|2005a|p=9501}} and is best known as a designation for Vishnu-devotees.{{sfn|Welbon|2005a|p=9501}} The earliest scriptural evidence of Vaishnava bhagavats is an inscription from 115 BCE, in which [[Heliodorus pillar|Heliodoros]], ambassador of the Greco-Bactrian king Amtalikita, says that he is a bhagavata of Vasudeva.{{sfn|Welbon|2005a|p=9502}} It was supported by the Guptas, suggesting a widespread appeal, in contrast to specific sects.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=123–124}} {{Infobox artifact | image = [[File:Heliodorus pillar.jpg|250px]] | name = Heliodorus pillar | image_caption = [[Heliodorus pillar]] in [[Vidisha]], India. | material = | size = | writing = | created = | period = late 2nd century BCE | place = [[Vidisha]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India. | discovered_coords = | location = [[Vidisha]], India | map = {{Location map|India |width = |float = center |border = |caption = |alt = |relief = yes |AlternativeMap= |overlay_image = |label =Heliodorus pillar |label_size = |position = |background = |mark = |marksize = |link = |lat_deg = 23 |lat_min = 32 |lat_sec = 59 |lat_dir = N |lon_deg = 77 |lon_min = 48 |lon_sec = 00 |lon_dir = E }} | id = | registration = }}
====Pancaratra==== {{Main|Pancaratra|Narayana}}
The ''Pāñcarātra'' is the tradition of Narayana-worship.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=121}} The term ''pāñcarātra'' means "five nights," from ''pañca'', "five,"and ''rātra'', "nights,"{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=321–322}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=121}} and may be derived from the "five night sacrifice" as described in the ''Satapatha Brahmana'', which narrates how Purusa-Narayana intends to become the highest being by performing a sacrifice which lasts five nights.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=121}}
The ''Narayaniya'' section of the Mahabharata describes the ideas of the ''Pāñcarātras''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=121}} Characteristic is the description of the manifestation of the Absolute through a series of manifestations, from the ''vyuha'' manifestations of Vasudeva and pure creation, through the [[tattvas]] of mixed creation into impure or material creation.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=121–122}}
The ''Pāñcarātra Samhitas'' developed from the 7th or 8th century onward, and belongs to [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] or Tantras,<ref>{{Citation |year=1940 |title=Apabhraṃśa literature |series=Gaekwad Oriental Series |volume=86 |page=7 |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000530964}}</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=122}} setting them at odds with vedic orthodoxy.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=122–123}} Vishnu worshipers in south India still follow the system of Pancharatra worship as described in these texts.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=122}}
Although the ''Pāñcarātra'' originated in north India, it had a strong influence on south India, where it is closely related with the Sri Vaishnava tradition. According to Welbon, "''Pāñcarātra'' cosmological and ritual theory and practice combine with the unique vernacular devotional poetry of the Alvars, and Ramanuja, founder of the Sri Vaishnava tradition, propagated ''Pāñcarātra'' ideas."{{sfn|Welbon|2005b|p=9509}} Ramananda was also influenced by ''Pāñcarātra'' ideas through the influence of Sri Vaishnavism, whereby ''Pāñcarātra'' re-entered north India.{{sfn|Welbon|2005b|p=9509}}
====Vaikhanasas==== {{Main|Vaikhanasas}}
The Vaikhanasas are associated with the ''Pāñcarātra'', but regard themselves as a Vedic orthodox sect.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=123}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gonda |first=Jan |year=1977 |title=Religious Thought and Practice in Vaikhānasa Viṣṇuism |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=550–571 |jstor=616501 |doi=10.1017/s0041977x00045912|s2cid=154419403 }}</ref> Modern ''Vaikhanasas'' reject elements of the ''Pāñcarātra'' and ''Sri Vaishnava'' tradition, but the historical relationship with the orthodox ''Vaikhanasa'' in south India is unclear.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} The ''Vaikhanasas'' may have resisted the incorporation of the devotic elements of the Alvar tradition, while the ''Pāñcarātras'' were open to this incorporation.{{sfn|Welbon|2005b|p=9509}}
Vaikhanasas have their own foundational text, the ''Vaikhanasasmarta Sutra'', which describes a mixture of Vedic and non-Vedic ritual worship.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=123}} The Vaikhanasas became chief priests in a lot of south Indian temples, where they still remain influential.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=123}}
===Early medieval traditions===
====Smartism==== {{Main|Smarta Tradition}}
The Smarta tradition developed during the (early) Classical Period of Hinduism around the beginning of the Common Era, when Hinduism emerged from the interaction between Brahmanism and local traditions.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013}}{{sfn|Flood|1996}} According to Flood, Smartism developed and expanded with the [[Purana]]s genre of literature.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} By the time of Adi Shankara,{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013}} it had developed the ''pancayatanapuja'', the worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal, namely [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], [[Ganesha]], [[Surya]] and [[Durga|Devi]] (Shakti),{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113}} "as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013}}
Traditionally, Sri Adi Shankaracharya (8th century) is regarded as the greatest teacher and reformer of the Smarta.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=1017}}{{sfn|Popular Prakashan|2000|p=52}} According to Hiltebeitel, Adi Shankara Acharya established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived ''smarta'' tradition.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013}}{{refn|group=note|Hiltebeitel: "Practically, Adi Shankara Acharya fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and ''smarta'' orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varnasramadharma]]'' theory as defining the path of ''karman'', but had developed the practice of ''pancayatanapuja'' ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's ''istadevata'' ("deity of choice")."{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013}}}}
====Alvars==== [[File:Nammazhwar.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nammalvar]]]] {{Main|Alvars}}
The Alvars, "those immersed in god," were twelve{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=131}} [[Tamil people|Tamil]] poet-saints of [[South India]] who espoused [[bhakti]] (devotion) to the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]] or his [[avatar]] [[Krishna]] in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf |title=The Alvars |author=Andrea Nippard |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203001609/http://www.mahavidya.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Nippard-Andrea-The-Alvars-Yes.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Alvars appeared between the 5th century to the 10th century CE, though the Vaishnava tradition regards the Alvars to have lived between 4200 BCE - 2700 BCE.
The devotional writings of Alvars, composed during the early medieval period of [[History of Tamil Nadu|Tamil history]], are key texts in the [[bhakti movement]]. They praised the [[Divya Desam]]s, 108 "abodes" (temples) of the Vaishnava deities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Literature Through the Ages|url=http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm|publisher=Indian literature, Govt of India|access-date=20 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515213735/http://ccrtindia.gov.in/literaryarts.htm|archive-date=15 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The collection of their hymns is known as the ''[[Divya Prabandha]]''. Their Bhakti-poems has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a culture that opposed the ritual-oriented Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation.<ref name="About Alvars">{{cite web| title=''About Alvars'' | publisher=divyadesamonline.com| url =http://www.divyadesamonline.com/alwars.asp| access-date= 2 July 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070621230057/http://www.divyadesamonline.com/alwars.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 21 June 2007}}</ref>
===Contemporary traditions=== Gavin Flood mentions the five most important contemporary Vaishnava orders.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=135}}
==== Nimbarka Sampradaya ==== {{Main|Nimbarka Sampradaya}}
Nimbarka Sampradaya, also called Kumara Sampradaya is one of the four bona fide Vaishnavism traditions. It worship [[Krishna]] with his chief consort, [[Radha]]. The tradition was founded by [[Nimbarkacharya]] in the 7th-8th or 12th-14th century CE. Nimbarka's philosophical position is dualistic monism and he centred all his devotion to the unified form of the divine couple [[Radha Krishna]] in Sakhya bhav.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Sunil Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyyNIL7Ug2kC&q=chaitanya+charitamrit&pg=PA14 |title=Krishna-cult in Indian Art |date=1996 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-7533-001-6 |pages=13 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Sharda Arya, Sudesh Narang, ''Religion and Philosophy of the Padma-purāṇa: Dharmaśāstra.'' Miranda House (University of Delhi). Dept. of Sanskrit, India University Grants Commission, 1988. 547, p. 30</ref><ref>Melville T. Kennedy, ''The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal'', 1925. 270, p. 7</ref>
====Sri Vaishnavism==== {{Main|Sri Vaishnavism}}
Sri Vaishnavism is one of the major denomination within Vaishnavism that originated in [[South India]], adopting the prefix ''Sri'' as an homage to Vishnu's consort, [[Lakshmi]].{{sfn|Matchett|2001}} The Sri Vaishnava community consists of both Brahmans and non-Brahmans.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=137–138}} It existed along with a larger Purana-based Brahamanical worshippers of Vishnu, and non-Brahmanical groups who worshipped and also adhered by non-Vishnu village deities.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=137–138}} The Sri Vaishnavism movement grew with its social inclusiveness, where emotional devotion to the personal god (Vishnu) has been open without limitation to gender or caste.<ref name="Bartley2013p1"/>{{refn|group=note|Vishnu is regionally called by other names, such as Ranganatha at Srirangam temple in Tamil Nadu.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=352}}}}
The most striking difference between Sri Vaishnavas and other Vaishnava groups lies in their interpretation of Vedas. While other Vaishnava groups interpret Vedic deities like Indra, Savitar, Bhaga, Rudra, etc. to be same as their Puranic counterparts, Sri Vaishnavas consider these to be different names/roles/forms of [[Narayana]], claiming that the entire Veda is dedicated for Vishnu-worship alone. Sri Vaishnavas have remodelled Pancharatra homas like the Sudarshana homa to include Vedic Suktas in them, thus giving them a Vedic outlook.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}
Sri Vaishnavism developed in [[Tamilakam]] in the 10th century.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=135–136}} It incorporated two different traditions, namely the tantric Pancaratra tradition, and the Puranic Vishnu worship of northern India with their abstract Vedantic theology, and the southern bhakti tradition of the Alvars of Tamil Nadu with their personal devotion.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=135–136}}<ref name="Bartley2013p1"/> The tradition was founded by [[Nathamuni]] (10th century), who along with [[Yamunacharya]], combined the two traditions and gave the tradition legitimacy by drawing on the Alvars.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=136}} Its most influential leader was [[Ramanuja]] (1017-1137), who developed the [[Visistadvaita|Vishistadvaita]] ("qualified non-dualism") philosophy.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=133, 136}} Ramanuja challenged the then dominant [[Advaita Vedanta]] interpretation of the Upanishads and Vedas, by formulating the Vishishtadvaita philosophy foundations for Sri Vaishnavism from Vedanta.<ref name="Bartley2013p1">{{cite book|author=C. J. Bartley |title=The Theology of Ramanuja: Realism and Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SpTAQAAQBAJ |date= 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-85306-7 |pages=1–4 }}</ref>
Sri Vaishnava includes the ritual and temple life in the tantra traditions of [[Pancharatra]], emotional devotion to Vishnu, and the contemplative form ''bhakti'', in the context of householder social and religious duties.<ref name="Bartley2013p1"/> The tantric rituals refers to techniques and texts recited during worship, and these include Sanskrit and Tamil texts in South Indian Sri Vaishnava tradition.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=352}} According to Sri Vaishnavism theology, ''moksha'' can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world. When ''moksha'' is reached, the cycle of reincarnation is broken and the soul is united with Vishnu after death, though maintaining their distinctions in [[Vaikuntha]], Vishnu's abode.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=136–137}} Moksha can also be reached by total surrender and ''saranagati'', an act of grace by the Lord.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=137}} Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism subscribes to ''videhamukti'' (liberation in afterlife), in contrast to ''jivanmukti'' (liberation in this life) found in other traditions within Hinduism, such as the Smarta and Shaiva traditions.<ref name="Kim Skoog 1996 63–84, 236–239">{{cite book|author=Kim Skoog |editor1=Andrew O. Fort |editor2=Patricia Y. Mumme |title=Living Liberation in Hindu Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U1EZjyLbxYAC |date= 1996 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn= 978-0-7914-2706-4|pages= 63–84, 236–239 }}</ref>
Two hundred years after Ramanuja, the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into the ''[[Vadakalai]]'' (northern art) and ''[[Tenkalai]]'' (southern art) sects. The ''Vadakalai'' regard the Vedas as the greatest source of religious authority, emphasising bhakti through devotion to temple-icons, while the ''Tenkalai'' rely more on Tamil scriptures and total surrender to God.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=137}} The philosophy of Sri Vaishnavism is adhered to and disseminated by the [[Iyengar]] community.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frykenberg |first=Robert Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VhRREAAAQBAJ&dq=iyengar+sri+vaishnava&pg=PA518 |title=Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present |date=2008-06-27 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-154419-4 |pages=518 |language=en}}</ref>
====Sadh Vaishnavism==== {{Main|Sadh Vaishnavism|Haridasa}}
Sadh Vaishnavism is one of the major denominations within Vaishnavism that originated in [[Karnataka]], [[South India]], adopting the prefix ''Sadh'' which means 'true'. Madhvacharya named his Vaishnavism as Sadh Vaishnavism in order to distinguish it from the Sri Vaishnavism of Ramanuja. Sadh Vaishnavism was founded by the thirteenth-century philosopher [[Madhvacharya]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K0XqbG0LKBUC|publisher=SUNY Press|author=Guy L. Beck|year=2012|page=74|isbn = 9780791483411}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Rajasthan Through the Ages: Art, architecture and memoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZrpAAAAMAAJ|page=333|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|author=Suresh K. Sharma, Usha Sharma|year=1999|isbn = 9788176291552}}</ref> It is a movement in [[Hinduism]] that developed during its classical period around the beginning of the Common Era. Philosophically, Sadh Vaishnavism is aligned with [[Dvaita Vedanta]], and regards [[Madhvacharya]] as its founder or reformer.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of Oriental Philosophy and Religion: A Continuing Series--, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uec1E8DpiH8C|author1=Nagendra Kr Singh|author2=A. P. Mishra|publisher=Global Vision Pub House|year=2005|page=99|isbn = 9788182200722}}</ref> The tradition traces its roots to the ancient [[Vedas]] and [[Pancharatra]] texts. The Sadh Vaishnavism or Madhva Sampradaya is also referred to as the [[Brahma Sampradaya]], referring to its traditional origins in the succession of spiritual masters (gurus) have originated from [[Brahma]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqYShQ12YdEC&pg=PA129|title=Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism|author=Harold Coward|publisher=SUNY Press|date=30 October 1987|page=129|isbn=9780887065729}}</ref>
In Sadh Vaishnavism, the creator is superior to the creation, and hence [[moksha]] comes only from the grace of [[Vishnu]], but not from effort alone.<ref>{{cite book|title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165|author=Lavanya Vemsani|date = 13 June 2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|access-date=13 June 2016|page=165|isbn = 9781610692113}}</ref> Compared to other Vaishnava schools which emphasise only on Bhakti, Sadh Vaishnavism regards [[Jnana]], [[Bhakti]] and [[Vairagya]] as necessary steps for moksha. So in Sadh Vaishnavism {{mdash}} [[Jnana Yoga]], [[Bhakti Yoga]] and [[Karma Yoga]] are equally important in order to attain liberation. The [[Haridasa]] movement, a bhakti movement originated from [[Karnataka]] is a sub-branch of Sadh Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=xxxii-xxxiii, 514–516, 539}} Sadh Vaishnavism worships Vishnu as the highest Hindu deity and regards [[Madhva]], whom they consider to be an incarnation of Vishnu's son, [[Vayu]], as an incarnate saviour.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana: M to Mexico City|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U_gWAQAAMAAJ|page=59|publisher=Scholastic Library Publishing|year=2006|isbn = 9780717201396}}</ref> Madhvism regards Vayu as [[Vishnu]]'s agent in this world, and [[Hanuman]], [[Bhima]], and [[Madhvacharya]] to be his three incarnations; for this reason, the roles of Hanuman in the [[Ramayana]] and Bhima in the [[Mahabharata]] are emphasised, and Madhvacharya is particularly held in high esteem.<ref>{{cite book|title=Prāci-jyotī: Digest of Indological Studies, Volume 13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28A5AQAAIAAJ|page=245|publisher=Kurukshetra University|year=1977}}</ref> Vayu is prominently shown by Madhva in countless texts.<ref>{{cite book|title=Madhva's Philosophy of the Viṣṇu Faith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GITXAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research Founda|author=Helmuth von Glasenapp|year=1992|page=154}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Culture: Journal of the Indian Research Institute, Volume 3, Issues 3-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mBDAAAAYAAJ|year=1984|publisher=I.B. Corporation|page=505}}</ref>
The most striking difference between Sadh Vaishnavas and other Vaishnava groups lies in their interpretation of Vedas and their way of worship. While other Vaishnava groups deny the worship of Vedic deities such as Rudra, Indra etc., Sadh Vaishnavas worship all devatas including Lakshmi, Brahma, Vayu, Saraswati, Shiva (Rudra), Parvati, Indra, Subrahmanya and Ganesha as per "Taratamya". In fact, Madhvacharya in his Tantra Sara Sangraha clearly explained how to worship all devatas. In many of his works Madhvacharya also explained the Shiva Tattva, the procedure to worship Panchamukha [[Shiva]] (Rudra), the [[Om Namah Shivaya|Panchakshari Mantra]] and even clearly explained why everyone should worship Shiva. Many prominent saints and scholars of Sadh Vaishnavism such as [[Vyasatirtha]] composed "Laghu Shiva Stuti", [[Narayana Panditacharya]] composed [[Shiva Stuti]] and [[Satyadharma Tirtha]] wrote a commentary on [[Sri Rudram]] (Namaka Chamaka) in praise of Shiva. Indologist B. N. K. Sharma says These are positive proofs of the fact that Madhvas are not bigots opposed to the worship of Shiva.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=221}} Sharma says, Sadh Vaishnavism is more tolerant and accommodative of the worship of other gods such as [[Shiva]], [[Parvati]], [[Ganesha]], [[Kartikeya|Subrahmanya]] and others of the Hindu pantheon compared to other Vaishnava traditions. This is the reason why [[Kanaka Dasa]] though under the influence of Tathacharya in his early life did not subscribe wholly to the dogmas of [[Sri Vaishnavism]] against the worship of [[Shiva]] etc., and later became the disciple of [[Vyasatirtha]].{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=521}}
The influence of Sadh Vaishnavism was most prominent on the Chaitanya school of [[Bengal]] Vaishnavism, whose devotees later started the devotional movement on the worship of [[Krishna]] as [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] ([[ISKCON]]) - known colloquially as the [[Hare Krishna Movement]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2026}} It is stated that [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1496–1534) was a disciple of Isvara Puri, who was a disciple of Madhavendra Puri, who was a disciple of Lakshmipati Tirtha, was a disciple of [[Vyasatirtha]] (1469–1539), of the Sadh Vaishnava Sampradaya of Madhvacharya.<ref>[https://gaudiya.com/pdf/Is_the_Gaudiya_Vaishnava_sampradaya_connected_to_the_Madhva_line.pdf Connection between Gaudiya and Madhva Sampradayas](pdf)</ref> The Madhva school of thought also had a huge impact on Gujarat Vaishnava culture.<ref>{{cite book|title=Karnataka State: Udupi District|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LGiex76a5-kC|author=S. Anees Siraj|publisher=Government of Karnataka, Karnataka Gazetteer Department|year=2012|page=192}}</ref> The famous bhakti saint of Vallabha Sampradaya, [[Swami Haridas]] was a direct disciple of [[Purandara Dasa]] of Madhva Vaishnavism. Hence Sadh Vaishnavism also have some influence on Vallabha's Vaishnavism as well.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of South Indian Literature, Volume 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6QpAQAAIAAJ|author=Madhubālā Sinhā|publisher=Anmol Publications|year=2009|isbn = 9788126137404|quote=The foremost Hindustani Musician Tansen's teacher Swami Haridas was Purnadara Daasa's disciple.}}</ref>
====Gaudiya Vaishnavism==== {{Main|Gaudiya Vaishnavism}}
{{See also|Manipuri Vaishnavism}}
Gaudiya Vaishnavism, also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism<ref>[http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Hindu%20Encounter/foreword.html Hindu Encounter with Modernity, by Shukavak N. Dasa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511154723/http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Hindu%20Encounter/foreword.html |date=11 May 2008 }} "</ref> and Hare Krishna, was founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1533) in India. "Gaudiya" refers to the [[Gauḍa region]] (present day [[Bengal]]/[[Bangladesh]]) with Vaishnavism meaning "the worship of [[Vishnu]] or [[Krishna]]". Its philosophical basis is primarily that of the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and [[Bhagavata Purana]].
The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (''[[bhakti]]'') of [[Radha]] and [[Krishna]], and their many divine [[incarnations]] as the supreme forms of [[God]], ''[[Svayam Bhagavan]]''. Most popularly, this worship takes the form of singing Radha and Krishna's [[holy]] names, such as "Hare", "Krishna" and "Rama", most commonly in the form of the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)]], also known as [[kirtan]]. It sees the many forms of Vishnu or Krishna as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme God.
After its decline in the 18-19th century, it was revived in the beginning of the 20th century due to the efforts of [[Bhaktivinoda Thakur]]. His son Srila [[Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura]] founded sixty-four Gaudiya Matha monasteries in India, Burma and Europe.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=130}} Thakura's disciple [[Srila Prabhupada]] went to the west and spread Gaudiya Vaishnavism by the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON).
The [[Manipuri Vaishnavism]] is a regional variant of Gaudiya Vaishnavism with a culture-forming role among the [[Meitei people]] in the north-eastern Indian state of [[Manipur]].{{sfn|Singh|2004|pp=125–132}} There, after a short period of [[Ramanandi Sampradaya|Ramaism]] penetration, Gaudiya Vaishnavism spread in the early 18th century, especially from beginning its second quarter. Raja [[Gharib Nawaz (Manipur)|Gharib Nawaz (Pamheiba)]] was initiated into the Chaitanya tradition. Most devotee ruler and propagandist of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, under the influence of [[Narottama Dasa|Natottama Thakura]]'s disciples, was raja [[Ching-Thang Khomba|Bhagyachandra]], who has visited the holy for the Chaytanyaits [[Nabadwip]].{{sfn|Singh|2004|p=128}}
====Warkari tradition==== {{Main|Warkari}}
The Warkari sampradaya is a non-[[Brahmanism|Brahamanical]]{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Zelliot|Berntsen|1988|p=xviii}}: "Varkari cult is rural and non-Brahman in character.", {{harvnb|Sand|1990|p=34}}: "the more or less anti-ritualistic and anti-brahmanical attitudes of Warkari sampradaya."}} bhakti tradition which worships [[Vithoba]], also known as Vitthal, who is regarded as a form of Krishna/Vishnu. Vithoba is often depicted as a dark young boy, standing arms akimbo on a brick, sometimes accompanied by his main consort Rakhumai (a regional name of Krishna's wife [[Rukmini]]). The Warkari-tradition is geographically associated with the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]].{{sfn|Glushkova|2000|pp=47–58}}
The Warkari movement includes a duty-based approach towards life, emphasising moral behaviour and strict avoidance of [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] and [[tobacco]], the adoption of a strict [[lacto vegetarianism|lacto-vegetarian]] diet and fasting on ''[[Ekadashi]]'' day (twice a month), self-restraint (''[[brahmacharya]]'') during [[student]] life, equality and humanity for all rejecting discrimination based on the [[caste system in India|caste system]] or wealth, the reading of [[Hindu texts]], the recitation of the ''[[Haripath]]'' every day and the regular practice of ''[[bhajan]]'' and ''[[kirtan]]''. The most important festivals of Vithoba are held on the eleventh (''ekadashi'') day of the lunar months" [[Shayani Ekadashi]] in the month of [[Ashadha]], and [[Prabodhini Ekadashi]] in the month of [[Kartik (month)|Kartik]].{{sfn|Glushkova|2000|pp=47–58}}
The Warkari poet-saints are known for their devotional lyrics, the [[abhang]], dedicated to Vithoba and composed in [[Marathi language|Marathi]]. Other devotional literature includes the Kannada hymns of the Haridasa, and Marathi versions of the generic [[aarti]] songs associated with rituals of offering light to the deity. Notable saints and [[guru]]s of the Warkaris include [[Jñāneśvar]], [[Namdev]], [[Chokhamela]], [[Eknath]], and [[Tukaram]], all of whom are accorded the title of [[Sant (religion)|Sant]].
Though the origins of both his cult and his main temple are debated, there is clear evidence that they already existed by the 13th century. Various [[indology|Indologists]] have proposed a prehistory for Vithoba worship where he was previously a [[hero stone]], a pastoral deity, a manifestation of [[Shiva]], a [[Jain monasticism|Jain saint]], or even all of these at various times for various devotees.
====Ramanandi tradition==== {{main|Ramananda|Ramanandi Sampradaya}}
The Ramanandi Sampradaya, also known as the Ramayats or the Ramavats,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=254}} is one of the largest and most egalitarian Hindu sects in India, around the [[Ganges Plain]], and Nepal today.{{sfn| Burghart |1983|p=362}} It mainly emphasises the worship of [[Rama]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=254}} as well as [[Vishnu]] directly and other incarnations.{{sfn|Tattwananda|1984|p=10}} Most Ramanandis consider themselves to be the followers of [[Ramananda]], a [[Vaishnava]] saint in medieval India.{{sfn|Raj|Harman|2007|p=165}} Philosophically, they are in the [[Vishishtadvaita]] ([[IAST]] {{IAST|Viśiṣṭādvaita}}) tradition.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=254}}
Its ascetic wing constitutes the largest Vaishnava [[Hindu monasticism|monastic order]] and may possibly be the largest monastic order in all of India.<ref>{{citation|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia |year=1999}}{{full citation needed|date=February 2021}}</ref> {{IAST|Rāmānandī}} ascetics rely upon meditation and strict ascetic practices and believe that the grace of god is required for them to achieve liberation.
====Northern Sant tradition==== {{Main|Sant Mat|Kabir panth|Dadu Dayal}}
[[Kabir]] was a 15th-century Indian [[Mysticism|mystic]] [[poet]] and [[Sant (religion)|sant]], whose writings influenced the [[Bhakti movement]], but whose verses are also found in Sikhism's scripture [[Adi Granth]].<ref name=britannica_Kabir /><ref name="Tinker1990"/><ref name=ronaldsikh>Ronald McGregor (1984), Hindi literature from its beginnings to the nineteenth century, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02413-6}}, p. 47</ref> His early life was in a Muslim family, but he was strongly influenced by his teacher, the Hindu bhakti leader [[Ramananda]], he becomes a Vaishnavite with universalist leanings. His followers formed the [[Kabir panth]].<ref name=britannica_Kabir />{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}}<ref name=ronald>Ronald McGregor (1984), Hindi literature from its beginnings to the nineteenth century, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02413-6}}, pp. 43–44</ref><ref name="Tinker1990">{{cite book |author=Hugh Tinker|title=South Asia: A Short History |url=https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink|url-access=registration |year=1990 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1287-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink/page/75 75–77]}}</ref><ref>Rekha Pande (2014), Divine Sounds from the Heart—Singing Unfettered in their Own Voices, Cambridge Scholars, {{ISBN|978-1-4438-2525-2}}, p. 77</ref>
[[Dadu Dayal]] (1544—1603) was a poet-sant from [[Gujarat]], a religious reformer who spoke against formalism and priestcraft. A group of his followers near [[Jaipur]], Rajasthan, forming a Vaishnavite denomination that became known as the Dadu Panth.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}}<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/biography/Dadu-Hindu-saint "Dadu (Hindu saint)"] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' Online. Retrieved 31 December 2018.</ref>
====Other traditions==== =====Odia Vaishnavism===== {{See also|Jagannath}} The [[Odisha|Odia]] Vaishnavism ({{a.k.a.}} Jagannathism)—the particular cult of the god [[Jagannath]] ({{lit|'Lord of the Universe'}}) as the supreme deity, an abstract form of Krishna, the [[Purushottama]], and [[Para Brahman]]—was origined in the [[Early Middle Ages]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mukherjee|1y=1981|1p= |2a1=Eschmann|2a2=Kulke|2a3=Tripathi|2y=1978|2p=|3a1=Hardy|3y=1987|3p=|4a1=Guy|4y=1992|4p=|5a1=Patnaik|5y=2005|5p=|6a1=Miśra|6y=2005|6loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism|6 7a1=Patra|7y=2011|7p=}} Jagannathism was a regional state temple-centred version of [[Krishnaism]],{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}} but can also be regarded as a non-sectarian syncretic Vaishnavite and all-Hindu cult.{{sfnm|1a1=Patnaik|1y=2005|1p=|2a1=Miśra|2y=2005|2loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism}} The notable [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath temple]] in [[Puri]], Odisha became particularly significant within the tradition since about 800 CE.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=139–141}}
=====Mahanubhava Sampradaya===== {{Main|Mahanubhava}}
The Mahanubhava Sampradaya/Pantha founded in [[Maharashtra]] during the period of 12-13th century. Sarvajna [[Chakradhar Swami]] a [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] acharya was the main propagator of this Sampradaya. The Mahanubhavas venere Pancha-[[Krishna]] ("five Krishnas"). Mahanubhava Pantha played essential role in the growth of [[Marathi language|Marathi]] literature.{{sfnm|1a1=Feldhaus|1y=1983|1p=|2a1=Hardy|2y=1987|2pp=387–392|3a1=Dalal|3y=2010|3loc=Mahanubhava}}
=====Sahajiya and Baul tradition===== {{Main|Vaishnava-Sahajiya|Baul}}
Since the 15th century in Bengal and [[Assam]] flourished [[Tantra|Tantric]] Vaishnava-Sahajiya inspired by Bengali poet [[Chandidas]], as well as related to it Baul groups, where Krishna is the inner divine aspect of man and Radha is the aspect of woman.{{sfnm|1a1=Das|1y=1988|2a1=Sardella|2a2=Wong|2y=2020|2loc=part 2}}
=====Ekasarana Dharma===== {{Main|Ekasarana Dharma}}
The Ekasarana Dharma was propagated by [[Sankardev|Srimanta Sankardev]] in the [[Assam]] region of India.It considers [[Krishna]] as the only God.<ref>{{cite news |title=Assam: Golaghat village people walk extra mile to preserve sacred puthi|url=https://nenow.in/north-east-news/assam-golaghat-village-people-walk-extra-mile-to-preserve-sacred-puthi.html|date=3 May 2019 |newspaper=Nenow|department=City: Guwahati |agency=TNN |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> [[Satra (Ekasarana Dharma)|Satras]] are institutional centres associated with the Ekasarana dharma.<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Dubey|title=North East India: A Sociological Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkR4Fv37URkC&pg=PA189 |year=1978|publisher=Concept |pages=189–193 }}</ref>{{sfn|Sarma|1966|ps=. {{full citation needed|date=February 2021}}}}
=====Radha-vallabha Sampradaya===== {{Main|Radha Vallabh Sampradaya}}
The [[Radha]]-centred Radha Vallabh Sampradaya founded by the [[Mathura]] bhakti poet-saint [[Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu]] in the 16th century occupies a unique place among other traditions. In its theology, Radha is worshiped as the supreme deity, and Krishna is in a subordinate position.{{sfnm|1a1=Rosenstein|1y=1998|1pp=5–18 |2a1=Beck|2y=2005a|2pp=65–90}}
=====Pranami Sampradaya===== {{Main|Pranami|Pranami Sampraday}}
The Pranami Sampradaya (Pranami Panth) emerged in the 17th century in [[Gujarat]], based on the Radha-Krishna-focussed syncretic Hindu-[[Islam]]ic teachings of Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath.{{sfnm|1a1=Dalal|1y=2010|1loc=Pranami Panth|2a1=Toffin|2y=2012|2pp=249–254}}
=====Swaminarayan Sampradaya===== {{Main|Swaminarayan Sampradaya}}
The Swaminarayan Sampradaya was founded in 1801 in [[Gujarat]] by [[Swaminarayan|Sahajanand Swami]] from [[Uttar Pradesh]], who is worshipped as [[Swaminarayan]], the supreme manifestation of God, by his followers. The first temple built in [[Ahmedabad]] in 1822.{{sfn|Williams|2001}}
==Vaishnavism and other Hindu traditions table== The Vaishnavism sampradayas subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. When compared with Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism, a similar range of similarities and differences emerge.<ref name="JanGondaVandS"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable" |+Comparison of Vaishnavism with other traditions |- ! !! style="background: #ffcc99;" | Vaishnava Traditions !! Shaiva Traditions !! Shakta Traditions !! Smarta Traditions || References |- |Scriptural authority || Vedas and Upanishads || Vedas and Upanishads || Vedas and Upanishads ||Vedas and Upanishads ||<ref name=ryanjonesavatar/><ref name="Dhavamony1999p33"/> |- |Supreme deity || Vishnu as [[Mahavishnu]] or Krishna as [[Vishvarupa|Vishwarupa]]{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}|| Shiva as [[Parashiva]] ,{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}|| Devi as [[Adi Parashakti]] ,{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}|| None, Varies ||<ref name="JanGondaVandS">{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Visnuism and Sivaism: A Comparison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4HGXjgEACAAJ |year=1970|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-4742-8080-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher Partridge |title=Introduction to World Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3AjAwAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-0-8006-9970-3|page=182}}</ref> |- |Creator || Vishnu || Shiva || Devi || Brahman principle ||<ref name="JanGondaVandS"/>{{sfn|Gupta|2013|pp=65–71}} |- |[[Avatar]] || Key concept || Minor || Significant || Minor ||<ref name="ryanjonesavatar"/><ref name=laiengavatar>{{cite book |author=Lai Ah Eng |title=Religious Diversity in Singapore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MmNaNebFD8C |year=2008 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore|isbn=978-981-230-754-5|page=221 }}</ref><ref name="Dhavamony2002p63">{{cite book|author=Mariasusai Dhavamony |title=Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=poUxxH4fPwwC |year=2002|publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-90-420-1510-4 |page=63 }}</ref> |- |[[Sannyasa|Monastic]] life || Accepts || Recommends || Accepts || Recommends ||<ref name=ryanjonesavatar/><ref>Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8126-9298-3}}, p. 332 with note 68</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Patrick| last=Olivelle|year=1992|title= The Samnyasa Upanisads|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-507045-3| pages=4–18}}</ref> |- |Rituals, [[Bhakti]] ||Affirms ||Optional, Varies{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–167}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Shaivas |url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/shaiv.html|website=Overview Of World Religions |publisher=Philtar |access-date=13 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Munavalli|first1=Somashekar|title=Lingayat Dharma (Veerashaiva Religion)|date=2007|publisher=Veerashaiva Samaja of North America|page=83|url=http://www.vsna.org/images/publications/lingayat-dharma-april-2007.pdf|access-date=13 December 2017|archive-date=26 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626074912/http://www.vsna.org/images/publications/lingayat-dharma-april-2007.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> || Affirms || Optional<ref>{{cite book|author=Prem Prakash|title=The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti Sutras |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oA7BLTFoOicC |year=1998|publisher=Inner Traditions|isbn=978-0-89281-664-4|pages=56–57}}</ref> ||<ref>{{cite journal | last=Frazier | first=J. | title=Bhakti in Hindu Cultures | journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies | volume=6 | issue=2 | year=2013 | pages=101–113 | doi=10.1093/jhs/hit028}}</ref> |- |[[Ahimsa]] and Vegetarianism || Affirms, Optional, Varies || Recommends,{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–167}} Optional || Optional || Recommends, Optional || <ref>{{cite book|author1=Lisa Kemmerer |author2=Anthony J. Nocella |title=Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq70lgRwlRQC |year=2011|publisher=Lantern |isbn=978-1-59056-281-9|pages=27–36}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Frederick J. Simoons |title=Plants of Life, Plants of Death |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KEUAbrBoeBAC|year=1998|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-15904-7|pages=182–183}}</ref> |- |[[Free will]], [[Maya (illusion)|Maya]], [[Karma]] || Affirms || Affirms || Affirms || Affirms ||<ref name="JanGondaVandS"/> |- |Metaphysics || [[Brahman]] (Vishnu) and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Soul, Self) || Brahman (Shiva), Atman || Brahman (Devi), Atman || Brahman, Atman ||<ref name="JanGondaVandS"/> |- |[[Epistemology]]<br />([[Pramana]]) || {{olist |Perception |Inference |Reliable testimony}} || {{olist |Perception |Inference |Reliable testimony |Self-evident<ref>{{cite book|author=K. Sivaraman |title=Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1blW4-yY20C |year=1973|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1771-5 |pages=336–340}}</ref>}} || {{olist |Perception |Inference |Reliable testimony}} || {{olist |Perception |Inference |Comparison and analogy |Postulation, derivation |Negative/ cognitive proof |Reliable testimony}} ||<ref>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3067-5}}, p. 238</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}}<ref>Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-8153-3611-2}}, pp. 245–248</ref> |- |Philosophy (Darshanam)||[[Vishishtadvaita]] (qualified Non dualism), [[Dvaita]] (Dualism), <br />[[Shuddhadvaita]] (Pure Non Dualism), [[Dvaitadvaita]] (Dualistic Non Dualism),<br />[[Advaita]] (Non Dualism), [[Achintya Bhedabheda]] (Non Dualistic Indifferentiation) || [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Advaita]] || [[Samkhya]], Shakti-Advaita || [[Advaita]] ||<ref>{{cite book|last= McDaniel |first=June |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC | year =2004| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-534713-5| pages=89–91 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Matthew James Clark|title=The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages Into an Order|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3DXAAAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-15211-3|pages=177–225}}</ref> |- |Salvation<br />([[Soteriology]])|| Videhamukti, [[Yoga]],<br />champions householder life, Vishnu is soul || Jivanmukta, Shiva is soul, [[Yoga]],<br />champions monastic life || Bhakti, Tantra, [[Yoga]]|| Jivanmukta, Advaita, [[Yoga]],<br />champions monastic life ||<ref name="Kim Skoog 1996 63–84, 236–239"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Rajendra Prasad |title=A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5Hk8EkmQBcC |year=2008|publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-8069-544-5 |page=375 }}</ref> |- |}
==Demography== There is no data available on demographic history or trends for Vaishnavism or other traditions within Hinduism.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ The global religious landscape: Hindus], Pew Research (2012)</ref>
Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in Vaishnavism compared to other traditions of Hinduism.{{refn|group=note|Website Adherents.com gives numbers as of year 1999.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/19990819112057/http://adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Hinduism Hinduism - Branches]}}</ref>}} [[Klaus Klostermaier]] and other scholars estimate Vaishnavism to be the largest Hindu denomination.<ref>{{cite book|author1=L. Dankworth|author2=A. David|title=Dance Ethnography and Global Perspectives: Identity, Embodiment and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sijFAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-137-00944-9|page=33}}, Quote: "Klostermaier 1998, p. 196 Vaishnavite—devotees of the deity Vishnu, and the largest, numerically, part of mainstream Hinduism, which is divided up into several sects."</ref>{{Sfn|Rosen|2006|p=xvi}}<ref name=johnson400/>{{refn|group=note|According to Jones and Ryan, "The followers of Vaishnavism are many fewer than those of Shaivism, numbering perhaps 200 million."<ref name="JonesRyan2006p474"/>{{dubious|date=February 2022}}}} The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy, individuals revere gods and goddesses [[Henotheism#Hinduism|polycentrically]], with many Vaishnava adherents recognising Sri (Lakshmi), Shiva, Parvati and others reverentially on festivals and other occasions. Similarly, Shaiva, Shakta and Smarta Hindus revere Vishnu.<ref>[[Julius J. Lipner]] (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-45677-7}}, pp. 40–41, 302–315, 371–375</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Gavin Flood|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-99868-7|pages=200–203}}</ref>
Large Vaishnava communities exist throughout India, and particularly in Western Indian states, such as western [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Gujarat]] and Southwestern [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="Klostermaier" /><ref name=Valpey2004 /> Other major regions of Vaishnava presence, particularly after the 15th century, are [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal|Bengal]] and northeastern India ([[Assam]], [[Manipur]]).<ref>{{cite book|author=David Gordon White |title=Tantra in Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hayV4o50eUEC |date=2001 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1778-4 |pages=308–311 }}</ref> Dvaita school Vaishnava have flourished in [[Karnataka]] where Madhavacharya established temples and monasteries, and in neighbouring states, particularly the [[Pandharpur]] region.<ref>{{cite book|author=B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma |title=A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature: From the Earliest Beginnings to Our Own Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVtpFMPMulcC |year=2000 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1575-9 |pages=514–521 }}</ref> Substantial presence also exists in [[Tripura]] and [[Punjab]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Reang or Bru Tribes |date=5 July 2018 |url=http://www.ias4sure.com/wikiias/prelims/reang-or-bru-tribes/ |publisher=ias4sure}}</ref>
Krishna-centred Vaishnavism also has a presence outside of India, especially through its association with 1960s counter-culture, which included a number of celebrity followers, such as [[George Harrison]], due to its promulgation worldwide by the founder-acharya of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON) [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]].<ref name="Fritz">{{cite book |author=RIDENOUR, Fritz |title=So What's the Difference? |publisher=Gospel Light Publications |year=2001 |pages=180–181 |isbn=978-0-8307-1898-6 }}</ref><ref name="DK">{{cite book |author=Giuliano, Geoffrey |title=Dark horse: the life and art of George Harrison |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=New York |year=1997 |page=12 |isbn=978-0-306-80747-3}}</ref>{{sfn|Schweig|2005|loc=Front Matter}}
==Academic study== Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study and debate for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. Vaishnavism has its own academic wing in [[University of Madras]] - Department of Vaishnavism.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome to University of Madras|url=https://www.unom.ac.in/index.php?route=department/department/deptpage&deptid=73|access-date=2021-04-29|website=www.unom.ac.in}}</ref> In recent decades this study has also been pursued in a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the [[Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies]], [[Bhaktivedanta College]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}
== Hymns ==
===Mantras=== *[[Om Namo Narayanaya]] *[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna Mantra]] *[[Om Namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya]]
=== Hails ===
* [[Jai Shri Ram]] * [[Jai Shri Krishna]] * [[Radhe Radhe]] * [[Jai Siya Ram]]
==See also== {{Portal|Hinduism|Religion}} * [[Naalayira Divya Prabhandham|Divya Prabhandham]] * [[Hindu denominations]] * [[Lokhimon]], a Vaishnavism movement followed by the Karbi people of Northeast India * [[Naneghat#Nanaghat inscriptions|Nanaghat Inscription]] – A 1st-century BCE Vaishnava inscription * [[Vasu Doorjamb Inscription]] – A 1st-century CE inscription from Vaishnava temple *{{anl|Pancharatra}}
== Notes == {{Reflist|group=note|2}}
== References == {{reflist|refs= <ref name=johnson400>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd M. |last2=Grim |first2=Brian J. |year=2013 |title=The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAzizViY30EC&q=Table+1.19 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-32303-8|page=400}}</ref> <ref name=pdeussen247268>{{harvnb|Deussen|1997a|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC&pg=PA247 247–268 with footnotes]}}</ref> <ref name=rosendeadwyler>{{Cite journal |author1=Steven Rosen |author2=William Deadwyler III |date=June 1996 |title=The Sampradaya of Sri Caitanya |url=http://content.iskcon.org/icj/4_1/satya_rsd.html |journal=[[ISKCON Communications Journal]] |volume=4 |issue=1}}</ref> }}
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==Further reading== {{Refbegin|40em}} * {{Citation |last=Anand |first=D. |title=Krishna: The Living God of Braj |publisher=Abhinav Pubns |year=1992 |url={{Google books|id=EsvSwdUgQYcC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=978-81-7017-280-2}} * {{Cite journal |last=Brzezinski |first=J.K. |year=1992 |title=Prabodhananda, Hita Harivamsa and the Radharasasudhanidhi |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=472–497 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00003669 |jstor=620194 |s2cid=161089313}} * {{Citation |editor-last=Datta |editor-first=Amaresh |year=1987 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A-Devo |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1803-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC}} * {{Citation |editor-last=Datta |editor-first=Amaresh |year=1992 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-0-8364-2283-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-wbAAAAIAAJ}} * {{Citation |last1=Elkman |first1=S.M. |last2=Gosvami |first2=J. |year=1986 |title=Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}} * {{Citation |last=Hacker |first=Paul |year=1978 |title=Zur Entwicklung der Avataralehre |language=de |editor=Lambert Schmithausen |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-04860-6}} * {{cite book |last=Hawley |first=John Stratton |year=2006 |title=Three Bhakti Voices. Mirabai, Surdas, and Kabir in Their Time and Ours |place=Oxford}} 2nd impression. * {{cite book |surname=Hebbar |given=B.N. |title=The Śri-Kṛṣṇa Temple at Uḍupi: The History and Spiritual Center of the Madhvite Sect of Hinduism |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/SriKrsnaTempleAtUdupi |place=New Delhi |publisher=Bharatiya Granth Nikethan |isbn=81-89211-04-8}} * {{cite book |last=Mishra |first=Baba |chapter=Radha and her contour in Orissan culture |title=Orissan history, culture and archaeology. In Felicitation of Prof. P.K. Mishra |editor=S. Pradhan |series=Reconstructing Indian History & Culture |volume=16 |place=New Delhi |year=1999 |pages=243–259}} * {{Citation |last=Mullick |first=Bulloram |year=1898 |title=Krishna and Krishnaism |publisher=S.K. Lahiri & Co}} * {{cite book |surname=Okita |given=Kiyokazu |chapter=Chapter 15. Who are the Mādhvas? A Controversy over the Public Representation of the Mādhva Sampradāya |editor=John Zavos |display-editors=etal |title=Public Hinduisms |year=2012 |url={{Google books|uuuICwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=New Delhi |publisher=Sage Publ. India |isbn=978-81-321-1696-7}} * {{cite journal |last=Redington |first=James D. |title=Elements of a Vallabhite Bhakti-synthesis |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=112 |date=1992 |issue=2 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.2307/603707 |jstor=603707}} * {{cite book |last=Sinha |first=K.P. |title=A critique of A.C.Bhaktivedanta |location=Calcutta |year=1997}} * {{Citation |last=Śrivastava |first=Vijai Shankar |year=1981 |title=Cultural Contours of India: Dr. Satya Prakash Felicitation Volume |publisher=Abhinav Publications}} {{Refend}}
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