{{Short description|Soviet / Russian nuclear reactor type}} {{Infobox nuclear reactor |name=VVER reactor class |fuel_type=LEU |thermal=VVER-210: 760 MW<sub>th</sub><br />VVER-365: 1,325 MW<sub>th</sub><br />VVER-440: 1,375 MW<sub>th</sub><br />VVER-1000: 3,000 MW<sub>th</sub><br />VVER-1200: 3,212 MW<sub>th</sub><br />VVER-TOI: 3,300 MW<sub>th</sub> |electric=VVER-210: 210 MW<sub>el</sub><br />VVER-365: 365 MW<sub>el</sub><br />VVER-440: 440 MW<sub>el</sub><br />VVER-1000: 1,000 MW<sub>el</sub><br />VVER-1200: 1,200 MW<sub>el</sub><br />VVER-TOI: 1,300 MW<sub>el</sub> |moderator=Water |coolant=Liquid ([[light-water reactor|light water]]) |control=Control rods |spectrum=Thermal |fuel_state=Solid |status= |image=File:BalakovoNPP1.jpg |type=VVER-210<br />VVER-365<br />VVER-440<br />VVER-1000<br />VVER-1200<br />VVER-TOI |type_label=Reactor types |reactor_line=VVER |generation=[[Generation I reactor]]<br/>[[Generation II reactor]]<br/>[[Generation III reactor]]<br/>[[Generation III+ reactor]]|concept=[[Pressurized water reactor]] |caption=View of the [[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant]] site, with four operational VVER-1000 reactors. |image_size=300px |use=Generation of electricity }} The '''water-water energetic reactor''' ('''WWER'''),<ref>{{cite news | title= Kudankulam nuclear plant starts generating power, connected to southern grid | work= The Times Of India | url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kudankulam-nuclear-plant-starts-generating-power-connected-to-southern-grid/articleshow/24518920.cms}}</ref> or '''VVER''' (from {{langx|ru|водо-водяной энергетический реактор (ВВЭР)|vodo-vodyanoi enyergeticheskiy reaktor}}) is a series of [[pressurized water reactor]] designs developed in the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Russia]] by [[OKB Gidropress]].<ref name="gidropress-history">{{cite web | title= Historical notes | publisher= OKB Gidropress | url= http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/about/history.php | access-date= 20 September 2011 | archive-date= 17 June 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110617133918/http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/about/history.php | url-status= dead }}</ref> The name refers to the use of water as both the [[nuclear coolant]] and the [[neutron moderator]], in a reactor intended for [[energy generation]].
The idea of such a reactor was proposed{{when|date=May 2026}} at the [[Kurchatov Institute]] by [[Savely Moiseevich Feinberg]]. The first [[prototype]] VVER-210 was built at the [[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant]] before the 1970s, as one of two initial Soviet reactor designs (the other being the [[RBMK]]). There have been several subsequent generations of VVER design, so the name is associated with substantially different reactors from original [[generation I reactor|generation I]] to modern [[generation III+ reactor|generation III+]] designs. Electrical power output ranges from 70 to 1300 [[MWe]], with designs of up to 1700 MWe currently{{when|date=May 2026}} in development.<ref name="gidropress-wwer">{{cite web | url= http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer.php | title= WWER-type reactor plants | publisher= OKB Gidropress | access-date= 25 April 2013 | archive-date= 17 April 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160417092325/http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer.php | url-status= dead }}</ref><ref name="wnn-20190614" />
VVER power stations have been installed in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, China, the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, India, and Iran. Countries that are planning to introduce VVER reactors include Bangladesh, Egypt, Jordan, Turkey, Uzbekistan and Vietnam. Germany shut down its older generation VVER reactors in 1989-90,<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/country/default.aspx/Germany |title=Nuclear Reactors in Germany |work=World Nuclear Association}}</ref> and cancelled those under construction.
== History == The earliest VVERs were built before 1970. The VVER-440 Model V230 was the most common design, delivering 440 [[megawatt|MW]] of electrical power. The V230 employs six primary [[coolant]] loops each with a horizontal [[Steam generator (nuclear power)|steam generator]]. A modified version of VVER-440, Model V213, was a product of the first [[nuclear safety]] standards adopted by Soviet designers. This model includes added emergency core cooling and [[auxiliary feedwater]] systems as well as upgraded accident localization systems.<ref name="bock"> {{cite web | author= Prof. H. Böck | title= WWER/ VVER (Soviet Designed Pressurized Water Reactors) | website= Vienna University of Technology | publisher= Austria Atominstitute | url= http://www.ati.ac.at/fileadmin/files/research_areas/ssnm/nmkt/04_WWER_Overview.pdf | access-date= 28 September 2011}}</ref>
The larger VVER-1000 was developed after 1975 and is a four-loop system housed in a [[containment building|containment]]-type structure with a spray steam suppression system ([[Emergency Core Cooling System]]). VVER reactor designs have been elaborated to incorporate automatic control, passive safety and containment systems associated with Western [[generation III reactor]]s.
The VVER-1200 is the version currently offered for construction, being an evolution of the VVER-1000 with increased power output to about 1200 MWe (gross) and providing additional passive safety features.<ref name="fil-20110726" />
In 2012, Rosatom stated that in the future it intended to certify the VVER with the British and U.S. regulatory authorities, though was unlikely to apply for a British licence before 2015.<ref> {{cite news | title= Rosatom Intends to Certify VVER in Great Britain and USA | publisher= Novostienergetiki.re | date= 6 June 2012 | url= http://novostienergetiki.ru/rosatom-intends-to-certify-vver-in-great-britain-and-usa/ | access-date= 21 June 2012 }} </ref><ref name="reuters-20130813"> {{cite news | title= Russia's Rosatom eyes nuclear contracts in Britain | author= Svetlana Burmistrova | work= Reuters | date= 13 August 2013 | url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-nuclear-russia-britain-idUKBRE97C0GS20130813 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160114225332/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-nuclear-russia-britain-idUKBRE97C0GS20130813 | url-status= dead | archive-date= January 14, 2016 | access-date= 14 August 2013 }} </ref>
The construction of the first VVER-1300 (VVER-TOI) 1300 MWE unit was started in 2018.<ref name="wnn-20190614" />
== Design == [[File:Wwer-1000-scheme.png|thumb|upright=1.2| VVER-1000 (direct transliteration of Russian ВВЭР-1000), a 1000 MWe Russian nuclear power reactor of PWR type.<br />1: control rod drives<br />2: reactor cover<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/ops-experience/vessel-head-degradation/images.html |title = Reactor Vessel Head Degradation - Images {{!}} NRC.gov}}</ref> or vessel head<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aemtech.ru/en/mediacenter/news-aemtech/atommash-has-manufactured-the-reactor-cover-for-the-first-unit-of-akkuyu-npp-(turkey).html |title=Atommash has manufactured the reactor cover for the First Unit of Akkuyu NPP (Turkey) |publisher=Aemtech.ru |date=2020-11-26 |accessdate=2022-03-08}}</ref><br />3: [[Reactor pressure vessel]]<br />4: inlet and outlet nozzles<br />5: reactor core barrel or [[core shroud]]<br />6: reactor core<br />7: fuel rods]] [[File:Сравнение активных зон реакторов.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The arrangement of hexagonal fuel assemblies compared to a Westinghouse PWR design. Note that there are 163 assemblies on this hexagonal arrangement and 193 on the Westinghouse arrangement.]] The Russian abbreviation VVER stands for 'water-water energy reactor' (i.e. water-cooled water-moderated energy reactor). The design is a type of [[pressurised water reactor]] (PWR). The main distinguishing features of the VVER<ref name="gidropress-wwer" /> compared to other PWRs are:
* Horizontal steam generators * Hexagonal fuel assemblies * No bottom penetrations in the pressure vessel * High-capacity pressurizers providing a large reactor coolant inventory
[[File:Mochovce 2005-01-19 1.jpg|thumb|VVER-440 reactor hall at [[Mochovce Nuclear Power Plant]]]] Reactor fuel rods are fully immersed in water kept at (12,5 / 15,7 / 16,2 ) [[Pascal (unit)|MPa]] (1812/2277/2349 psi) pressure respectively so that it does not boil at the normal (220 to over 320 °C [428 to >608°F]) operating temperatures. Water in the reactor serves both as a coolant and a moderator which is an important [[Passively safe|safety]] feature. Should coolant circulation fail, the neutron moderation effect of the water diminishes due to increased heat which creates steam bubbles which do not moderate neutrons, thus reducing reaction intensity and compensating for [[loss of coolant|loss of cooling]], a condition known as negative [[void coefficient]]. Later versions of the reactors are encased in massive steel reactor pressure vessels. Fuel is [[low enriched uranium|low enriched]] (ca. 2.4–4.4% <sup>235</sup>U) [[uranium dioxide]] (UO<sub>2</sub>) or equivalent pressed into pellets and assembled into fuel rods.
Reactivity is controlled by [[control rod]]s that can be inserted into the reactor from above. These rods are made from a [[neutron]] absorbing material and, depending on depth of insertion, hinder the [[chain reaction]]. If there is an emergency, a [[Scram|reactor shutdown]] can be performed by full insertion of the control rods into the core.
=== Primary cooling circuits === [[File:VVER-1000-Stereometric.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|Layout of the four primary cooling circuits and the pressurizer of a VVER-1000]] [[File:RIAN archive 450312 Treatment of interior part of reactor frame.jpg|thumb|Construction of a VVER-1000 reactor vessel at [[Atommash]].]]
As stated above, the water in the primary circuits is kept under a constant elevated pressure to avoid its boiling. Since the water transfers all the heat from the core and is irradiated, the integrity of this circuit is crucial. Four main components can be distinguished:
# Reactor vessel: water flows through the fuel assemblies which are heated by the nuclear chain reaction. # Volume compensator (pressurizer): to keep the water under constant but controlled pressure, the volume compensator regulates the pressure by controlling the equilibrium between [[saturated steam]] and water using electrical heating and relief valves. # Steam generator: in the steam generator, the heat from the primary coolant water is used to boil the water in the secondary circuit. # Pump: the pump ensures the proper circulation of the water through the circuit.
To provide for the continued cooling of the reactor core in emergency situations the primary cooling is designed with [[Redundancy (engineering)|redundancy]].
=== Secondary circuit and electrical output ===
The secondary circuit also consists of different subsystems:
# Steam generator: secondary water is boiled taking heat from the primary circuit. Before entering the turbine remaining water is [[steam separator|separated]] from the steam so that the steam is dry. # Turbine: the expanding steam drives a turbine, which connects to an electrical generator. The turbine is split into high and low pressure sections. To boost efficiency, steam is reheated between these sections. Reactors of the VVER-1000 type deliver 1 GW of electrical power. # Condenser: the steam is cooled and allowed to condense, shedding waste heat into a cooling circuit. # Deaerator: removes gases from the coolant. # Pump: the circulation pumps are each driven by their own small steam turbine.
To increase efficiency of the process, steam from the turbine is taken to reheat coolant in the secondary circuit before the deaerator and the steam generator. Water in this circuit is not supposed to be radioactive.
=== Tertiary cooling circuit and district heating ===
The tertiary cooling circuit is an open circuit diverting water from an outside reservoir such as a lake or river. Evaporative cooling towers, cooling basins or ponds transfer the [[waste heat]] from the generation circuit into the environment.
In most VVERs this heat can also be further used for residential and industrial heating. Operational examples of such systems are [[Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant|Bohunice NPP]] ([[Slovakia]]) supplying heat to the towns of [[Trnava]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.energyinslovakia.sk/2016/07/nuclearpower-plant-jaslovske-bohunice.html|title=Energy in Slovakia|website=www.energyinslovakia.sk|access-date=2017-03-17|archive-date=2017-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705050446/http://www.energyinslovakia.sk/2016/07/nuclearpower-plant-jaslovske-bohunice.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ({{convert|12|km|disp=sqbr}} away), [[Leopoldov]] ({{convert|9.5|km|disp=sqbr}} away), and [[Hlohovec]] ({{convert|13|km|disp=sqbr}} away), and [[Temelín Nuclear Power Station|Temelín NPP]] ([[Czech Republic]]) supplying heat to [[Týn nad Vltavou]] {{convert|5|km}} away and [[České Budějovice]] {{convert|26|km}} away. Plans are made to supply heat from the [[Dukovany Nuclear Power Station|Dukovany NPP]] to [[Brno]] (the second-largest city in the Czech Republic), covering two-thirds of its heat needs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/czech-republic.aspx|title=Nuclear Power in the Czech Republic - Nuclear Power in Czechia |publisher=World Nuclear Association}}</ref>
=== Safety barriers === [[File:Loviisan voimalaitos ilmasta.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The two VVER-440 units in [[Loviisa Nuclear Power Plant|Loviisa]], [[Finland]] have containment buildings that fulfil Western safety standards.]]
A typical design feature of nuclear reactors is layered safety barriers preventing escape of radioactive material. VVER reactors have three layers:
# Fuel rods: the hermetic zirconium alloy (Zircaloy) cladding around the uranium oxide sintered ceramic fuel pellets provides a barrier resistant to heat and high pressure. # Reactor pressure vessel wall: a massive steel shell encases the whole fuel assembly and primary coolant [[Hermetic seal|hermetically]]. # Reactor building: a concrete [[containment building]] that encases the whole first circuit is strong enough to resist the pressure surge a breach in the first circuit would cause.
Compared to the [[RBMK]] reactors – the type involved in the [[Chernobyl disaster]] – the VVER uses an inherently safer design because the coolant is also the moderator, and by nature of its design has a negative void coefficient like all PWRs. It does not have the [[Graphite-moderated reactor|graphite-moderated]] RBMK's risk of increased reactivity and large power transients in the event of a loss of coolant accident. The RBMK reactors were also constructed without containment structures on grounds of cost due to their size; the VVER core is considerably smaller.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwPJDwAAQBAJ&q=rbmk+serpentinite&pg=PA61|title=Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World's Greatest Nuclear Disaster|first=Adam|last=Higginbotham|date=February 4, 2020|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781501134630|via=Google Books}}</ref>
=== Fuel cycle extension ===
In 2024, Rosatom started testing fuel which contains a [[neutron absorber]] ([[erbium]]), and [[uranium]] enriched to 5% (instead of the typical 3%-4.95% range). The experiments have been carried out at the MIR.M1 research reactor at the Dimitrovgrad Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors. It will allow to extend the current [[fuel cycle]] from 12-18 months to 24 months.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/rosatom-launches-reactor-tests-of-5-enriched-nuclear-fuel |title=Rosatom starts reactor tests aiming to increase nuclear fuel enrichment |work=World Nuclear News |date=11 December 2024 |access-date=11 December 2024}}</ref>
=== Remix Fuel ===
The [[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant]] is used for [[Remix Fuel]] experiments. In December 2024 the third final 18-month phase of the pilot program has started with the goal to achieve a [[Nuclear fuel cycle|closed nuclear cycle]] for VVER reactors. A mixture of enriched uranium with recycled uranium and plutonium received from the used nuclear fuel of other VVER reactors is used instead of a standard enriched uranium. After the first 2 stages of 3, fuel elements were inspected and were approved for the 3rd final stage. The 3rd stage concluded by the end of March 2026 when the fuel was unloaded, and after some time spent in the used fuel pool, it will be further studied in the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (JSC SSC RIAR).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/pilot-operation-for-remix-fuel-completed |title=Pilot operation for REMIX fuel completed |publisher=World Nuclear News |date=25 March 2026 |accessdate=26 March 2026}}</ref> [[Remix Fuel|Remix fuel]] has a lower plutonium content of up to 5% compared with [[MOX fuel]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/final-cycle-of-remix-nuclear-fuel-trial-under-way |title=Final cycle of REMIX nuclear fuel trial under way |publisher=World Nuclear News |date=3 December 2024 |accessdate=18 March 2025}}</ref>
== Versions == ===VVER-440=== One of the earliest versions of the VVER-type, the VVER-440, manifested certain problems with its [[containment building]] design. As the V-230 and older models were from the outset not built to resist a design-critical large pipe break, the manufacturer added, with the newer V-213 model, a so called ''Bubble condenser tower'' that – with its additional volume and a number of water layers – aims to suppress the forces of rapidly escaping steam without the onset of a containment-leak. As a consequence, all member-countries{{cn|reason=Finland still runs two VVER-440 units in Loviisa Nuclear Power Plant; cf. [[Loviisa Nuclear Power Plant]]|date=March 2026}} with plants of the VVER-440 V-230 type, as well as older types, were forced by the politicians of the [[European Union]] to shut them down permanently. Because of this, the [[Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant]] had to close two reactors and the [[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant]] had to close four. Whereas in the case of the [[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant]], the German regulatory body had already made the same decision in the wake of the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]].
===VVER-1000=== [[File:Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant - Control Room of Unit 5.jpg|thumb|Control room of a VVER-1000 in 2009, [[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant|Kozloduy]] Unit 5]] When first built, the VVER design was intended to be operational for 35 years. A mid-life major overhaul including a complete replacement of critical parts such as fuel and control rod channels was thought necessary after that.<ref name=inf45>{{cite journal | url = http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/39/050/39050533.pdf | title = Recent Core Design and Operating Experience in Loviisa NPP | author = Martti Antila, Tuukka Lahtinen | journal = Fortum Nuclear Services LTD, Espoo, Finland | publisher = IAEA | access-date = 20 September 2011}}</ref> Since [[RBMK]] reactors specified a major replacement programme at 35 years designers originally decided this needed to happen in the VVER type as well, although they are of more robust design than the RBMK type. Most of Russia's VVER plants are now reaching and passing the 35 year mark. More recent design studies have allowed for an extension of lifetime up to 50 years with replacement of equipment. New VVERs will be nameplated with the extended lifetime.
In 2010 the oldest VVER-1000, at [[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant|Novovoronezh]], was shut down for modernization to extend its operating life for an additional 20 years; the first to undergo such an operating life extension. The work includes the modernization of management, protection and emergency systems, and improvement of security and radiation safety systems.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?sectionCode=132&storyCode=2057673 |title=Modernization works begin at Russia's oldest VVER-1000 |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=30 September 2010 |access-date=10 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613091943/http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?sectionCode=132&storyCode=2057673 |archive-date=13 June 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
In 2018 [[Rosatom]] announced it had developed a [[thermal annealing]] technique for [[reactor pressure vessel]]s which ameliorates radiation damage and extends service life by between 15 and 30 years. This had been demonstrated on unit 1 of the [[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant]].<ref name=wnn-20181127>{{cite news |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Rosatom-launches-annealing-technology-for-VVER-100 |title=Rosatom launches annealing technology for VVER-1000 units |work=World Nuclear News |date=27 November 2018 |access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref>
=== VVER-1200 === [[File:Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant 2024.jpg|thumb|Wide angle view of [[Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant]] in [[Bangladesh]] that consists of two 1200 MWe VVER-1200 reactors]] The VVER-1200 (or NPP-2006 or AES-2006)<ref name=fil-20110726>{{cite web | last= Fil | first= Nikolay | title= Status and perspectives of VVER nuclear power plants | date= 26–28 July 2011 | website= OKB Gidropress | publisher= IAEA | url= http://www.iaea.org/NuclearPower/Downloads/Technology/meetings/2011-Jul-26-28-TWG-LWR-HWR/Session-I/21.TWG-LWR-Russia.pdf | access-date= 28 September 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131103222853/https://www.iaea.org/NuclearPower/Downloads/Technology/meetings/2011-Jul-26-28-TWG-LWR-HWR/Session-I/21.TWG-LWR-Russia.pdf | archive-date= 3 November 2013 | url-status= dead}} </ref> is an evolution of the VVER-1000 being offered for domestic and export use.<ref name=rosatom-aes2600> {{cite web | title= AES-2006 (VVER-1200) | publisher= Rosatom | url= http://www.old.rosatom.ru/en/about/projects/npp_2006/ | access-date= 22 September 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110826120955/http://www.old.rosatom.ru/en/about/projects/npp_2006/ | archive-date= 26 August 2011 | url-status= dead }} </ref><ref name=Asmolov-2009>{{cite web | last= Asmolov | first= V. G. | title= Development of the NPP Designs Based on the VVER Technology | publisher= Rosatom | date= 10 September 2009 | url= http://www.oecd-nea.org/mdep/events/conf_sept_2009/conference-presentations/Session%204%20-1-4%20-%20ROSATOM.pdf | access-date= 9 August 2012 }} </ref> The reactor design has been refined to optimize fuel efficiency. Specifications include a $1,200 per kW [[Overnight cost|overnight construction cost]], requiring about 35% fewer operational personnel than the VVER-1000. The VVER-1200 has a gross and net [[thermal efficiency]] of 37.5% and 34.8%. The VVER 1200 will produce 1,198 MWe of power.
VVER-1200 has a 60 years design lifetime with the possibility of extension by 20 years.<ref name=wnn-20190325>{{cite news |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Novovoronezh-II-2-completes-physical-start-up |title=Novovoronezh II-2 nears physical start-up|website=world-nuclear-news.org|date=25 March 2019 |access-date=25 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/loading-of-dummy-fuel-in-rooppur-1-begins|title=Loading of dummy fuel into Rooppur 1 begins|website=world-nuclear-news.org|date=18 September 2024|access-date=19 September 2024}}</ref>
The first two units have been built at [[Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant II]] and [[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant II]]. More reactors with a VVER-1200/491<ref name=rosatom-2014>{{cite report |url=https://www.iaea.org/NuclearPower/Downloadable/aris/2013/36.VVER-1200(V-491).pdf |title=Status report 108 - VVER-1200 (V-491) |publisher=Rosatom |year=2014 |access-date=31 December 2016}}</ref> like the Leningrad-II-design are planned ([[Kaliningrad Nuclear Power Plant|Kaliningrad]] and [[Nizhny Novgorod]] NPP) and under construction. The type VVER-1200/392M<ref name=gidropress-wwer1000>{{cite web | title= WWER-1000 reactor plant (V-392) | publisher= OKB Gidropress | url= http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer1000.php | access-date= 22 September 2011 | archive-date= 17 June 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110617182155/http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer1000.php | url-status= dead }}</ref> as installed at the Novovoronezh NPP-II has also been selected for the Seversk, Zentral and South-Urals NPP. A standard version was developed as VVER-1200/513 and based on the VVER-TOI (VVER-1300/510) design.
In July 2012, the construction of two AES-2006 reactors at the [[Belarusian nuclear power plant|Ostrovets NPP]] in Belarus was agreed upon. The total cost was said to be $10 billion.<ref name=inuclear-20120719> {{cite news | title= $10 billion construction contract signed for two AES 2006 Russian reactors in Belarus | publisher= I-Nuclear | date= 19 July 2012 | url= http://www.i-nuclear.com/2012/07/19/10-billion-construction-contract-signed-for-two-aes-2006-russian-reactors-in-belarus/ | access-date= 8 August 2012 }} </ref> An AES-2006 was discussed for the [[Hanhikivi Nuclear Power Plant]] in Finland in 2014.<ref name=wnn-20140328> {{cite news | title= Rosatom buys into Fennovoima | work= World Nuclear News | date= 28 March 2014 | url= http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-Rosatom-buys-into-Fennovoima-2803144.html | access-date= 29 March 2014 }} </ref> The plant supply contract was signed in 2013, but terminated in 2022 mainly due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fennovoima has terminated the contract for the delivery of the Hanhikivi 1 nuclear power plant with Rosatom |url=https://www.hanhikivi1.fi/en/press-releases/fennovoima-has-terminated-contract-delivery-hanhikivi-1-nuclear-power-plant-rosatom |access-date=2022-08-18 |website=Hanhikivi 1 |language=en}}</ref>
From 2015 to 2017, Egypt and Russia came to an agreement for the construction of four VVER-1200 units at the [[El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant]].<ref name=wnn-20171211>{{cite news |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Notice-to-proceed-contracts-signed-for-El-Dabaa-1112178.html |title='Notice to proceed' contracts signed for El Dabaa |publisher=World Nuclear News |date=11 December 2017 |access-date=12 December 2017}}</ref>
On 30 November 2017, concrete was poured for the nuclear island basemat for the first of two VVER-1200/523 units at the [[Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant]] in [[Bangladesh]]. The power plant will be a 2.4 [[GWe]] plant. The two units were planned to be operational in 2023 and 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nucnet.org/all-the-news/2017/11/30/first-concrete-poured-for-unit-1-at-bangladesh-s-rooppur |title=First Concrete Poured For Unit 1 At Bangladesh's Rooppur |date= 30 November 2017 |website=www.nucnet.org |publisher=NucNet a.s.b.l Brussels |access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref>
On 7 March 2019 [[China National Nuclear Corporation]] and Atomstroyexport signed the detailed contract for the construction of four [[VVER-1200]]s, two each at the [[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant]] and the [[Xudabao Nuclear Power Plant]]. Construction will start in May 2021 and commercial operation of all the units is expected between 2026 and 2028.<ref name=wnn-20190403>{{cite news |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/AtomStroyExport-unveils-schedule-for-China-project |title=AtomStroyExport unveils schedule for China projects |work=World Nuclear News |date=3 April 2019 |access-date=3 April 2019}}</ref>
From 2020 an 18-month refuelling cycle will be piloted, resulting in an improved capacity utilisation factor compared to the previous 12-month cycle.<ref name=nei-20200303>{{cite news |url=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsrussia-to-transition-vver-1200-to-longer-fuel-cycle-7803196 |title=Russia to transition VVER-1200 to longer fuel cycle |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=3 March 2020 |access-date=7 March 2020}}</ref> The VVER-1200 is designed to be capable of varying power between 100% and 40% for daily load following, which was tested in 2024.<ref name=wnn-20240716>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/VVER-fuel-reliable-in-flexible-power-output-tests |title=VVER fuel reliable in flexible power output tests, says Rosatom |website=World Nuclear News |date=16 July 2024 |access-date=16 July 2024}}</ref>
==== Safety features ====
The nuclear part of the plant is housed in a single building acting as containment and missile shield. Besides the reactor and steam generators this includes an improved refueling machine, and the computerized reactor control systems. Likewise protected in the same building are the emergency systems, including an emergency core cooling system, emergency backup diesel power supply, and backup feed water supply,
A [[Passive nuclear safety|passive heat removal system]] had been added to the existing active systems in the AES-92 version of the VVER-1000 used for the [[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant]] in India. This has been retained for the newer VVER-1200 and future designs. The system is based on a cooling system and water tanks built on top of the containment dome.<ref> {{cite news | title= Passive safety in VVERs | author= V.G. Asmolov | work= JSC Rosenergoatom | publisher= Nuclear Engineering International | date= 26 August 2011 | url= http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=2060518 | access-date= 6 September 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120319191743/http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=2060518 | archive-date= 19 March 2012 | url-status= dead | df= dmy-all }}</ref> The passive systems handle all safety functions for 24 hours, and core safety for 72 hours.<ref name=fil-20110726/>
Other new safety systems include aircraft crash protection, [[Passive autocatalytic recombiner|hydrogen recombiners]], and a [[core catcher]] to contain the [[Corium (nuclear reactor)|molten reactor core]] in the event of a severe accident.<ref name=Asmolov-2009/><ref name=inuclear-20120719/><ref name=wnn-20170302>{{cite news |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-First-VVER-1200-reactor-enters-commercial-operation-02031701.html |title=First VVER-1200 reactor enters commercial operation |work=World Nuclear News |date=2 March 2017 |access-date=3 March 2017}}</ref> The core catcher will be deployed in the [[Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant]] and [[El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Core-catcher-installation-under-way-at-Rooppur-1 |title=Core catcher installation under way at Rooppur 1 |website=World Nuclear News |access-date=5 June 2019}}</ref> <ref name=nei-20180206>{{cite news |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsmelt-traps-ordered-for-egyptian-nuclear-plant-6046143 |title=Melt traps ordered for Egyptian nuclear plant |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=6 February 2018 |access-date=9 February 2018}}</ref>
The ones on [[Akkuyu Nuclear Plant]] are based on AES-2006 with updated seismic and regulatory conditions from VVER-TOI to satisfy both Turkey's geographical conditions and post-[[Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident|Fukushima]] measures.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.neimagazine.com/analysis/concrete-progress-at-akkuyu-7148151/ | title=Concrete progress at Akkuyu | date=10 April 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.modernpowersystems.com/analysis/putting-akkuyu-on-firm-foundations-7243288/ | title=Putting Akkuyu on firm foundations | date=4 June 2019 }}</ref>
===VVER-TOI=== The VVER-TOI is developed from the VVER-1200. It is aimed at development of typical optimized informative-advanced project of a new generation III+ Power Unit based on VVER technology, which meets a number of target-oriented parameters using modern information and management technologies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rosatom.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosatom/rosatomsite/investor/projects/ |title=Создание типового проекта оптимизированного и информатизированного энергоблока технологии ВВЭР (ВВЭР-ТОИ) |publisher=Rosatom Nuclear Energy State Corporation |access-date=2011-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425114449/http://rosatom.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosatom/rosatomsite/investor/projects/ |archive-date=2012-04-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The main improvements from the VVER-1200 are:<ref name=wnn-20190614/> *power increased to 1300 MWe gross *upgraded pressure vessel *improved core design to improve cooling *further developments of passive safety systems *lower construction and operating costs with a 40-month construction time *use of low-speed turbines *up to 100 years service life (60 years design lifetime with 40 years of extension)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Kursk-II-2-reactor-vessel-delivered|title=Kursk II-1 reactor vessel delivered|website=world-nuclear-news.org|date=20 September 2021|access-date=19 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Reactor-vessel-delivered-to-Kursk-II-s-second-unit|title=Reactor vessel delivered to Kursk II's second unit|website=world-nuclear-news.org|date=21 November 2023|access-date=19 September 2024}}</ref>
In June 2019 the VVER-TOI was certified as compliant with European Utility Requirements (with certain reservations) for nuclear power plants.<ref name=wnn-20190614>{{cite news |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Russia-s-VVER-VOI-reactor-certified-by-European-ut |title=Russia's VVER-TOI reactor certified by European utilities |work=World Nuclear News |date=14 June 2019 |access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref>
The construction of the first two VVER-TOI units has started in 2018 and 2019 at the [[Kursk Nuclear Power Plant|Kursk II Nuclear Power Plant]].<ref name=wnn-20180417>{{cite news |url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-AEM-Technology-sees-milestone-with-first-VVER-TOI-17041801.html |title=AEM Technology sees milestone with first VVER-TOI |work=World Nuclear News |date=17 April 2018 |access-date=18 April 2018}}</ref><ref name=wnn-20190614/> The first VVER-TOI was connected to the grid in December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/first-kursk-ii-unit-connected-to-the-grid |title=First Kursk II unit connected to the grid |publisher=World Nuclear News |date=2 January 2026 |accessdate=12 January 2026 }}</ref><ref name=wnn-20180417/><ref>{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=903 |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> Kursk II-1 has entered commercial operation on May 1st 2026.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/kursk-2-first-vver-toi-has-generated-two-billion-kwh |title=Kursk II's first VVER-TOI 'has generated 2 billion kWh' |publisher=World Nuclear News |date=22 May 2026 |accessdate=22 May 2026 }}</ref>
===VVER-S-600=== The medium-powered VVER-S-600 is an under-development VVER technology that aims to facilitate the closure of the fuel cycle by utilizing a full load of MOX fuel.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=Fresh stage of tests for VVER-S and MOX fuel |url=https://world-nuclear-news.org/articles/fresh-stage-of-research-for-vver-s-and-mox-fuel |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250716155355/https://world-nuclear-news.org/articles/fresh-stage-of-research-for-vver-s-and-mox-fuel |archive-date=2025-07-16 |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=World Nuclear News |language=en}}</ref> Rosatom claims that this could reduce the consumption of natural uranium by 50%.<ref name=":1" /> The letter 'S' in the name represents spectral shift control.<ref name="kola-2-planned" />
In contrast to conventional VVER technology, which utilizes a boron system for initial reactivity control for burnup and absorption, the VVER-S reactor manages control by adjusting the moderator-to-fuel ratio during operation, without relying on boron.<ref name="kola-2-planned">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-02 |title=Four 600 MW units planned for Kola II |url=https://world-nuclear-news.org/articles/four-600-mw-units-planned-for-kola-ii |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250716150013/https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/four-600-mw-units-planned-for-kola-ii |archive-date=2025-07-16 |access-date=2025-07-16 |website=World Nuclear News |language=en}}</ref> This is accomplished by taking out the water displacer rods found in designated fuel assembly channels within the core.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-16 |title=Fresh Look at Reactor Classics |url=https://rosatomnewsletter.com/2023/11/29/fresh-look-at-reactor-classics/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250321135405/https://rosatomnewsletter.com/2023/11/29/fresh-look-at-reactor-classics/ |archive-date=2025-03-21 |access-date=2025-07-16 |language=en}}</ref> These displacers are introduced into the core at the start of the fuel cycle to lower the moderator-to-fuel ratio, thereby hardening the neutron spectrum, which enhances neutron capture in [[U-238]] and leads to the production of [[Pu-239]].<ref name=":2" /> However, these displacer rods removed at the end of cycle, which softens the neutron spectrum, resulting in an increase in reactivity.<ref name=":2" />
The VVER-S-600 is to have a design life of 80 years.<ref name=":1" /> The estimated breeding ratio of the VVER-S-600 is 0.7 to 0.8, compared to 0.35 to 0.4 of the conventional VVERs.<ref name=":2" /> It is expected to have a cycle length of at least 24 months using MOX fuel.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-02 |title=Что известно о строительстве Кольской АЭС-2 |url=https://spb.vedomosti.ru/technology/articles/2025/07/02/1121561-chto-izvestno-o-stroitelstve-kolskoi-aes-2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20251024180815/https://spb.vedomosti.ru/technology/articles/2025/07/02/1121561-chto-izvestno-o-stroitelstve-kolskoi-aes-2 |archive-date=2025-10-24 |access-date=2025-10-24 |work=Vedomosti}}</ref>
==Power plants== {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ List of operational, planned, and closed VVER installations<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.rosatom.ru/upload/iblock/0be/0be1220af25741375138ecd1afb18743.pdf|title=The VVER today|publisher=ROSATOM|access-date=31 May 2018}}</ref> ! colspan="3" | Power plant ! colspan="3" |Reactors ! rowspan="2" |Status!! rowspan="2" | Notes ! rowspan="2" |Ref |- !Unit !Country !Geolocation !Model !Ver !Gen |- | [[Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant|Akkuyu]]-1|| Turkey || {{coord|36|08|40|N|33|32|28|E|name=Akkuyu NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 | V-509 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | {{partial|Under construction}} || |<ref name="Sabah">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2021-11-09 |title=Turkey to begin work on 2 more nuclear power plants: Erdoğan |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/energy/turkey-to-begin-work-on-2-more-nuclear-power-plants-erdogan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112143734/https://www.dailysabah.com/business/energy/turkey-to-begin-work-on-2-more-nuclear-power-plants-erdogan |archive-date=12 November 2021 |access-date=2021-11-12 |website=Daily Sabah |language=en-US}}</ref> |- |[[Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant|Akkuyu]]-2 |Turkey |{{coord|36|08|40|N|33|32|28|E|name=Akkuyu NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-509 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name="Sabah" /> |- |[[Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant|Akkuyu]]-3 |Turkey |{{coord|36|08|40|N|33|32|28|E|name=Akkuyu NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-509 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name="Sabah" /> |- |[[Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant|Akkuyu]]-4 |Turkey |{{coord|36|08|40|N|33|32|28|E|name=Akkuyu NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-509 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name="Sabah" /> |- | [[Astravets Nuclear Power Plant|Astravets]]-1|| Belarus || {{coord|54|45|40|N|26|5|21|E|name=Astravets NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 | V-491 ([[AES-2006|AES-2006)]] |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | {{yes|Operational}} || Unit 1 operational since 2020. |<ref>{{cite news |last=Nagel |first=Christina |date=7 Nov 2020 |title=Belarus' erstes AKW geht ans Netz |trans-title=Belarus' first atomic power plant is on the grid |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/belarus-akw-101.html |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108031301/https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/belarus-akw-101.html |archive-date=8 Nov 2020 |work=Tagesschau |language=de}}</ref> |- |[[Astravets Nuclear Power Plant|Astravets]]-2 |Belarus |{{coord|54|45|40|N|26|5|21|E|name=Astravets NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-491 ([[AES-2006|AES-2006)]] |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Unit 2 started operating in May 2023. |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-15 |title=Second unit of Belarus nuclear plant connected to grid - 15 May 2023 |url=https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Second-unit-of-Belarus-nuclear-plant-connect-to-gr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109012443/https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Second-unit-of-Belarus-nuclear-plant-connect-to-gr |archive-date=2023-11-09 |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=World Nuclear News }}</ref> |- |[[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant|Balakovo]]-1 |Russia |{{coord|52|5|28|N|47|57|19|E|name=Balakovo NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant|Balakovo]]-2 |Russia |{{coord|52|5|28|N|47|57|19|E|name=Balakovo NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant|Balakovo]]-3 |Russia |{{coord|52|5|28|N|47|57|19|E|name=Balakovo NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant|Balakovo]]-4 |Russia |{{coord|52|5|28|N|47|57|19|E|name=Balakovo NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant|Balakovo]]-5 |Russia |{{coord|52|5|28|N|47|57|19|E|name=Balakovo NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |construction cancelled. To be dismantled. |<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=На Балаковской АЭС снесут 2 энергоблока... {{!}} Типичный Балаково! {{!}} VK |url=https://vk.com/wall-39325472_2315686 |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=vk.com |language=en}}</ref> |- |[[Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant|Balakovo]]-6 |Russia |{{coord|52|5|28|N|47|57|19|E|name=Balakovo NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |construction cancelled. To be dismantled. |<ref name=":13" /> |- | [[Belene Nuclear Power Plant|Belene]]-1|| Bulgaria || {{coord|43|37|46|N|25|11|12|E|name=Belene NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 | V-466B | | Cancelled|| Suspended in 2012. |<ref name="Par_Votes">{{cite journal |url=http://www.worldnuclearreport.org/Bulgarian-Parliament-Votes-to.html |title=Bulgarian Parliament Votes to Abandon Belene Nuclear Plant |date=27 Feb 2013 |journal=World Nuclear Report |access-date=22 Sep 2014}}</ref> |- |[[Belene Nuclear Power Plant|Belene]]-2 |Bulgaria |{{coord|43|37|46|N|25|11|12|E|name=Belene NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-466B | |Cancelled |Suspended in 2012. |<ref name="Par_Votes" /> |- |[[Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant|Bohunice]]-V1-1 |Slovakia |{{coord|48|29|40|N|17|40|55|E|name=Bouhunice NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Permanent Shutdown |Closed in 2006 |<ref name=":7">{{Cite news |date=2025-07-24 |title=Vyřazování reaktorů V1 v Jaslovských Bohunicích bylo dokončeno |url=https://oenergetice.cz/jaderne-elektrarny/vyrazovani-reaktoru-v1-v-jaslovskych-bohunicich-bylo-dokonceno |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250724092935/https://oenergetice.cz/jaderne-elektrarny/vyrazovani-reaktoru-v1-v-jaslovskych-bohunicich-bylo-dokonceno |archive-date=2025-07-24 |access-date=2026-01-13 |work=oEnergetice.cz |language=cs-CZ}}</ref> |- |[[Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant|Bohunice]]-V1-2 |Slovakia |{{coord|48|29|40|N|17|40|55|E|name=Bouhunice NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Permanent Shutdown |Closed in 2008 |<ref name=":7" /> |- |[[Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant|Bohunice]]-V2-1 |Slovakia |{{coord|48|29|40|N|17|40|55|E|name=Bouhunice NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":7" /> |- |[[Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant|Bohunice]]-V2-2 |Slovakia |{{coord|48|29|40|N|17|40|55|E|name=Bouhunice NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":7" /> |- | [[Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant|Bushehr]]-1|| Iran || {{coord|28|49|46.64|N|50|53|09.46|E|name=Bushehr NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 | V-446 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | Unit 1 operational since 2011.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=310 |access-date=2025-08-16 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |<ref name=":19" /> |- |[[Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant|Bushehr]]-2 |Iran |{{coord|28|49|46.64|N|50|53|09.46|E|name=Bushehr NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-528 (AES-92) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction (Frozen)}} | |<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=311 |access-date=2025-08-16 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |- |[[Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant|Bushehr]]-3 |Iran |{{coord|28|49|46.64|N|50|53|09.46|E|name=Bushehr NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-528 (AES-92) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |Planned |being prepared |<ref name=":20" /> |- |[[Dukovany Nuclear Power Station|Dukovany]]-1 |Czech Republic | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Dukovany na vyšší výkon. ČEZ chce z elektrárny vytáhnout více energie |url=https://www.euro.cz/clanky/dukovany-na-vyssi-vykon-1477459/ |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Euro.cz |language=cs}}</ref> |<ref name=":9" /> |- |[[Dukovany Nuclear Power Station|Dukovany]]-2 |Czech Republic | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.<ref name=":9" /> |<ref name=":9" /> |- |[[Dukovany Nuclear Power Station|Dukovany]]-3 |Czech Republic | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.<ref name=":9" /> |<ref name=":9" /> |- |[[Dukovany Nuclear Power Station|Dukovany]]-4 |Czech Republic | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.<ref name=":9" /> |<ref name=":9" /> |- | [[El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant|El Dabaa]]-1|| Egypt || {{coord|31|2|39|N|28|29|52|E|name=El Dabaa NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 | V-529 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | {{partial|Under construction}} || |<ref name="dailynewsegypt-20151129">{{cite news|last=Ezzidin|first=Toqa|url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2015/11/29/el-dabaa-nuclear-station-to-generate-electricity-in-2024-prime-minister/|title=El-Dabaa nuclear station to generate electricity in 2024: Prime Minister|date=29 November 2015|newspaper=Daily News|access-date=22 March 2017|location=Egypt}}</ref><ref name="nei-20170320">{{cite news|url=http://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsegypt-and-russia-agree-on-two-contracts-for-el-dabaa-npp-5765715|title=Egypt and Russia agree on two contracts for El Dabaa NPP|date=20 March 2017|access-date=22 March 2017|publisher=Nuclear Engineering International}}</ref><ref name="dailynewsegypt-20170314">{{cite news|last=Farag|first=Mohamed|url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2017/03/14/618490/|title=Russia launches operations of nuclear unit similar to Dabaa units|date=14 March 2017|newspaper=Daily News|access-date=26 March 2017|location=Egypt}}</ref> |- |[[El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant|El Dabaa]]-2 |Egypt |{{coord|31|2|39|N|28|29|52|E|name=El Dabaa NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-529 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name="dailynewsegypt-20151129" /><ref name="nei-20170320" /><ref name="dailynewsegypt-20170314" /> |- |[[El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant|El Dabaa]]-3 |Egypt |{{coord|31|2|39|N|28|29|52|E|name=El Dabaa NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-529 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name="dailynewsegypt-20151129" /><ref name="nei-20170320" /><ref name="dailynewsegypt-20170314" /> |- |[[El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant|El Dabaa]]-4 |Egypt |{{coord|31|2|39|N|28|29|52|E|name=El Dabaa NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-529 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name="dailynewsegypt-20151129" /><ref name="nei-20170320" /><ref name="dailynewsegypt-20170314" /> |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-1 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Decommissioned | |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-2 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Decommissioned | |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-3 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Decommissioned | |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-4 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Decommissioned | |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-5 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Decommissioned | |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-6 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Built |Unit 6 finished, but never operated. |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-7 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Cancelled | |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- |[[Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant|Greifswald]]-8 |Germany | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Cancelled | |{{cn|date=December 2023}} |- | [[Uzbekistan Nuclear Power Plant|Jizzakh]]-3 | Uzbekistan || |VVER-1000 | | | Planned|| Agreement signed. |<ref name=":22">{{cite news|url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/uzbekistan-russia-mark-smr-construction-progress|title=Uzbekistan and Russia mark SMR construction progress|newspaper=World Nuclear News|date=|access-date=2026-03-26}}</ref> |- |[[Uzbekistan Nuclear Power Plant|Jizzakh]]-4 |Uzbekistan | |VVER-1000 | | |Planned |Agreement signed. |<ref name=":22" /> |- |[[Juragua Nuclear Power Plant|Juragua]]-1 |Cuba | |VVER-440 |V-318 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Cancelled | | |- |[[Juragua Nuclear Power Plant|Juragua]]-2 |Cuba | |VVER-440 |V-318 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Cancelled | | |- |[[Kalinin Nuclear Power Plant|Kalinin]]-1 |Russia | |VVER-1000 |V-338 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Kalinin Nuclear Power Plant|Kalinin]]-2 |Russia | |VVER-1000 |V-338 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Kalinin Nuclear Power Plant|Kalinin]]-3 |Russia | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |construction slow down in 1990, restarted construction in early 1990s, commissioned in 2004 |<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Kernkraftwerk Kalinin – Nucleopedia |url=https://de.nucleopedia.org/wiki/Kernkraftwerk_Kalinin |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=de.nucleopedia.org}}</ref> |- |[[Kalinin Nuclear Power Plant|Kalinin]]-4 |Russia | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |suspended in 1991, restarted and commissioned in 2012 |<ref name=":12" /> |- |[[Kaliningrad Nuclear Power Plant|Kaliningrad]]-1 |Russia | |VVER-1200 |V-491 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |Construction suspended | | |- |[[Kaliningrad Nuclear Power Plant|Kaliningrad]]-2 |Russia | |VVER-1200 |V-491 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |Construction suspended | | |- |[[Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Plant|Khmelnytskyi]]-1 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":15">{{cite web|title=Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Plant, Ukraine |website=Power Technology |url=https://www.power-technology.com/projects/khmelnytskyi-nuclear-power-plant/|access-date=2023-01-02}}</ref> |- |[[Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Plant|Khmelnytskyi]]-2 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":15" /> |- |[[Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Plant|Khmelnytskyi]]-3 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-392B |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{partial|Under construction}} |Unit 3 planned to be completed with Czech company Škoda JS as VVER-1000 and units 5 and 6 contract signed - [[Westinghouse AP1000]] |<ref name=":15" /> |- |[[Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Plant|Khmelnytskyi]]-4 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-392B |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |Cancelled in 2021 |<ref name=":15" /> |- |[[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola]]-1 |Russia | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan |<ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=http://barentsobserver.com/en/energy/2013/09/kola-nuclear-power-plant-much-safer-17-09|title=Kola nuclear power plant much safer|access-date=2023-12-18|archive-date=2013-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924170538/http://barentsobserver.com/en/energy/2013/09/kola-nuclear-power-plant-much-safer-17-09|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |[[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola]]-2 |Russia | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan |<ref name=":5" /> |- |[[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola]]-3 |Russia | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan |<ref name=":5" /> |- |[[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola]]-4 |Russia | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan |<ref name=":5" /> |- | [[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola II]]-1 | Russia || |VVER-S | | | Planned|| Four 600 MW units are planned with a service life of 80 years, construction is expected to happen during 2027-2037 |<ref name="kola-2-planned" /> |- |[[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola II]]-2 |Russia | |VVER-S | | |Planned | | |- |[[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola II]]-3 |Russia | |VVER-S | | |Planned | | |- |[[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola II]]-4 |Russia | |VVER-S | | |Planned | | |- |[[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam]]-1 |India |{{coord|8|10|08|N|77|42|45|E|name=Kudankulam NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-412 (AES-92) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Operational since 13 July 2013 |<ref name="TOI">[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kudankulam-plant-reaches-milestone/article8831818.ece Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant attains criticality] </ref> |- |[[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam]]-2 |India |{{coord|8|10|08|N|77|42|45|E|name=Kudankulam NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-412 (AES-92) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Operational since 10 July 2016 |<ref name="TOI" /> |- |[[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam]]-3 |India |{{coord|8|10|08|N|77|42|45|E|name=Kudankulam NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-412 (AES-92) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- |[[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam]]-4 |India |{{coord|8|10|08|N|77|42|45|E|name=Kudankulam NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-412 (AES-92) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- |[[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam]]-5 |India |{{coord|8|10|08|N|77|42|45|E|name=Kudankulam NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-412 (AES-92) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- |[[Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant|Kudankulam]]-6 |India |{{coord|8|10|08|N|77|42|45|E|name=Kudankulam NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-412 (AES-92) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- |[[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant|Kozloduy]]-1 |Bulgaria | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Permanent Shutdown |Shutdown in 2002 |<ref>{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/pris/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=16 |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |- |[[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant|Kozloduy]]-2 |Bulgaria | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Permanent Shutdown |Shutdown in 2002 | |- |[[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant|Kozloduy]]-3 |Bulgaria | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Permanent Shutdown |Shutdown in 2006 | |- |[[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant|Kozloduy]]-4 |Bulgaria | |VVER-440 |V-230 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Permanent Shutdown |Shutdown in 2006 |<ref>{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=19 |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |- |[[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant|Kozloduy]]-5 |Bulgaria | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Uprated to 1040 MW |<ref>{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=20 |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |- |[[Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant|Kozloduy]]-6 |Bulgaria | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Uprated to 1040 MW |<ref>{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=21 |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |- |[[Kursk Nuclear Power Plant|Kursk II]]-1 |Russia |{{coord|51|41|18|N|35|34|24|E|name=Kursk II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-TOI VVER-1300 |V-510K |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Kursk Nuclear Power Plant|Kursk II]]-2 |Russia |{{coord|51|41|18|N|35|34|24|E|name=Kursk II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-TOI VVER-1300 |V-510K |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- |[[Kursk Nuclear Power Plant|Kursk II]]-3 |Russia |{{coord|51|41|18|N|35|34|24|E|name=Kursk II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-TOI VVER-1300 |V-510K |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} |Pouring of the concrete for the foundation of the 3rd unit has started in May 2026, the goal is for all 4 units to be in operation by 2034.<ref name=":21">{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/concreting-of-kursk-iis-third-reactor-building-foundation-completed |title=Concreting completed of Kursk II's third reactor building foundation |date=8 May 2026 |newspaper=World Nuclear News |access-date=9 May 2026}}</ref> |<ref name=":21" /> |- |[[Kursk Nuclear Power Plant|Kursk II]]-4 |Russia |{{coord|51|41|18|N|35|34|24|E|name=Kursk II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-TOI VVER-1300 |V-510K |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- | [[Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant II|Leningrad II]]-1|| Russia || {{coord|59|49|52|N|29|03|35|E|name=Leningrad II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 | V-491 (AES-2006) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{yes|Operational}} | Prototype. In commercial operation since October 2018. | |- |[[Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant II|Leningrad II]]-2 |Russia |{{coord|59|49|52|N|29|03|35|E|name=Leningrad II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-491 (AES-2006) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Prototype. In commercial operation since March 2021. | |- |[[Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant II|Leningrad II]]-3 |Russia |{{coord|59|49|52|N|29|03|35|E|name=Leningrad II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-491 (AES-2006) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- |[[Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant II|Leningrad II]]-4 |Russia |{{coord|59|49|52|N|29|03|35|E|name=Leningrad II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-491 (AES-2006) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | | |- |[[Loviisa Nuclear Power Plant|Loviisa]]-1 |Finland | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Western control systems, clearly different containment structures. Later modified for a 530 MW output. | |- |[[Loviisa Nuclear Power Plant|Loviisa]]-2 |Finland | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Western control systems, clearly different containment structures. Later modified for a 530 MW output. | |- |[[Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant|Metsamor]]-1 |Armenia | |VVER-440 |V-270 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Permanent Shutdown |Shutdown in 1989. | |- |[[Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant|Metsamor]]-2 |Armenia | |VVER-440 |V-270 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Decommissioning planned in 2036 | |- |[[Mochovce Nuclear Power Plants|Mochovce]]-1 |Slovakia | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":10">{{cite web|title=New Slovak nuclear plant moves closer to launch |website=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/new-slovak-nuclear-plant-moves-closer-launch-2022-10-24/|date=2022-10-24|access-date=2023-01-02|quote=Once Mochovce Unit 4 is complete, around two years after Unit 3 is functioning, Slovakia is expected to become a net electricity exporter to other European Union countries.}}</ref> |- |[[Mochovce Nuclear Power Plants|Mochovce]]-2 |Slovakia | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":10" /> |- |[[Mochovce Nuclear Power Plants|Mochovce]]-3 |Slovakia | |VVER-440 |V-213+ |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Commissioned in 2023 |<ref name=":10" /> |- |[[Mochovce Nuclear Power Plants|Mochovce]]-4 |Slovakia | |VVER-440 |V-213+ |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{partial|Under construction}} |Under construction since 1985, to be commissioned in 2026. |<ref name=":10" /> |- | [[Ninh Thuận 1 Nuclear Power Plant|Ninh Thuan]] 1-1|| Vietnam || |VVER-1200 | V-491 ([[AES-2006|AES-2006)]] |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | Planned|| The agreement to build 2 VVER-1200 with the new Leningrad units as the reference project was signed on 23th March 2026 |<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/vietnam-russia-intergovernmental-agreement-on-new-nuclear |title=Vietnam, Russia sign agreement on new nuclear plant |date=23 March 2026 |newspaper=World Nuclear News |access-date=24 March 2026}}</ref> |- |[[Ninh Thuận 1 Nuclear Power Plant|Ninh Thuan]] 1-2 |Vietnam | |VVER-1200 |V-491 ([[AES-2006|AES-2006)]] |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |Planned | | |- |[[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant|Novovoronezh]]-1 |Russia | |VVER |V-210 (V-1)<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=http://atomicexpert.com/page299069.html|title=У истоков водо-водяных|author=Сергей Панов|website=atomicexpert.com|access-date=2018-07-19|archive-date=2018-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705045523/http://atomicexpert.com/page299069.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> |[[Generation I reactor|I]] |Decommissioned |Prototype |<ref name=":3" /> |- |[[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant|Novovoronezh]]-2 |Russia | |VVER |V-365 (V-3M) |[[Generation I reactor|I]] |Decommissioned |Prototype |<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=http://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/istoriya-atomnoy-energetiki_v2_2002/go,246|title=Эволюция водо-водяных энергетических реакторов для АЭС p.246|author=Денисов В.П.}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} |- |[[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant|Novovoronezh]]-3 |Russia | |VVER-440 |V-179 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |Decommissioned |Prototype. Unit 3 modernised in 2002.<ref name=":6">{{cite news |url=http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=2015522 |title=New life of Novovoronezh 3 |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=3 June 2002 |access-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714162729/http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=2015522 |archive-date=14 July 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> |<ref name=":6" /> |- |[[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant|Novovoronezh]]-4 |Russia | |VVER-440 |V-179 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant|Novovoronezh]]-5 |Russia | |VVER-1000 |V-187 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Prototype. | |- | [[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant II|Novovoronezh II]]-1|| Russia || {{coord|51|15|53.964|N|39|12|41.22|E|name=Novovoronezh II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 | V-392M (AES-2006) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | {{yes|Operational}} || Prototype. Commissioned in 2017. | |- |[[Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant II|Novovoronezh II]]-2 |Russia |{{coord|51|15|53.964|N|39|12|41.22|E|name=Novovoronezh II NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-392M (AES-2006) |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Commissioned in 2019. | |- |[[Paks Nuclear Power Plant|Paks]]-1 |Hungary | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2022-08-29 |title=Elkezdődött a -5 méterig terjedő talajkiemelés |url=https://paks2.hu/web/guest/w/elkezdodott-a-5-meterig-terjedo-talajkiemeles |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=Paks 2}}</ref> |- |[[Paks Nuclear Power Plant|Paks]]-2 |Hungary | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":8" /> |- |[[Paks Nuclear Power Plant|Paks]]-3 |Hungary | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":8" /> |- |[[Paks Nuclear Power Plant|Paks]]-4 |Hungary | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | |<ref name=":8" /> |- |[[Paks Nuclear Power Plant|Paks]]-5 |Hungary | |VVER-1200 |V-517 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name=":8" /> |- |[[Paks Nuclear Power Plant|Paks]]-6 |Hungary | |VVER-1200 |V-517 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name=":8" /> |- | [[Rheinsberg Nuclear Power Plant|Rheinsberg]]|| Germany || |VVER | VVER-70 (V-2) |[[Generation I reactor|I]] |Decommissioned|| Unit decommissioned in 1990 |<ref name=":4" /> |- |[[Rivne Nuclear Power Plant|Rivne]]-1 |Ukraine | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Rivne Nuclear Power Plant|Rivne]]-2 |Ukraine | |VVER-440 |V-213 |[[Generation II reactor|II]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Rivne Nuclear Power Plant|Rivne]]-3 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Rivne Nuclear Power Plant|Rivne]]-4 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Unit 4 suspended in 1990, restarted in 1993 with a very slow progress. | |- |[[Rivne Nuclear Power Plant|Rivne]]-5 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Planning Suspended |Planning suspended in 1990. | |- |[[Rivne Nuclear Power Plant|Rivne]]-6 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Planning Suspended |Planning suspended in 1990. | |- | [[Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant|Rooppur]]-1|| Bangladesh || {{coord|24|6|47|N|89|4|07|E|name=Rooppur NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 | V-523 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | {{partial|Under construction}} || |<ref name=":23">{{cite web |title=Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, Ishwardi |url=https://www.power-technology.com/projects/rooppur-nuclear-power-plant-ishwardi/|website=Power Technology}}</ref> |- |[[Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant|Rooppur]]-2 |Bangladesh |{{coord|24|6|47|N|89|4|07|E|name=Rooppur NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-523 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} | |<ref name=":23" /> |- |[[Rostov Nuclear Power Plant|Rostov]]-1 |Russia |{{coord|47|35|57.63|N|42|22|18.76|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Plant construction suspended in 1990 - unit 1 was nearly 100% completed. Construction restarted in 1999-2000. Commissioned in 2001 |<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=Kernkraftwerk Rostow – Nucleopedia |url=https://de.nucleopedia.org/wiki/Rostow |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=de.nucleopedia.org}}</ref> |- |[[Rostov Nuclear Power Plant|Rostov]]-2 |Russia |{{coord|47|35|57.63|N|42|22|18.76|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Plant construction suspended in 1990. Construction restarted in 1999-2000. |<ref name=":14" /> |- |[[Rostov Nuclear Power Plant|Rostov]]-3 |Russia |{{coord|47|35|57.63|N|42|22|18.76|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Plant construction suspended in 1990. Construction restarted in 1999-2000. |<ref name=":14" /> |- |[[Rostov Nuclear Power Plant|Rostov]]-4 |Russia |{{coord|47|35|57.63|N|42|22|18.76|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Plant construction suspended in 1990. Construction restarted in 1999-2000. Commissioned in 2018 |<ref name=":14" /> |- |[[South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant|South Ukraine]]-1 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-302 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant|South Ukraine]]-2 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-338 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant|South Ukraine]]-3 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant|South Ukraine]]-4 |Ukraine | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |Construction suspended in 1989 and cancelled in 1991. |<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-07-16 |title=South-Ukraine NPP |url=https://www.uatom.org/en/general-information/south-ukraine-npp |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Uatom.org |language=en-US}}</ref> |- |[[Stendal Nuclear Power Plant|Stendal]]-1 |Germany | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification |<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=(GRS 112) Safety Releated Assessment of the Stendal Nuclear Power Plant, Unit A, of the Type WWER-1000/ W-320 {{!}} GRS gGmbH |url=https://www.grs.de/en/node/1010 |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=www.grs.de |language=de}}</ref> |- |[[Stendal Nuclear Power Plant|Stendal]]-2 |Germany | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification |<ref name=":11" /> |- |[[Stendal Nuclear Power Plant|Stendal]]-3 |Germany | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification |<ref name=":11" /> |- |[[Stendal Nuclear Power Plant|Stendal]]-4 |Germany | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification |<ref name=":11" /> |- |[[Temelín Nuclear Power Station|Temelin]]-1 |Czech Republic | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Western control systems. Both units upgraded to 1086 MWe and commissioned in 2000 |<ref name=":16">{{Cite news |date=2024-06-22 |title=Korejský reaktor APR1000: nejlepší řešení pro Česko - iDNES.cz |url=https://sdeleni.idnes.cz/zpravy/korejsky-reaktor-apr1000-nejlepsi-reseni-pro-cesko.A240617_103853_zpr_sdeleni_okov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240721101208/https://sdeleni.idnes.cz/zpravy/korejsky-reaktor-apr1000-nejlepsi-reseni-pro-cesko.A240617_103853_zpr_sdeleni_okov |archive-date=2024-07-21 |access-date=2026-01-12 |work=iDNES.cz |language=cs}}</ref> |- |[[Temelín Nuclear Power Station|Temelin]]-2 |Czech Republic | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Western control systems. Both units upgraded to 1086 MWe and commissioned in 2002 |<ref name=":16" /> |- |[[Temelín Nuclear Power Station|Temelin]]-3 |Czech Republic | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |cancelled in 1990 due to [[Velvet revolution|change of political regime]], only foundation was completed. planned with KHNP's APR1000. |<ref name=":16" /> |- |[[Temelín Nuclear Power Station|Temelin]]-4 |Czech Republic | |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |Cancelled |cancelled in 1990 due to [[Velvet revolution|change of political regime]], only foundation was completed. planned with KHNP's APR1000. |<ref name=":16" /> |- |[[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant|Tianwan]]-1 |China |{{coord|34|41|13|N|119|27|35|E|name=Tianwan NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-428 (AES-91) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant|Tianwan]]-2 |China |{{coord|34|41|13|N|119|27|35|E|name=Tianwan NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-428 (AES-91) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant|Tianwan]]-3 |China |{{coord|34|41|13|N|119|27|35|E|name=Tianwan NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-428M (AES-91) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant|Tianwan]]-4 |China |{{coord|34|41|13|N|119|27|35|E|name=Tianwan NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-428M (AES-91) |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant|Tianwan]]-7 |China |{{coord|34|41|13|N|119|27|35|E|name=Tianwan NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-491 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} |VVER-1200 construction started in May 2021 and February 2022. |<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1105 |access-date=2025-08-17 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1110 |access-date=2025-08-17 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |- |[[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant|Tianwan]]-8 |China |{{coord|34|41|13|N|119|27|35|E|name=Tianwan NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-491 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} |VVER-1200 construction started in February 2022. |<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /> |- | [[Xudabao Nuclear Power Plant|Xudabao]]-3 || China || {{coord|40|21|5|N|120|32|45|E|name=Xudabao NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 | V-491 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | {{partial|Under construction}} || Construction on the first reactor commenced on 28 July 2021 |<ref name=":24">{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1104 |access-date=2025-08-17 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite web |title=PRIS - Reactor Details |url=https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1112 |access-date=2025-08-17 |website=pris.iaea.org}}</ref> |- |[[Xudabao Nuclear Power Plant|Xudabao]]-4 |China |{{coord|40|21|5|N|120|32|45|E|name=Xudabao NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1200 |V-491 |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |{{partial|Under construction}} |Construction starting on 19 May 2022. |<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":25" /> |- |[[Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant|Zaporizhzhia]]-1 |Ukraine |{{coord|47|30|30|N|34|35|04|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant|Zaporizhzhia]]-2 |Ukraine |{{coord|47|30|30|N|34|35|04|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant|Zaporizhzhia]]-3 |Ukraine |{{coord|47|30|30|N|34|35|04|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant|Zaporizhzhia]]-4 |Ukraine |{{coord|47|30|30|N|34|35|04|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant|Zaporizhzhia]]-5 |Ukraine |{{coord|47|30|30|N|34|35|04|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} | | |- |[[Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant|Zaporizhzhia]]-6 |Ukraine |{{coord|47|30|30|N|34|35|04|E|name=Zaporizhzhia NPP|display=inline}} |VVER-1000 |V-320 |[[Generation III reactor|III]] |{{yes|Operational}} |Commissioned in 1996. | |- | [[Zhambyl Nuclear Power Plant|Zhambyl]]-1 || Kazakhstan || |VVER-1200 | |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] | Planned|| VVER-1200 was selected to be built in Kazakhstan, the first large (more than 1GW) nuclear power plant in Kazakhstan (previous unit in operation was [[BN-350]]) |<ref name=":26">{{cite news |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/kazakhstan-selects-rosatom-for-first-nuclear-power-plant |title=Kazakhstan selects Rosatom for first nuclear power plant |date=16 June 2025 |newspaper=World Nuclear News |access-date=17 June 2025}}</ref> |- |[[Zhambyl Nuclear Power Plant|Zhambyl]]-2 |Kazakhstan | |VVER-1200 | |[[Generation III+ reactor|III+]] |Planned | |<ref name=":26" /> |}
== Technical specifications == {| class="wikitable" |- !Specifications ! VVER-210 ! VVER-365 ! VVER-440 ! VVER-1000 ! VVER-1200<br />(V-392M) ! VVER-TOI VVER-1300 |- |References |<ref name="Specifications">{{cite web|url=http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/11/514/11514338.pdf|title=Основные физико-технические характеристики реакторных установок ВВЭР|author=V.V. Semenov|date=1979|publisher=IAEA}}</ref> | | | |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rosenergoatom.ru/upload/iblock/f01/f01b5ca309dbda1917c112d6897c0959.pdf|title=Нововоронежская АЭС-2|website=www.rosenergoatom.ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/files/publication/st-2013/documents/283.pdf|title=Реакторные установки ВВЭР с. 49|website=www.gidropress.ru|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-date=2018-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024130015/http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/files/publication/st-2013/documents/283.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/andrushechko_aes-s-reaktorom-vver-1000_2010/go,538/|title=АЭС с реактором типа ВВЭР-1000|author=Андрушечко С.А. и др.|date=2010}}</ref> |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/Doklady/Berkovich.pdf|title=Перспективные проекты реакторных установок ВВЭР|author=Беркович В.Я., Семченков Ю.М.|date=2012|website=www.rosenergoatom.ru|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-date=2018-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718030728/http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/Doklady/Berkovich.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2014/Plenar/Dolgov_A.B..pdf|title=Разработка и усовершенствование ядерного топлива для активных зон энергетических установок|author=Долгов А.В.|date=2014|website=www.rosenergoatom.ru|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-date=2018-07-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173728/http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2014/Plenar/Dolgov_A.B..pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/v/osnovnye-perspektivnye-konfiguratsii-aktivnyh-zon-novyh-pokoleniy-reaktorov-tipa-vver|title=Основные перспективные конфигурации активных зон новых поколений реак��оров типа ВВЭР|author=Якубенко И. А.|date=2013|publisher=Издательство Национального исследовательского ядерного университета "МИФИ"|page=52|access-date=2018-11-11}}</ref> |- |Thermal output, MW||760 ||1325 ||1375 ||3000 ||3212||3300 |- |[[Electrical efficiency|Efficiency]], net % ||25.5 ||25.7 ||29.7 ||31.7||35.7<ref group="nb">[http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-Russian-nuclear-engineers-invite-foreign-suppliers-to-plant-projects-7121502.html Other sources] - 34,8.</ref>||37.9 |- |Vapor pressure, in 100 kPa | colspan="6" | |- | in front of the turbine ||29.0 ||29.0 ||44.0 ||60.0 ||70.0 || |- | in the first circuit ||100 ||105 ||125 ||160.0||165.1 ||165.2 |- |Water temperature, °C: || colspan="6" | |- | core coolant inlet ||250 ||250 ||269 ||289 ||298.2<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2016/Materials_2016/Plenar_rus/Povarov_V.P._Prezentaciya_rus_bez_zametok.pdf|title=Перспективные проекты реакторных установок ВВЭР с. 7|author=В.П.Поваров|date=2016|website=www.rosenergoatom.ru|access-date=2019-04-19|archive-date=2018-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123114337/http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2016/Materials_2016/Plenar_rus/Povarov_V.P._Prezentaciya_rus_bez_zametok.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>||297.2 |- | core coolant outlet ||269 ||275 ||300 ||319||328.6 ||328.8 |- |Equivalent core diameter, m ||2.88 ||2.88 ||2.88 ||3.12||—|| |- |Active core height, m ||2.50 ||2.50 ||2.50 ||3.50||—||3.73<ref>{{cite web |author=Беркович Вадим Яковлевич, Семченков Юрий Михайлович |date=May 2016 |script-title=ru:Развитие технологии ВВЭР – приоритет Росатома |language=ru |trans-title=Development of VVER technology is a priority of Rosatom |url=http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2016/Materials_2016/Plenar_rus/MNTK_Berkovich+Semchenkov_RUS.pdf |edition=rosenergoatom.ru |page=5 |quote=25-27 |access-date=2019-04-19 |archive-date=2018-11-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123114109/http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2016/Materials_2016/Plenar_rus/MNTK_Berkovich+Semchenkov_RUS.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> |- |Outer diameter of fuel rods, mm ||10.2 ||9.1 ||9.1 ||9.1 ||9.1 ||9.1 |- |Number of fuel rods in assembly ||90 ||126 ||126 ||312 ||312 ||313 |- | Number of fuel assemblies<ref name="Specifications" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://atomicexpert.com/page299069.html|title=У истоков водо-водяных|author=Сергей ПАНОВ|website=atomicexpert.com|access-date=2018-07-19|archive-date=2018-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705045523/http://atomicexpert.com/page299069.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>||349 (312+ARK (SUZ) 37) |349 (276+ARK 73) |349 (276+ARK 73), <br />(312+ARK 37) [[Kola Nuclear Power Plant|Kola]]||151 (109+SUZ 42), 163 |163 ||163 |- |Uranium loading, tons ||38 ||40 ||42 ||66||76-85.5||87.3 |- |Average uranium enrichment, % ||2.0 ||3.0 ||3.5 ||4.26||4.69|| |- |Average fuel [[burnup]], MW · day / kg ||13.0 ||27.0 ||28.6 ||48.4||55.5|| |}
==See also== *[[Nuclear power in Russia]] *[[Russian floating nuclear power station]] *[[VBER-300]]
==Notes== {{reflist|group="nb"}}
==References== {{Reflist|30em}}
==External links== *[http://www.rosatom.ru/upload/iblock/0be/0be1220af25741375138ecd1afb18743.pdf The VVER today], [[Rosatom]], 2013 *[http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer.php WWER-type reactor plants] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417092325/http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer.php |date=2016-04-17 }}, [[OKB Gidropress]] *{{cite web |language=en |url=http://www.aem-group.ru/static/images/infografix/2019/1200-2019-05/AEM_reaktor_ENG.pdf |title=VVER-1200 Reactor}} - on [[Atomenergomash|AEM]] official pdf{{in lang|en}} **[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=91yVhrSZ5jQ VVER 1200 Construction] - on [[Atomenergomash|AEM]] Official YouTube Channel{{in lang|en}}
{{Hidden Nuclear Power Plants in Russia}} {{Nuclear fission reactors}}
[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]] [[Category:Nuclear technology in the Soviet Union]] [[Category:Soviet inventions]] [[Category:Nuclear power in the Soviet Union]] [[Category:Pressurized water reactors]]