{{Short description|Historical region of Circassia}} {{Infobox former country | native_name = ТIуахъы<br><small>Убых Хэку<br>Аубла</small> | conventional_long_name = Ubykhia | common_name = Ubykhia | era = Early Modern | status = Member of the Circassian Confederation | year_start = ? | year_end = 1864 | date_end = May 21st, 1864 | p1 = Zichia | s1 = Russian Empire | image_flag = | image_coat = Ubykh_banner.png | symbol_type = Tamga of the House of Berzeg, one of the most influential clans of Ubykhia | symbol_type_article = | image_map = | capital = | government_type = Military democracy<br>Tribal confederation | common_languages = Ubykh<br>Circassian<br>Abkhaz | religion = Circassian paganism<br>Orthodox Christianity ({{circa|5th c.}}-17th c.)<br>Catholic Church ({{circa|14th c.}})<br>Islam (18th c.-1864) | leader1 = Dzepsh Kanshao | year_leader1 = {{circa|16th c.}} | leader2 = Saad-Girey Berzeg | year_leader2 = {{circa|16th/17th c.}}-1823 | leader3 = Ismail Berzeg | year_leader3 = 1823-1846 | leader4 = Gerandiqo Berzeg | year_leader4 = 1846-1864 | stat_year1 = 1864 | stat_pop1 = 25000-30000 | footnotes = }} '''Ubykhia''' (Ubykh: ТIуахъы; {{lang|ady|Убых Хэку}}; {{lang|ab|Аубла}}; {{lang|ru|Убыхия}}) was one of the historical regions of Circassia. It was inhabited by the Ubykh people, a Circassian tribe.<ref name="Mendeleev-1907">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Убыхи |encyclopedia=Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона |last=Mendeleev |first=Dmitri |date=1890–1907}}</ref><ref name="Berzeg-1998">{{Cite book |last=Berzeg |first=Sefer |title=Soçi'nin Sügündeki Sahipleri Çerkes-Vubıhlar |date=1998 |publisher=KAFDAV Yayınları |language=Turkish |trans-title=The Circassian-Ubykhs: The Exiled Owners of Sochi}}</ref> It was a region located around Sochi.<ref name="Berzeg-1998" /> Ubykhia was ruled by the Berzeg and Dishan clans and elected elders,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Natho |first=Kadir |url=https://books.google.com.tr/books?redir_esc=y&id=eE2pDLgibVoC&q=Ridada#v=onepage&q=Mstislav&f=false |title=Circassian History |date=December 3, 2009 |language=English |access-date=May 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510201405/https://books.google.com.tr/books?redir_esc=y&id=eE2pDLgibVoC&q=Ridada#v=onepage&q=Mstislav&f=false |archive-date=May 10, 2023}}</ref> and was the last region to fall under Russian control during the Russo-Circassian War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shenfield |first=Stephen D. |url=https://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/A_Forgotten_Genocide.pdf |title=The Circassians: a forgotten genocide? |date=1999 |publisher=Berghahn Books |language=English |access-date=June 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625200642/https://www.circassianworld.com/pdf/A_Forgotten_Genocide.pdf |archive-date=June 25, 2023}}</ref>
== History ==
=== Mythology === The most influential clan among the Ubykh tribes was the Berzeg ("Barzek",<ref name="Bell-1840" /> "Berzek",<ref name="Tsuyeko-2012">{{Cite book |last=Tsuyeko |first=Aliy |url=https://archive.org/details/CircassianFamilyNamesAndEmblems |title=Адыгэ лъэкъуацIэхэмрэ тэмыгъэхэмрэ |date=2012 |publisher=Адыгэ лъэкъуацIэхэмрэ тэмыгъэхэмрэ |page=149 |language=Adyghe |access-date=March 18, 2023}}</ref> or "Berzek"<ref name="Tsuyeko-2012" />) family. According to a story compiled by Kâzım Berzeg from members of the Berzeg family, a blood feud broke out between two noble families 1500 years ago, resulting in the complete annihilation of one of the families, with only the women surviving. One of those women gave birth to a boy and named him Berzeg. The Berzeg clan descends from him, according to this legend.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berzeg |first=Kâzım |title=1829 Edirne Muahedesinden Sonra Osmanlı Devletinin Çerkez Politikası |date=1990 |publisher=Şafak Matbaacılık |location=Ankara |language=Turkish |trans-title=Ottoman Policy Towards Circassians After the Treaty of Adrianople 1829}}</ref>
=== Early history === It is mentioned in Abkhaz oral history that in the mid-16th century, the Ubykh prince Kanshao<ref name="Dzen">{{Cite web |title=Куда исчезли убыхи — коренной народ города Сочи? |trans-title=Where did the Ubykhs - the indigenous people of Sochi - disappear to? |url=https://dzen.ru/a/YMDNDjEy9lCR6vm- |access-date=June 25, 2023 |work=Dzen |language=ru}}</ref> of the Dzepsh ({{lang|ady|Дзэпщ}}; {{lang|ru|Диман}}<ref name="Mendeleev-1907" />) family purchased the lands of present-day Wardane from the Abkhaz Lou family.<ref name="Dzen" />
Ubykhia is mentioned in Russian sources starting from the 17th century. Ubykhia covered the entirety of the modern Tsentralny and Khostinsky city districts and parts of the Lazarevsky City District.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Voroshilov |first=V. I. |title=История убыхов |date=2006 |publisher=Afisha |isbn=5799203771 |location=Maykop |language=ru |trans-title=History of the Ubykhs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dukhovsky |first=S. M. |url=http://sochived.info/lib/Dukhovsky-S.doc |title=Материалы для описания войны на Западном Кавказе. Даховский отряд на южном склоне гор в 1864 году |date=1864 |language=ru |trans-title=Materials for the description of the war in the Western Caucasus. The Dakhovsky detachment on the southern slope of the mountains in 1864 |access-date=June 25, 2023}}</ref> [[File:Akhun Sochi.JPG|thumb|Mount Akhun is considered sacred by the Ubykhs]]
In the 17th century, the Ubykhs seized the lands of the Sadz Abazins. Unlike the order in Abkhazia, there was no prince in Ubykhia; it was governed by a council consisting of 11 Ubykh sub-councils and 2 nobles from the Akhchipsou and Sadz peoples. Due to its coastal location, Ubykhia was in constant contact with the Ottomans and developed friendly relations with them over time,<ref name="Mendeleev-1907" /> eventually becoming Muslim along with other Circassian regions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Özsaray |first=Mustafa |title=Çerkeslerin İslamlaşması |date=February 20, 2012 |publisher=İz Yayıncılık |isbn=9789753558716 |language=Turkish |trans-title=Islamization of the Circassians}}</ref>
=== Russo-Circassian War === In 1763, the Russo-Circassian War broke out.<ref>Henze 1992</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Natho |first=Kadir |date=2005 |title=The Russo-Circassian War |url=https://www.circassianworld.com/history/war-and-exile/1127-the-russo-circassian-war-by-kadir-natho |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512080216/https://www.circassianworld.com/history/war-and-exile/1127-the-russo-circassian-war-by-kadir-natho |archive-date=May 12, 2022 |access-date=March 17, 2023}}</ref> In 1823, following the death of Saad-Girey, Ismail Berzeg was elected leader of the Berzeg clan and commander-in-chief of the entire Ubykh region. Starting in 1827, Berzeg attempted to organize a military confederation consisting of Circassians living on the Black Sea coast. By the end of 1839, he had united the population between Tuapse and Gagra into a union. Other Circassians outside this region also accepted his authority, despite being much more autonomous. During this period, James Bell described him as the "Circassian Washington".<ref name="Bell-1840">{{Cite book |author=James Stanislaus Bell |url=https://books.google.com.tr/books?redir_esc=y&id=SNlAAQAAMAAJ&q=Berzeg#v=onepage&q=Washington&f=false |title=Journal of a Residence in Circassia: During the Years 1837, 1838 and 1839 |date=1840 |pages=344–346 |language=English |quote="Barzek Hadji Dakhûm-okû ... this Circassian Washington" |access-date=March 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705124826/https://books.google.com.tr/books?redir_esc=y&id=SNlAAQAAMAAJ&q=Berzeg#v=onepage&q=Washington&f=false |archive-date=July 5, 2023}}</ref> In the summer of 1838, 1250 people from all regions of Circassia signed a petition and sent it to the Queen of the United Kingdom and the British government. Ismail Berzeg's signature appeared at the top of the list.<ref name="Hatajuqua">{{Cite journal |last=Hatajuqua |first=Ali |title=Hadji-Ismail Dagomuqua Berzeg, Circassian Warrior and Diplomat |journal=Eurasia Daily Monitor |volume=7 |issue=38}}</ref>
In 1840, the Ubykhs led by Ismail Berzeg organized an attack on Russian coastal forts. In February and March, the Siege of Lazarevsky, Siege of Velyaminovsky, and Siege of Mikhailovsky took place. Attempts were made to occupy the Adler, Golovinskoe, and Navaginskoe forts. Chechen and Dagestani rebels in the Eastern Caucasus were also inspired by the Circassian victories.<ref name="Hatajuqua"/>
Upon Ismail Berzeg's death in 1846, Gerandiqo Berzeg was elected as the leader of the Ubykh region. On May 14, 1846, Berzeg wrote the following to Adam Czartoryski, President of the Polish National Government:<ref>V. I. Voroshilov. History of the Ubykhs. Maykop, 2006.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 22, 2022 |title=Çerkez komutanın mezarı restore edilecek |trans-title=Circassian commander's grave to be restored |url=https://www.haberler.com/yerel/cerkez-komutanin-mezari-restore-edilecek-14813389-haberi/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322125359/https://www.haberler.com/yerel/cerkez-komutanin-mezari-restore-edilecek-14813389-haberi/ |archive-date=March 22, 2022 |access-date=March 24, 2022 |website=Haberler |language=Turkish}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=March 22, 2022 |title=Çerkez Komutanın Mezarı Restore Edilecek |trans-title=Circassian Commander's Grave to be Restored |url=http://www.olay53.com/haber/cerkez-komutanin-mezari-restore-edilecek-962386.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312165126/http://www.olay53.com/haber/cerkez-komutanin-mezari-restore-edilecek-962386.htm |archive-date=March 12, 2023 |access-date=March 24, 2022 |website=Olay53.com |language=Turkish}}</ref> {{Blockquote|text=Our peoples are united by the desire for freedom and independence, as well as the presence of a common enemy. I will welcome Poles and others who desert from the Russian army and treat them well. I will also accept Major Kazimir Gordon of the Artillery and Engineering Corps into Circassia with me, take very good care of him, and provide him with everything he needs to help us in our struggle against the common enemy. We will listen to his advice and treat him like an envoy of the Polish president.}} Ubykhia played an important role in the Russo-Circassian War, particularly in the last 30 years.<ref name="Mendeleev-1907" /> During this period, the population of Ubykhia was approximately 25,000<ref>{{cite news |date=January 24 – February 6, 2005 |title=Алфавитный список народов, обитающих в Российской Империи |url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2005/0187/perep04.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221084953/http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2005/0187/perep04.php |archive-date=February 21, 2020 |newspaper=Demoscope Weekly |issue=187 - 188}}</ref> or 30,000 people.<ref name="Mendeleev-1907" />
==== Circassian Majlis ==== {{Main|Circassian Majlis}} Following a decision made at a meeting among Circassian leaders to establish a fully European-style parliament, the Circassian Majlis was founded on June 13, 1861. The region of Sache, known today as Sochi, was chosen as the center of the Majlis. The Ubykh leader Geranduko Berzeg was elected as the head of the Majlis and the president of Circassia.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ruslan |first=Yemij |date=August 2011 |title=Soçi Meclisi ve Çar II. Aleksandr ile Buluşma |url=https://jinepsgazetesi.com/-12200.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812154439/https://jinepsgazetesi.com/-12200.html |archive-date=August 12, 2020}}</ref> The Majlis government met with Russian Tsar Alexander II in September 1861 to establish peace, and Berzeg tried to persuade the Russian tsar:
{{Blockquote|text=These lands are ours and we try to rule them fairly, therefore we treat our people justly and respect the lives and property of those who visit us. What then is the objective of a powerful country like yours: to destroy a people like us? Be just toward us, do not destroy our property and mosques; it is shameful for a powerful state to take lives unjustly. You are deceiving the whole world by spreading rumors that we are a savage people. Do not try to spill our blood; allow us to exist here.|author=Gerandiqo Berzeg to Tsar Alexander II<ref name="Dzen" /><ref name="natpressru.info">{{Cite web |title=А.Д. Панеш: "Меджлис вольности черкесской" » |url=https://natpressru.info/index.php?newsid=11621 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430060114/https://natpressru.info/index.php?newsid=11621 |archive-date=April 30, 2019 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |website=natpressru.info}}</ref>}}
However, the Tsar consistently continued the policy of his father, Nicholas I, and rejected the Circassian proposals.<ref name="natpressru.info"/> The Majlis held a meeting and decided to reject the Russian demands. The Majlis quickly sent delegations to the Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom to gain support from both countries. British delegates promised recognition of an independent Circassia, as well as possible recognition from Paris, if they united in a coherent state.<ref>Kasumov and Kasumov. ''Genotsid Adygov''. Page 140</ref> In the Ottoman Empire, a special committee on Circassian affairs was created, and donations were received from the local Muslim population.<ref name="natpressru.info"/> The Majlis building was burned down by a landing force in July 1862. After this, Majlis meetings began to be held in the region of Mutıxwa (present-day 'Plastunki'), the hometown of the Majlis President Gerandiqo Berzeg.<ref name="принц-2018">{{Cite web |date=June 21, 2018 |title=Хаджи Догомуко Керендуко - последний "принц" убыхов |trans-title=Haji Dogomuko Kerenduko - the last "prince" of the Ubykhs |url=https://dzen.ru/media/caucasus_anthropology/hadji-dogomuko-kerenduko-poslednii-princ-ubyhov-5b2a7e0695899600a8768e51 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613050150/https://dzen.ru/media/caucasus_anthropology/hadji-dogomuko-kerenduko-poslednii-princ-ubyhov-5b2a7e0695899600a8768e51 |archive-date=June 13, 2023 |access-date=June 13, 2023}}</ref>
==== Battle of Qbaade ==== {{Main|Battle of Qbaada|Circassian Genocide}}
On May 21, 1864, the Battle of Qbaada took place in Ubykhia. Following the defeat, Geranduko Berzeg was torn between ending the war and continuing to resist. He consulted with Islamic scholars to discuss the issue and even met with the Prince of Abkhazia, Mikhail Chachba.<ref name="принц-2018"/> While he was away, his army of 3,000 was completely destroyed. Although he initially decided to continue resistance after this,<ref name="принц-2018" /> unable to gather enough soldiers, Berzeg announced on March 24, 1864, that the Circassians would cease military activities, and he was sent into exile in Ottoman lands.<ref name="принц-2018" /> Subsequently, during the Circassian Genocide, the Ubykh population was exiled ''en masse'' to the Ottoman Empire. This event led to the total disappearance of the Ubykh from Ubykhia.
== Settlement == Ubykhia is a region on the Black Sea coast north of present-day Abkhazia, between the settlements of Circassians and Abazins. The city of Sochi is within historical Ubykhia. Ubykh clans such as Wardan, Sashe, Khize, Subeshkh, and Alani used to live there. The first two of these were considered the most prominent economically and socially, living in the valleys of the Vardan and Sochi rivers. They were particularly advanced in agriculture and horticulture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ubıhya - Ubıhların Vatanı |trans-title=Ubykhia - Homeland of the Ubykhs |url=http://wubihlar.tr.gg/Ub%26%23305%3Bhya-_-Ub%26%23305%3Bhlar%26%23305%3Bn-Vatan%26%23305%3B.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709155708/http://wubihlar.tr.gg/Ub%26%23305%3Bhya-_-Ub%26%23305%3Bhlar%26%23305%3Bn-Vatan%26%23305%3B.htm |archive-date=July 9, 2016 |access-date=September 2, 2014}}</ref>
== Language == Ubykh belongs to the Northwest Caucasian languages family of Caucasian languages and is related to Abkhaz. With the migration of the Ubykhs, no one left in the Caucasus spoke this language. The Ubykhs who settled in Turkey also forgot this unwritten language over time. Tevfik Esenç was the last person to speak Ubykh, and he worked with the famous French scholar Georges Dumézil on the grammar and dictionary of Ubykh. With the death of Tevfik Esenç (1904 – October 7, 1992), Ubykh became one of the extinct languages.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Duvar |first=Gazete |date=September 10, 2020 |title=Bir dilin ölümüne tanıklık etmek: Tevfik Esenç'in anısına |trans-title=Witnessing the death of a language: In memory of Tevfik Esenç |url=https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/bir-dilin-olumune-taniklik-etmek-tevfik-esencin-anisina-haber-1501188 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011222405/https://www.gazeteduvar.com.tr/bir-dilin-olumune-taniklik-etmek-tevfik-esencin-anisina-haber-1501188 |archive-date=October 11, 2020 |access-date=April 22, 2021 |website=Gazeteduvar |language=tr-TR}}</ref>
== Religion == It is the tradition of the early church that Christianity made its first appearance in Circassia in the 1st century AD via the travels and preaching of the Apostle Andrew,<ref>''Antiquitates christianæ, or, The history of the life and death of the holy Jesus as also the lives acts and martyrdoms of his Apostles: in two parts'', by Taylor, Jeremy, 1613–1667. p. 101.</ref><ref name="Özsaray-2012">{{Cite book |last=Özsaray |first=Mustafa |title=Çerkeslerin İslamlaşması |publisher=İz Yayıncılık |year=2012 |isbn=978-975-355-871-6 |language=tr}}</ref> but recorded history suggests that, as a result of Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity first spread throughout Circassia between the 3rd and 5th centuries AD.<ref>''The Penny Magazine''. London, Charles Knight, 1838. p. 138.</ref><ref>Minahan, James. ''One Europe, Many Nations: a Historical Dictionary of European National Groups''. Westport, USA, Greenwood, 2000. p. 354.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jaimoukha |first=Amjad M. |author-link=Amjad Jaimoukha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnjAlei9fe0C&pg=PA32 |title=The Chechens: A Handbook |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-32328-4 |page=32 |access-date=28 June 2017}}</ref> In particular, the Byzantine Empire sent many clergy to the Circassian lands.<ref name="Kazemzadeh-2018">{{Cite book |last=Kazemzadeh |first=Hamed |url=http://orient.olimpweb.pl/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Hamed-Kazemzadeh-Phd-disserattion.pdf |title=The Circassian Question; The formation of linguistic and cultural identity in the Caucasus from the mid-nineteenth century to modern times |date=2018 |publisher=Uniwersytet Warszawski |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130140342/http://orient.olimpweb.pl/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Hamed-Kazemzadeh-Phd-disserattion.pdf |archive-date=2024-01-30}}</ref> During this period, Jesus was considered not a central figure of God, but rather an entity added to the pantheon of deities. The chief deity was still Thashkho. The most significant change Christianity brought to the Circassian belief system was the physical representation of God through icons ({{Langx|ady|Тхьэнапэ}}). These icons included the Mother of God ({{Langx|ady|Тхьэнанэ}}) and the Holy Spirit ({{Langx|ady|Тхьэм ипсэ}}). The Circassians called Christianity "Chelehstan" (Чэлэхьстэн) or "Chiristan" (Чыристэн[ыгъэ]) Christmas "Khurome" (Хъуромэ), Easter "Utizh" (ӏутӏыжь), priests "Shodjen" ({{Langx|ady|Шэуджэн}}, {{Langx|kbd|Щоджэн}}) and pastors "Shekhnik." Religious ceremonies and prayers were conducted in Greek.<ref name="Serbes">{{Cite web |last=Serbes |first=Nahit |title=Çerkeslerde inanç ve hoşgörü |url=http://www.circassian.us/Makaleler/cerkeslerde-inanc-ve-hosgoru.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512092344/http://www.circassian.us/Makaleler/cerkeslerde-inanc-ve-hosgoru.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-12 |access-date=2021-09-12}}</ref> Furthermore, Elijah was held in high esteem, called "Yele" (Елэ), and associated with the lightning god Shible.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jaimoukha |first=Amjad |title=Circassian Religion and Beliefs |url=https://jaimoukha.synthasite.com/resources/Circassian%20Religion.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Jaimoukha-2001">{{Cite book |last=Jaimoukha |first=Amjad M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jVmQgAACAAJ |title=The Circassians: A Handbook |date=2001 |publisher=Palgrave |isbn=978-0-312-23994-7 |pages=149–150 |language=en}}</ref> For the Circassians, the most influential and revered figure in Christianity was St. George ({{Langx|ady|Аушыджэр}}). Zikhia (Circassia) held a significant place in the Orthodox world. The region housed four ancient bishoprics:<ref name="Макарий">Макарий (Булгаков), 1994−1996, Кн. I., Гл. III..</ref><ref>Очерки по истории Адыгеи, 1957.</ref><ref>Бузаров А. Ш., Надюков С. А., 2005, С. 30.</ref> Sinopoli, Phanagoria (Matrega), Nikopsia, and Tmutarakan. Towards the end of the 13th century, the Diocese of Zichia was elevated to metropolitan status. From 1318 onward, sources mention an independent Zichia metropolis known as "Zicho-Matarch." According to Priest Ricasdus, the Circassians considered themselves Orthodox Christians and used Greek as their written language.<ref name="Özsaray-2012"/> Despite all these developments, Christianity never truly took root among the Circassian people. It merged with local pagan beliefs, transforming into a semi-pagan, semi-Christian faith. The Virgin Mary was considered both the Mother of God and the Goddess of Bees, while Jesus was identified with Thashkho, the Circassian chief deity.<ref name="Marigny-1836">{{Cite book |last=Marigny |first=Edouard Taitbout de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zCjO3ZZ_QxIC |title=Voyages en Circassie |date=1836 |publisher=D. Mieville |language=fr}}</ref> Following the Mongol invasions and Timur's campaigns, connections with the main churches in Circassia were severed, and bishoprics gradually disappeared.<ref name="Макарий"/> With the outbreak of the Russo-Circassian War, Christianity began to be perceived by the Circassians as the "religion of the Russians."<ref name="Özsaray-2012"/> As a result, those who maintained their Christian faith gradually abandoned their faith and Christianity began to face severe public backlash.<ref name="Özsaray-2012"/><ref name="Marigny-1836" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bell |first=James Stanislaus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nx1DAAAAcAAJ |title=Journal of a Residence in Circassia: During the Years 1837, 1838 and 1839: in 2 Volumes |date=1840 |publisher=Moxon |language=en}}</ref> The last traces of Christianity in Circassia survived until the 1830s.<ref name="Jaimoukha-2001"/>
With the conquest of Trebizond in 1461, Ottoman influence extended to Circassia, and many Circassian aristocrats embraced Sunni Islam.<ref name="Kazemzadeh-2018"/> However, even by the 16th century, Muslims were a minority in Circassia; most of the population still practiced Christianity or traditional pagan beliefs. Evliya Çelebi, who visited Circassia in 1666, wrote that mosques existed in the villages and that the people chanted "la ilahe illallah" (There is no god but Allah), but they failed to fully grasp Islam and continued their old traditions.<ref name="Özsaray-2012"/><ref>Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatname</ref> During the same period, Katip Çelebi stated that some Circassians were Muslim, while others were still considered "infidels".<ref name="NathoIslamization224">Natho, Kadir I. ''Circassian History''. Pages 123–124</ref> By the late 18th century, Islam began to spread more rapidly among the Circassians.<ref name="Макарий"/> In 1779, with the encouragement of Ferah Ali Pasha, 85 new mosques were built in Circassia.<ref name="Özsaray-2012"/> The activities of wandering Sufis and the threat of invasion from Russia further accelerated the Islamization process in Circassia.<ref name="Özsaray-2012"/><ref name="NathoIslamization224"/><ref name="Макарий"/> Circassian scholars who grew up in Ottoman lands also played a significant role in this process.<ref name="Serbes"/> Throughout the 19th century, the vast majority of Circassians were Muslim.<ref name="Kazemzadeh-2018"/> In 1826, Islam was declared the official religion of all Circassia.<ref name="Özsaray-2012"/>
== References == {{Reflist}} *[http://www.circassianlibrary.org/lib/html/Shinkuba-The_Last_of_the_Departed/contents.html Bagrat Shinkuba. ''The Last of the Departed'' on Adyghe Library]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008084140/http://www.circassianlibrary.org/lib/html/Shinkuba-The_Last_of_the_Departed/contents.html |date=October 8, 2007 }}
Category:Caucasus Category:Krasnodar Krai Category:Geography of Russia Category:Circassia Category:Circassian regions Category:Former countries in Europe Category:Historical regions in Russia Category:History of the North Caucasus Category:Circassian history