Media cross-ownership in the United States

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'''Media cross-ownership''' is the common ownership of multiple media sources by a single person or [[corporate entity]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fcc.gov/consumers/guides/fccs-review-broadcast-ownership-rules|title=FCC Broadcast Ownership Rules|date=2011-02-10|website=Federal Communications Commission|language=en|access-date=2019-03-29}}</ref> Media sources include radio, broadcast television, specialty and pay [[Television in the United States|television]], cable, satellite, Internet Protocol television (IPTV), newspapers, magazines and periodicals, music, film, book publishing, video games, search engines, social media, internet service providers, and wired and wireless telecommunications.

Much of the debate over [[concentration of media ownership]] in the United States has for many years focused specifically on the ownership of broadcast stations, cable stations, newspapers, and websites. Some have pointed to an increase in media merging and concentration of ownership which may correlate to decreased trust in 'mass' media.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/195542/americans-trust-mass-media-sinks-new-low.aspx|title=Americans' Trust in Mass Media Sinks to New Low|website=Gallup.com|language=en-us|access-date=2019-03-29}}</ref>

==Ownership of American media== Over time, both the number of [[Media of the United States|media outlets]] and concentration of ownership have increased, translating to fewer companies owning more media outlets.<ref name="globalissues">{{cite web|last1=Shah|first1=Anup|title=Media Conglomerates, Mergers, Concentration of Ownership|url=http://www.globalissues.org/article/159/media-conglomerates-mergers-concentration-of-ownership|website=globalissues.org|accessdate=13 October 2017|date=2 January 2009}}</ref>

===Technology=== ;[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]: Produces [[iPhone]], [[iPad]], [[Macintosh|Mac]], [[Apple Watch]] and [[Apple TV (device)|Apple TV]] products, the [[iOS]], [[iPadOS]], [[macOS]], [[watchOS]], and [[tvOS]] operating systems, music streaming service [[Apple Music]], video streaming service [[Apple TV (streaming service)|Apple TV]], film/TV studio [[Apple Studios]], news aggregator [[Apple News]], and gaming platform [[Apple Arcade]]. ;[[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]]: Owns search engine [[Google]], video sharing site [[YouTube]], proprietary rights to the open-source [[Android (operating system)|Android]] operating system, blog hosting site [[Blogger (service)|Blogger]], [[Gmail]] e-mail service, and numerous other online media and software outlets. ;[[Amazon (company)|Amazon]]: Owns the Amazon.com e-commerce marketplace, cloud computing platform [[Amazon Web Services|AWS]], video streaming service [[Amazon Prime Video]], film/TV studio [[Amazon MGM Studios]], music streaming service [[Amazon Music]], and video live streaming service [[Twitch (service)|Twitch]]. ;[[Meta Platforms|Meta]]: Owns [[Facebook]], [[Instagram]], [[Threads (social network)|Threads]], [[Facebook Messenger|Messenger]], [[WhatsApp]], and [[Reality Labs]]. ;[[Microsoft]]: Owns business-oriented social network [[LinkedIn]], web portal [[MSN]], search engine [[Bing (search engine)|Bing]], cloud computing platform [[Microsoft Azure]], [[Microsoft Office|Office]] productivity suite, [[Outlook.com]] email service, and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] operating system. [[Microsoft Gaming]] is the second-largest video game company in the United States. It produces [[Xbox]] [[video game console]]s and services, and it is the largest video game publisher in the United States. Its five development and publishing labels consist of [[Xbox Game Studios]], [[Bethesda Softworks]], [[Activision]], [[Blizzard Entertainment]], and [[King (company)|King]]. ;[[ByteDance]]: Controls [[TikTok]], one of the most popular social media outlets used in the United States. Negotiations to separate the platform from its Chinese ownership and into the hands of American company [[Oracle Corporation]] are ongoing but incomplete as of 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Feng |first=Rebecca |last2=Wei |first2=Lingling |last3=Ramkumar |first3=Amrith |date=2025-09-15 |title=U.S. Reaches Outline of TikTok Deal with China |url=https://www.wsj.com/business/tiktok-deal-us-china-framework-5f406292 |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=The Wall Street Journal |language=en-US}}</ref> ;[[X.com (social network)|X]]: Owns the social media platform formerly known as [[Twitter]]. X is controlled by South African multibillionaire [[Elon Musk]].

===Video=== ;[[The Walt Disney Company]]: Owns [[Disney+]], [[Hulu]], [[Walt Disney Pictures]], [[Walt Disney Animation Studios]], [[Pixar|Pixar Animation Studios]], [[Lucasfilm]], [[Marvel Studios]], [[Searchlight Pictures]], [[20th Century Studios]], [[Disney Experiences]], [[Disney Music Group]], [[Disney Theatrical Group]], [[National Geographic Channel|National Geographic]], [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[FX Networks]], [[Disney Channel]], [[Disney Jr.]], [[Disney XD]], and [[Freeform (TV channel)|Freeform]]. In partnership with [[Hearst Communications]], Disney co-owns [[ESPN Inc.|ESPN]] and [[A+E Global Media]].<br>''See: [[List of assets owned by The Walt Disney Company]].'' ;[[Netflix, Inc.|Netflix]]: Owns [[Netflix]] and many of the films and television series released on the service. ;[[NBCUniversal]]: Owns [[Peacock (streaming service)|Peacock]], [[Universal Pictures]], [[Universal Television]], [[Universal Destinations & Experiences]], [[NBC]], [[Cozi TV]], [[NBCSN]], [[NBC American Crimes]], [[NBC Sports]], [[NBC News]], [[NBC Owned Television Stations]], [[NBC Sports Regional Networks]], [[Focus Features]], [[Illumination (company)|Illumination]], [[DreamWorks Animation]], [[Telemundo]], [[TeleXitos]], [[Universo (TV channel)|Universo]], and [[Bravo (American TV network)|Bravo]]. NBCUniversal is a subsidiary of [[Comcast]]. [[Brian L. Roberts]] is the controlling shareholder of Comcast.<br>''See: [[List of assets owned by NBCUniversal]].'' ;[[Warner Bros. Discovery]]: Owns [[Warner Bros. Pictures]], [[Warner Bros. Television]], [[Warner Bros. Games]], [[HBO]], [[HBO Max]], [[DC Studios]], [[CNN]], [[Cinemax]], [[Cartoon Network]], [[Adult Swim]], [[TBS (U.S. TV channel)|TBS]], [[TNT (U.S. TV network)|TNT]], [[TruTV]], [[Turner Classic Movies]], [[Discovery Channel]], [[TLC (TV network)|TLC]], [[Animal Planet]], [[HGTV]], [[Food Network]], [[Magnolia Network]], [[Cooking Channel]], [[Travel Channel]], [[Investigation Discovery]], [[Oprah Winfrey Network]], [[Science Channel]], [[TNT Sports (United States)|TNT Sports]] (including [[Bleacher Report]]), and [[The CW]] (a [[joint venture]] with Nexstar Media Group and Paramount Skydance).<br>''See: [[List of assets owned by Warner Bros. Discovery]].'' ;[[Paramount Skydance]]: Owns [[Paramount+]], [[Paramount Pictures]], [[Paramount Television Studios]], [[CBS]], [[CBS Studios]], [[CBS Sports]], [[CBS News and Stations]], [[Skydance Animation]], [[Skydance Sports]], [[Showtime Networks|Showtime]], [[Nickelodeon]], [[Paramount Network]], [[Comedy Central]], [[Black Entertainment Television|BET]], [[MTV]], [[Pop (American TV channel)|Pop TV]], [[TV Land]], [[CMT (U.S. TV channel)|CMT]], [[Pluto TV]], [[Start TV]] (50% owned), [[Dabl]] (operated by Weigel) and [[The CW]] (a joint venture with Nexstar Media Group and Warner Bros. Discovery). [[Larry Ellison]] is the controlling shareholder of Paramount Skydance.<br>''See: [[List of assets owned by Paramount Skydance]].'' ;[[Sony Pictures|Sony Pictures Entertainment]]: Owns [[Sony Pictures Entertainment Motion Picture Group]] (including [[Columbia Pictures]], [[TriStar Pictures]], and [[Sony Pictures Animation]]), [[Sony Pictures Television]], and [[Crunchyroll LLC|Crunchyroll]]. Operates cable networks, [[Game Show Network]] and [[Sony Movie Channel]], and digital multicast networks, [[Get (TV network)|Get.]] and [[Game Show Central]]. ;[[Fox Corporation]]: Owns [[Fox One]], [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], [[Movies!]] (50% owned), [[Fox Sports (United States)|Fox Sports]], [[Fox News]], [[Fox Business]], [[Fox Television Stations]], [[Bento Box Entertainment]], and [[Tubi]]. [[Lachlan Murdoch]] is a significant minority shareholder in Fox Corporation.<br>''See: [[List of assets owned by Fox Corporation]]''. ;[[Versant]]: Owns [[CNBC]], [[USA Network]], [[MS NOW]], [[Golf Channel]], [[E!]], [[Syfy]], [[Oxygen (TV network)|Oxygen]], and [[Fandango Media]]. [[Brian L. Roberts]] is the controlling shareholder of Versant. ;[[Lionsgate Studios]]: Owns [[Lionsgate Films]] and [[Lionsgate Television]]. ;[[AMC Global Media]]: Owns [[AMC+]], [[AMC (TV channel)|AMC]], [[Acorn TV]], [[BBC America]], [[IFC (American TV channel)|IFC]], [[Hidive]], [[Allblk]], [[We TV|WE TV]], [[Independent Film Company]], [[Shudder (streaming service)|Shudder]], [[RLJ Entertainment|RLJE Films]], and [[Sundance TV]]. [[James Dolan (businessman)|James Dolan]] and his family are the controlling shareholders of AMC Global Media.<br>''See: [[AMC Global Media|List of assets owned by AMC Global Media]]''. ;[[Starz Entertainment]]: Owns [[Starz]] and [[Starz Encore]].

===Print=== ;[[The New York Times Company]]: Owns ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The New York Times Magazine]]'', ''[[T (magazine)|T: The New York Times Style Magazine]]'', ''[[The New York Times Book Review]]'', ''[[The New York Times International Edition]]'', [[The Athletic]], [[The New York Times Games]], and [[Wirecutter (website)|Wirecutter]]. The Ochs-Sulzberger family has been the controlling shareholder of The New York Times Company since its patriarch, [[Adolph Ochs]], purchased it in 1896.<br>''See: [[List of assets owned by the New York Times Company]].'' ;[[News Corp]]: Owns [[Dow Jones & Company]] (''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[Barron's]]'', ''[[Investor's Business Daily]]'', and ''[[MarketWatch]]''), the ''[[New York Post]]'', and book publisher [[HarperCollins]]. [[Lachlan Murdoch]] is a significant minority shareholder in News Corp.<br>''See: [[List of assets owned by News Corp]].'' ;[[Bloomberg L.P.]]: Owns [[Bloomberg News]] (''[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]'', [[Bloomberg Markets]], [[Bloomberg Television]], and [[Bloomberg Radio]]) and produces the [[Bloomberg Terminal]] which is used by financial professionals to access market data and news. Bloomberg is owned by [[Michael Bloomberg]]. ;[[Condé Nast]]: Owns ''[[The New Yorker]]'', ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'', ''[[Bon Appétit]]'', ''[[GQ]]'', ''[[Architectural Digest]]'', ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'', and ''[[Condé Nast Traveler]]''. Condé Nast is owned by [[Advance Publications]]. ;Nash Holdings: Owns ''[[The Washington Post]]''. Nash Holdings is owned by [[Jeff Bezos]].

===Record labels=== ;[[Universal Music Group]]: Largest of the "[[Record label#Major labels|Big Three]]" record labels. ;[[Sony Music Entertainment]]: Second-largest of the "[[Record label#Major labels|Big Three]]" record labels. ;[[Warner Music Group]]: Third-largest of the "[[Record label#Major labels|Big Three]]" record labels. [[Access Industries]] is the controlling shareholder of Warner Music Group.

===Video games=== ;[[Sony Interactive Entertainment]]: Largest video game company in the United States. It produces [[PlayStation]] video game consoles and services. ;[[Valve Corporation]]: Third-largest video game company in the United States. It is the developer of [[digital distribution]] service and storefront [[Steam (service)|Steam]]. ;[[Electronic Arts]]: Fourth-largest video game company in the United States. ;[[Epic Games]]: Fifth-largest video game company in the United States. ;[[Take-Two Interactive]]: Sixth-largest video game company in the United States. ;[[Roblox Corporation]]: Seventh-largest video game company in the United States. It is the developer of game platform [[Roblox]].

===Radio=== ;[[SiriusXM]]: Owns [[satellite radio]] service SiriusXM and [[internet radio]] service [[Pandora (service)|Pandora]]. ;[[iHeartMedia]]: Owns 860 [[Radio broadcasting|radio stations]] in 160 [[media market|markets]], [[iHeartRadio]], [[Premiere Networks]], and [[Mediabase]]. ;[[Cumulus Media]]: Owns 428 radio stations in 87 markets and [[Westwood One]]. ;[[Townsquare Media]]: Owns 321 radio stations in 67 markets. ;[[Audacy, Inc.|Audacy]]: Owns 235 radio stations in 48 markets and [[Audacy]]. [[Soros Fund Management]] holds a controlling stake in Audacy.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Soros fund is building an audio empire {{!}} Semafor |url=https://www.semafor.com/article/04/07/2024/soros-fund-is-building-an-audio-empire |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250127041955/https://www.semafor.com/article/04/07/2024/soros-fund-is-building-an-audio-empire |archive-date=2025-01-27 |access-date=2025-01-31 |language=en}}</ref>

===Local television=== ;[[Nexstar Media Group]]: Owns or [[Local marketing agreement|operates]] over 260 television stations in 116 markets. It also owns [[The CW]] (a joint venture with Warner Bros. Discovery and Paramount Skydance), [[NewsNation]], [[Antenna TV]], [[Rewind TV]], and ''[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]''.<br>''See: [[List of stations owned or operated by Nexstar Media Group]].'' ;[[Sinclair Broadcast Group]]: Owns or operates 294 television stations in 89 markets. It also owns [[Tennis Channel]], [[Comet (TV network)|Comet]], [[Charge! (TV network)|Charge!]], [[The Nest (TV network)|The Nest]], and [[Roar (TV network)|Roar]].<br>''See: [[List of stations owned or operated by Sinclair Broadcast Group]].'' ;[[Gray Media]]: Owns or operates 180 television stations in 113 markets.<br>''See: [[List of stations owned or operated by Gray Media]].'' ;[[E. W. Scripps Company]]: Owns or operates 62 television stations in 43 markets. It also owns [[Ion Television]], [[Ion Mystery]], [[Ion Plus]], [[Laff (TV network)|Laff]], [[Court TV]], [[Grit (TV network)|Grit]], [[Bounce TV]], and [[Scripps News]].: ''See: [[E. W. Scripps Company#Television stations]]''

==History of FCC regulations== The [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]] included a provision that protected "freedom of the press" from Congressional action. For newspapers and other print items, in which the medium itself was practically infinite and publishers could produce as many publications as they wanted without interfering with any other publisher's ability to do the same, this was not a problem.

The debut of radio broadcasting in the first part of the 20th century complicated matters; the [[radio spectrum]] is finite, and only a limited number of broadcasters could use the medium at the same time. The United States government opted to declare the entire broadcast spectrum to be government property and license the rights to use the spectrum to broadcasters. After several years of experimental broadcast licensing, the United States licensed its first commercial radio station, [[KDKA (AM)|KDKA]], in 1920.

Prior to 1927, public airwaves in the United States were regulated by the [[United States Department of Commerce]] and largely litigated in the courts as the growing number of stations fought for space in the burgeoning industry. In the earliest days, radio stations were typically required to share the same standard frequency (833&nbsp;kHz) and were not allowed to broadcast an entire day, instead having to sign on and off at designated times to allow competing stations to use the frequency.

The Federal [[Radio Act of 1927]] (signed into law February 23, 1927) nationalized the airwaves and formed the [[Federal Radio Commission]], the forerunner of the modern [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) to assume control of the airwaves. One of the first moves of the FRC was [[General Order 40]], the first U.S. [[bandplan]], which allocated permanent frequencies for most U.S. stations and eliminated most of the part-time broadcasters.

===Communications Act of 1934=== The [[Communications Act of 1934]] was the stepping stone for all of the communications rules that are in place today. When first enacted, it created the FCC (Federal Communications Commission).<ref>The Telecommunications Act of 1934, 4 & 47 U.S.C. 154 Retrieved from http://www.fcc.gov/Reports/1934new.pdf (2011)</ref> It was created to regulate the telephone monopolies, but also regulate the licensing for the spectrum used for broadcasting. The FCC was given authority by Congress to give out licenses to companies to use the broadcasting spectrum. However, they had to determine whether the license would serve "the public interest, convenience, and necessity".<ref name=commact1934>{{cite web|title=Communications Act of 1934|url=http://www.fcc.gov/Reports/1934new.pdf|accessdate=14 October 2017}}</ref> The primary goal for the FCC, from the start, has been to serve the "public interest". A debated concept, the term "public interest" was provided with a general definition by the Federal Radio Commission. The Commission determined, in its 1928 annual report, that "the emphasis must be first and foremost on the interest, the convenience, and the necessity of the listening public, and not on the interest, convenience, or necessity of the individual broadcaster or the advertiser."<ref>{{cite web|last=Robb|first=Margo|title=Community Radio, Public Interest|url=http://www.prometheusradio.org/sites/default/files/margorobb.pdf}}</ref> Following this reasoning, early FCC regulations reflected the presumption that "it would not be in the public's interest for a single entity to hold more than one broadcast license in the same community. The view was that the public would benefit from a diverse array of owners because it would lead to a diverse array of program and service viewpoints."<ref name="Beyond Cynicism">{{cite journal|last=Obar|first=Jonathan|title=Beyond cynicism: A review of the FCC's reasoning for modifying the newspaper/broadcast cross-ownership rule|journal=Communication Law & Policy|year=2009|volume=14|issue=4|pages=479–525|url=http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/9/9/5/0/pages299506/p299506-1.php|doi=10.1080/10811680903238084|s2cid=144522043|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The [[Communications Act of 1934]] refined and expanded on the authority of the FCC to regulate public airwaves in the United States, combining and reorganizing provisions from the Federal Radio Act of 1927 and the [[Mann-Elkins Act of 1910]]. It empowered the FCC, among other things, to administer broadcasting licenses, impose penalties and regulate standards and equipment used on the airwaves. The Act also mandated that the FCC would act in the interest of the "public convenience, interest, or necessity."<ref name=commact1934/> The Act established a system whereby the FCC grants licenses to the spectrum to broadcasters for commercial use, so long as the broadcasters act in the public interest by providing news programming.

Lobbyists from the largest radio broadcasters, ABC and NBC, wanted to establish high fees for broadcasting licenses, but Congress saw this as a limitation upon free speech. Consequently, "the franchise to operate a broadcasting station, often worth millions, is awarded free of charge to enterprises selected under the standard of 'public interest, convenience, or necessity.'"<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas I. Emerson|author-link=Thomas I. Emerson|title=The System of Freedom of Expression|location=New York|publisher=Vintage Books|date=1970|pages=654–655}}</ref>

Nevertheless, radio and television was dominated by the [[Big Three television networks]] until the mid-1990s, when the Fox network and UPN and The WB started to challenge that hegemony.

===Cross-ownership rules of 1975=== In 1975, the FCC passed the newspaper and broadcast cross-ownership rule.<ref>Amendment of §§73.34, 73.240 and 73.636 of the Commission's Rules Relating to Multiple Ownership of Standard, FM and Television Broadcast Stations, 50 F.C.C. 2d 1046 (1975).</ref> This ban prohibited the ownership of a daily newspaper and any "full-power broadcast station that serviced the same community".<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" /> This rule emphasized the need to ensure that a broad number of voices were given the opportunity to communicate via different outlets in each market. Newspapers, explicitly prohibited from federal regulation because of the guarantee of [[freedom of the press]] in the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]], were out of the FCC's jurisdiction, but the FCC could use the ownership of a newspaper as a preclusion against owning radio or television licenses, which the FCC could and did regulate.

The [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] designed rules to make sure that there is a diversity of voices and opinions on the airwaves. "Beginning in 1975, FCC rules banned cross-ownership by a single entity of a daily newspaper and television or radio broadcast station operating in the same local market."<ref name="Broadcast Ownership Rules 2011">FCC's review of the Broadcast Ownership Rules. (2011) FCC. Retrieved from http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/reviewrules.pdf</ref> The ruling was put in place to limit [[media concentration]] in TV and radio markets, because they use public airwaves, which is a valuable, and now limited, resource.

===Telecommunications Act 1996=== The [[Telecommunications Act of 1996]] was an influential act for media cross-ownership. One of the requirements of the act was that the FCC must conduct a biennial review of its media ownership rules "and shall determine whether any of such rules are necessary in the public interest as the result of competition." The Commission was ordered to "repeal or modify any regulation it determines to be no longer in the public interest."<ref>{{cite web|author=FCC|title=The Telecommunications Act of 1996|url=http://www.fcc.gov/Reports/tcom1996.pdf|accessdate=7 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050119235910/http://www.fcc.gov/Reports/tcom1996.pdf|archive-date=19 January 2005|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The legislation, touted as a step that would foster competition, actually resulted in the subsequent mergers of several large companies, a trend which still continues.<ref name="Klinenberg0607" >{{cite web |url=http://adbusters.org/the_magazine/72/Fighting_For_Air_An_interview_with_Eric_Klinenberg.html |title=Adbusters : The Magazine - #72 The Fake Issue / Fighting For Air: An interview with Eric Klinenberg |accessdate=2007-06-29 }}</ref> Over 4,000 radio stations were bought out, and minority ownership of TV stations dropped to its lowest point since the federal government began tracking such data in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |title= Speak Out for Media Democracy: Why isn't the FCC doing its job?|url=http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=1823 |publisher=Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting |date= March 9, 2003|accessdate=10 October 2009}}</ref>

Since the Telecommunications Act of 1996, restrictions on media merging have decreased. Although merging media companies seems to provide positive outcomes for the companies involved in the merger, it might lead to negative outcomes for other companies, viewers and future businesses. The FCC even found that they were indeed negative effects of recent merges in a study that they issued.<ref name="globalissues" />

===21st century=== In September 2002, the FCC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking stating that the Commission would re-evaluate its media ownership rules pursuant to the obligation specified in the Telecommunications Act of 1996.<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" /><ref>{{cite press release|publisher=Federal Communications Commission|url=https://www.fcc.gov/document/fcc-initiates-third-biennial-review-broadcast-ownership-rules|title=FCC Initiates Third Biennial Review Of Broadcast Ownership Rules: Cites Goal Of Updating Rules To Reflect Modern Marketplace|date=September 12, 2002}}</ref> In June 2003, after its deliberations which included a single public hearing and the review of nearly two-million pieces of correspondence from the public opposing further relaxation of the ownership rules<ref>See Prometheus Radio Project, 373 F.3d 372, 386 (3d Cir. 2004).</ref> the FCC voted 3-2 to repeal the newspaper/broadcast cross-ownership ban and to make changes to or repeal several of its other ownership rules as well.<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" /><ref>For example, the local television multiple ownership rule and the national television ownership cap (among others). See R&O/NOPR 2003, supra note 21, at 3-4.</ref> In the order, the FCC noted that the newspaper/broadcast cross-ownership rule was no longer necessary in the public interest to maintain competition, diversity or localism. However, in 2007 the FCC revised its rules and ruled that they would take it "case-by-case and determine if the cross-ownership would affect the public interest.<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" /> The rule changes permitted a company to own a newspaper and broadcast station in any of the nation's top 20 media markets as long as there are at least eight media outlets in the market. If the combination included a [[television station]], that station couldn't be in the market's top four. As it has since 2003, [[Prometheus Radio Project]] argued that the relaxed rule would pave the way for more media consolidation. Broadcasters, pointing to the increasing competition from new platforms, argued that the FCC's rules—including other ownership regulations that govern TV [[Duopoly (broadcasting)|duopolies]] and radio ownership—should be relaxed even further. The FCC, meanwhile, defended its right to change the rules either way."<ref name="Broadcast Ownership Rules 2011"/> That public interest is what the FCC bases its judgments on, whether a media cross-ownership would be a positive and contributive force, locally and nationally.

The [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] held one official forum, February 27, 2003, in [[Richmond, Virginia]] in response to public pressures to allow for more input on the issue of elimination of media ownership limits. Some complain that more than one forum was needed.<ref>{{cite web|last=Casuga|first=Jay-Anne|url=http://www.richmond.com/business/10399|title=Not Enough: FCC public hearing allows only one hour for citizen input|website=Richmond.com}}</ref>

In 2003 the FCC set out to re-evaluate its media ownership rules specified in the Telecommunications Act of 1996. On June 2, 2003, [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]], in a 3-2 vote under Chairman [[Michael Powell (attorney)|Michael Powell]], approved new media ownership laws that removed many of the restrictions previously imposed to limit ownership of media within a local area. The changes were not, as is customarily done, made available to the public for a comment period.

* Single-company ownership of media in a given market is now permitted up to 45% (formerly 35%, up from 25% in 1985) of that market. * Restrictions on newspaper and TV station ownership in the same market were removed. * All TV channels, magazines, newspapers, cable, and [[Internet]] services are now counted, weighted based on people's average tendency to find news on that medium. At the same time, whether a channel ''actually contains'' news is no longer considered in counting the percentage of a medium owned by one owner. * Previous requirements for periodic review of license have been changed. Licenses are no longer reviewed for "public-interest" considerations.

The decision by the FCC was overturned by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] in ''[[Prometheus Radio Project v. FCC]]'' in June, 2004. The Majority ruled 2-1 against the FCC and ordered the Commission to reconfigure how it justified raising ownership limits. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] later turned down an appeal, so the ruling stands.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|last=Labaton|first=Stephen|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/business/media/18broadcast.html?pagewanted=all|title=Plan Would Ease Limits on Media Owners|newspaper=The New York Times|date=18 October 2007|access-date=10 December 2007}}</ref>

In June 2006, the FCC adopted a Further Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (FNPR)<ref>Federal Communications Commission, Further Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (2006), available at http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-06-93A1.pdf [hereinafter FNPR]</ref> to address the issues raised by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and also to perform the recurring evaluation of the media ownership rules required by the Telecommunications Act.<ref>Pub. L. No. 104-104, §202(h), 110 Stat. 56, 111-112 (1996)</ref> The deliberations would draw upon three formal sources of input:(1) the submission of comments, (2) ten Commissioned studies, and (3) six public hearings.<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" />

The FCC in 2007 voted to modestly relax its existing ban on newspaper/broadcast cross-ownership.<ref name="fcc.gov">FCC's Review Of Broadcast Ownership Rules. 2007. Retrieved from http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/reviewrules.html</ref> The FCC voted December 18, 2007 to eliminate some media ownership rules, including a statute that forbids a single company to own both a newspaper and a television or radio station in the same city. FCC Chairman [[Kevin Martin (FCC)|Kevin Martin]] circulated the plan in October 2007.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> Martin's justification for the rule change is to ensure the viability of America's newspapers and to address issues raised in the 2003 FCC decision that was later struck down by the courts.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DOC-278113A1.pdf|title=Chairman Kevin J. Martin Proposes Revision to the Newspaper/Broadcast Cross-Ownership Rule|publisher=FCC|date=13 November 2007}}</ref> The FCC held six hearings around the country to receive public input from individuals, broadcasters and corporations. Because of the lack of discussion during the 2003 proceedings, increased attention has been paid to ensuring that the FCC engages in proper dialogue with the public regarding its current rules change. FCC Commissioners Deborah Taylor-Tate and Robert McDowell joined Chairman Martin in voting in favor of the rule change. Commissioners Michael Copps and Jonathan Adelstein, both Democrats, opposed the change.<ref>"{{cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/djf500/200712181340DOWJONESDJONLINE000561_FORTUNE5.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221161841/http://money.cnn.com/news/newsfeeds/articles/djf500/200712181340DOWJONESDJONLINE000561_FORTUNE5.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 21, 2007|title=FCC Votes to Relax Cross-Media Ownership Rule|publisher=CNN|date=18 December 2007|access-date=18 December 2007}}</ref>

===UHF discount=== Beginning in 1985, the FCC implemented a rule stating that [[UHF television broadcasting|television stations broadcasting on UHF channels]] would be "discounted" by half when calculating a broadcaster's total reach, under the market share cap of 39% of U.S. TV households. This rule was implemented because the UHF band was generally considered inferior to VHF for broadcasting [[analog television]]. The notion became obsolete since the completion of the [[Digital television transition in the United States|transition]] from analog to [[digital terrestrial television in the United States|digital television]] in 2009; the majority of television stations now broadcast on the UHF band because, by contrast, it is generally considered superior for digital transmission.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/envelope/cotown/la-et-ct-fcc-uhf-discount-20130926-story.html |title=FCC proposes eliminating UHF discount from TV ownership rules |last1=Flint |first1=Joe |date=September 26, 2013 |website=Los Angeles Times |access-date=19 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=FCC Proposes Elimination Of UHF Discount|url=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/70763/fcc-proposes-elimination-of-uhf-discount|work=TVNewsCheck|date=September 26, 2013}}</ref>

The FCC voted to deprecate the rule in September 2016; the Commission argued that the UHF discount had become [[technologically obsolete]], and that it was now being used as a loophole by broadcasters to contravene its market share rules and increase their market share through consolidation. The existing portfolios of broadcasters who now exceeded the cap due to the change were [[grandfather clause|grandfathered]], including the holdings of [[Ion Media Networks]], [[Tribune Media]], and [[Univision]].<ref name="bloomberg-uhfdiscount">{{cite web|title=Regulators Tighten TV-Station Ownership Curb by Cutting Discount|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-07/regulators-tighten-tv-station-ownership-curb-by-cutting-discount|website=Bloomberg|accessdate=22 April 2017}}</ref>

However, on April 21, 2017, under new [[First presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]] FCC commissioner [[Ajit Pai]], the discount was reinstated in a 2-1 vote, led by Pai and commissioner [[Michael O'Rielly]]. The move, along with a plan to evaluate increasing the national ownership cap, is expected to trigger a wider wave of consolidation in broadcast television.<ref name="tvnc-discountback">{{cite web|title=FCC Takes Lid Off National Station Ownership|url=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/103424/fcc-takes-lid-off-national-station-ownership|website=TVNewsCheck|accessdate=20 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="variety-uhfdiscountback">{{cite web|title=FCC Eases Media Ownership Restrictions in Vote to Restore UHF Discount|url=https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/fcc-reinstates-uhf-discount-media-ownership-1202391206/|website=Variety|accessdate=22 April 2017}}</ref> A challenge to the rule's restoration was filed on May 15 by The Institute for Public Representation (a coalition of public interest groups comprising [[Free Press (advocacy group)|Free Press]], the [[United Church of Christ]], Media Mobilizing Project, the [[Prometheus Radio Project]], the [[National Hispanic Media Coalition]] and [[Common Cause]]), which requested an emergency motion to stay the UHF discount order – delaying its June 5 re-implementation – pending a court challenge to the rule. The groups re-affirmed that the rule was technologically obsolete, and was restored for the purpose of allowing media consolidation. The FCC rejected the claims, stating that the discount would only allow forward a regulatory review of any station group acquisitions, and that the Institute for Public Representation's criteria for the stay fell short of meeting adequate determination in favor of it by the court; it also claimed that the discount was "inextricably linked" to the agency's media ownership rules, a review of which it initiated in May of that year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sinclair-Tribune Merger Faces Roadblock as Court Puts Hold on FCC Station Ownership Rule|url=https://variety.com/2017/biz/news/fcc-uhf-discount-appellate-court-sinclair-tribune-1202451298/|author=Ted Johnson|periodical=Variety|publisher=Penske Media Corporation|date=June 1, 2017|accessdate=June 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Free Press Seeks Emergency Stay of UHF Discount Return|url=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/washington/free-press-seeks-emergency-stay-uhf-discount-return/166153|author=John Eggerton|periodical=Broadcasting & Cable|publisher=NewBay Media|date=May 28, 2017|accessdate=June 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Federal Court Stays FCC UHF Discount Decision, for Now|url=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/washington/federal-court-stays-fcc-uhf-discount-decision-now/166250|author=John Eggerton|periodical=Broadcasting & Cable|publisher=NewBay Media|date=June 1, 2017|accessdate=June 6, 2017}}</ref>

The challenge and subsequent stay motion was partly filed as a reaction to [[Sinclair Broadcast Group]]'s proposed acquisition of Tribune Media (announced on May 8), which – with the more than 230 stations that the combined company would have, depending on any divestitures in certain markets where both groups own stations – would expand the group's national reach to 78% of all U.S. households with at least one television set with the discount. On June 1, 2017, the [[District of Columbia Court of Appeals]] issued a seven-day administrative stay to the UHF discount rulemaking to review the emergency stay motion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Groups File To Block Return Of UHF Discount|url=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/104108/groups-file-to-block-return-of-uhf-discount|last=Jessell|first=Harry|work=TVNewsCheck|date=May 15, 2017|accessdate=June 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=D.C. Appeals Court halts return of FCC's UHF discount for TV broadcasters|url=http://www.fiercecable.com/broadcasting/d-c-appeals-court-halts-return-fcc-s-uhf-discount-for-tv-broadcasters|author=Ben Munson|website=FierceCable|date=June 2, 2017|accessdate=June 6, 2017}}</ref> The D.C. Court of Appeals denied the emergency stay motion in a one-page memorandum on June 15, 2017, however, the merits of restoring the discount is still subject to a court appeal proceeding scheduled to occur at a later date.<ref>{{cite web|title=Court Rejects Request To Stay UHF Discount|url=http://www.tvnewscheck.com/article/104954/court-rejects-request-to-stay-uhf-discount|author=Mark K. Miller|website=TVNewsCheck|publisher=NewsCheck Media|date=June 15, 2017}}</ref>{{update inline|date=June 2019}}

Following this, in November 2017, the FCC voted 3-2 along partisan lines to eliminate the cross-ownership ban against owning multiple media outlets in the same local market, as well as increasing the number of television stations that one entity may own in a local market. Pai argued the removal of the ban was necessary for local media to compete with online information sources like Google and Facebook.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/16/business/media/fcc-local-tv.html | title = F.C.C. Opens Door to More Consolidation in TV Business | first= Cecilia |last =Kang | date = November 19, 2017 | accessdate = September 23, 2019 | work = [[The New York Times]] }}</ref> The decision was appealed by advocacy groups, and in September 2019, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit|Third Circuit]] struck down the rule change in a 2-1 decision, with the majority opinion stating the FCC "did not adequately consider the effect its sweeping rule changes will have on ownership of broadcast media by women and racial minorities." Pai stated plans to appeal this ruling.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-media/u-s-court-deals-setback-to-fcc-push-to-revamp-media-ownership-rules-idUSKBN1W81YU?il=0 | title = U.S. court deals setback to FCC push to revamp media ownership rules | date = September 23, 2019 | accessdate = September 23, 2019 | publisher = [[Reuters]] }}</ref> The FCC petitioned to the Supreme Court under ''[[FCC v. Prometheus Radio Project]]''. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously in April 2021 to reverse the Third Circuit's ruling, stating that the FCC's rule changes did not violate the [[Administrative Procedure Act (United States)|Administrative Procedure Act]], and that there was no Congressional mandate for the FCC to consider the impact on minority ownership of its rulemaking, thus allowing the FCC to proceed with relaxation of media cross-ownership rules.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/supreme-court-allows-fcc-to-move-forward-with-changes-to-media-ownership-rules | title = Supreme Court Allows FCC to Move Forward With Changes to Media Ownership Rules | first= Ashely | last = Cullins | date = April 1, 2021 | accessdate = April 1, 2021 | work = [[The Hollywood Reporter]] }}</ref>

==Local content== A 2008 study found that news stations operated by a small media company produced more local news and more locally produced video than large chain-based broadcasting groups.<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" /><ref>{{cite journal|author1=David K. Scott|author2=Robert H. Gobetz|author3=Mike Chanslor|title=Chain Versus Independent Television Station Ownership: Toward An Investment Model Of Commitment To Local News Quality|volume=59|issue=1|doi=10.1080/10510970701648624|journal=Communication Studies|page=84|date=2008}}</ref> It was then argued that the FCC claimed, in 2003, that larger media groups produced better quality local content. Research by Philip Napoli and Michael Yan showed that larger media groups actually produced less local content.<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" /><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Philip M. Napoli|author2=Michael Z. Yan|title=Media Ownership Regulations and Local News Programming on Broadcast Television: An Empirical Analysis|volume=51|journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|page=39|date=2007}}</ref> In a different study, they also showed that "ownership by one of the big four broadcast networks has been linked to a considerable decrease in the amount of televised local public affairs programming"<ref name="Beyond Cynicism" />

The major reasoning the FCC made for deregulation was that with more capital, broadcasting organizations could produce more and better local content. However, the research studies by Napoli and Yan showed that once teamed-up, they produced less content. Cross ownership between broadcasting and newspapers is a complicated issue. The FCC believes that more deregulation is necessary. However, with research studies showing that they produced less local content - less voices being heard that are from within the communities. While less local voices are heard, more national-based voices do appear. Chain-based companies are using convergence, the same content being produced across multiple mediums, to produce this mass-produced content. It is cheaper and more efficient than having to run different local and national news. However, with convergence and chain-based ownership you can choose which stories to run and how the stories are heard - being able to be played in local communities and national stage.

==Media consolidation debate==

===Robert W. McChesney=== [[Robert W. McChesney|Robert McChesney]] is an advocate for media reform, and the co-founder of [[Free Press (advocacy group)|Free Press]], which was established in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|title=An Interview with Free Press Founder Bob McChesney|date=2010|url=http://www.internetsavingsaccounts.org/resources/an-interview-with-free-press-founder-bob-mcchesney}}</ref> His work is based on theoretical, normative, and empirical evidence suggesting that media regulation efforts should be more strongly oriented towards maintaining a healthy balance of diverse viewpoints in the media environment. However, his viewpoints on current regulation are; "there is every bit as much regulation by government as before, only now it is more explicitly directed to serve large corporate interests."<ref>{{cite journal|last=McChesney|first=Robert|title=Understanding the Media Reform Movement|journal=International Journal of Communication|year=2009|volume=3|url=http://ijoc.org/ojs/index.php/ijoc/article/view/442/299}}</ref>

McChesney believes that the Free Press' objective is a more diverse and competitive commercial system with a significant nonprofit and noncommercial sector. It would be a system built for the citizens, but most importantly - it would be accessible to anyone who wants to broadcast. Not only specifically the big corporations that can afford to broadcast nationally, but more importantly {{em|locally}}. McChesney suggests that to better our current system we need to "establish a bona fide noncommercial public radio and television system, with local and national stations and networks. The expense should come out of the general budget"<ref name="McChesney">{{cite web|last=McChesney|first=Robert|title=The U.S. Left and Media Politics|url=http://monthlyreview.org/1999/02/01/the-u-s-left-and-media-politics}} para.33</ref>

===Benjamin Compaine=== [[Benjamin Compaine]] believes that the current media system is "one of the most competitive major industries in U.S. commerce."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baker|first=Edwin|title=Media Concentration: Giving Up On Democracy|journal=Florida Law Review|year=2002|volume=54|series=839}}</ref> He believes that much of the media in the United States is operating in the same market. He also believes that all the content is being interchanged between different media.<ref>{{cite web|last=Compaine|first=Benjamin|title=Domination Fantasies|date=January 2004|url=http://reason.com/archives/2004/01/01/domination-fantasies|accessdate=3 May 2011}}</ref>

Compaine believes that due to convergence, two or more things coming together, the media has been saved. Because of the ease of access to send the same message across multiple and different mediums, the message is more likely to be heard. He also believes that due to the higher amount of capital and funding, the media outlets are able to stay competitive because they are trying to reach more listeners or readers by using newer media.<ref>{{cite web|last=Compaine|first=Benjamin|title=Domination Fantasies|date=January 2004|url=http://reason.com/archives/2004/01/01/domination-fantasies|accessdate=3 May 2011|page= 2, para. 9}}</ref>

Benjamin Compaine's main argument is that the consolidation of media outlets, across multiple ownerships, has allowed for a better quality of content. He also stated that the news is interchangeable, and as such, making the media market less concentrated than previously thought, the idea being that since the same story is being pushed across multiple different platforms, then it can only be counted as one news story from multiple sources. Compaine also believed the news is more readily available, making it far easier for individuals to access than traditional methods.<ref>{{cite web|last=Compaine|first=Benjamin|title=Domination Fantasies|date=January 2004|url=http://reason.com/archives/2004/01/01/domination-fantasies|accessdate=3 May 2011|page=3, para. 16}}</ref>

===American public distrust in the media=== A 2012 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll found that Americans' distrust in the mass media had hit a new high, with 60% saying they had little or no trust in the mass media to report the news fully, accurately, and fairly. Distrust had increased since the previous few years, when Americans were already more negative about the media than they had been in the years before 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/157589/distrust-media-hits-new-high.aspx |title=U.S. Distrust in Media Hits New High|first=|last=|website=Gallup|date=September 21, 2012}}</ref>

===Music industry=== Critics of media consolidation in broadcast radio say it has made the music played more homogeneous, and makes it more difficult for acts to gain local popularity.<ref name="moss">{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/06/07/730323196/one-more-scoop-of-vanilla-a-new-proposal-looks-to-loosen-radio-ownership-rules |author= Marissa Moss |title=One More Scoop Of Vanilla: A New Proposal Looks To Loosen Radio Ownership Rules |website= NPR |date=7 Jun 2019 }}</ref> They also believe it has reduced the demographic diversity of popular music, pointing to a study which found representation of women in country music charts at 11.3% from 2000 to 2018.<ref name="moss" />

Critics cite centralized control as having increased artist self-censorship, and several incidents of artists being banned from a large number of broadcast stations all at once. After the [[Dixie Chicks#2003–2005: Iraq War comments and blacklisting|controversy caused by criticism]] of President [[George W. Bush]] and the [[Iraq War]] by a member of the [[Dixie Chicks]], the band was banned by [[Cumulus Media]] and [[Clear Channel Communications]], which also organized pro-war demonstrations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/25/opinion/channels-of-influence.html |title=Channels Of Influence |date=25 March 2003 |author=Paul Krugman|newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> After the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy|Super Bowl XXXVIII wardrobe malfunction]], CBS CEO [[Les Moonves]] reportedly banned [[Janet Jackson]] from all CBS and Viacom properties, including [[MTV]], [[VH1]], the [[46th Annual Grammy Awards]], and [[Infinity Broadcasting Corporation]] radio stations, impacting sales of her album ''[[Damita Jo (album)|Damita Jo]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/les-moonves-janet-jackson-career_n_5b919b8ce4b0511db3e0a269 |author=Yashar Ali |title=Exclusive: Les Moonves Was Obsessed With Ruining Janet Jackson's Career, Sources Say |date=7 Sep 2018}}</ref>

===News=== Critics point out that media consolidation has allowed [[Sinclair Broadcast Group]] to require hundreds of local stations to run editorials by [[Boris Epshteyn]] (an advisor to [[Donald Trump]]), terrorism alerts, and anti-[[John Kerry]] documentary ''[[Stolen Honor]]'', and even to force local news anchors to read an editorial mirroring Trump's denunciation of the news media for bias and [[fake news]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://theconcourse.deadspin.com/how-americas-largest-local-tv-owner-turned-its-news-anc-1824233490 |title=How America's Largest Local TV Owner Turned Its News Anchors Into Soldiers In Trump's War On The Media |date=31 Mar 2018 |author=Timothy Burke}}</ref>

==See also== {{div col|colwidth=15em}} * [[Alternative media]] * [[Big Three television networks]] * [[Concentration of media ownership]] * [[Fourth television network]] * [[Mainstream media]] * [[Major film studios]] * [[Media bias]] * [[Media conglomerate]] * [[Media democracy]] * [[Media imperialism]] * [[Media manipulation]] * [[Media proprietor]] * [[Media transparency]] * [[Monopolies of knowledge]] * [[Old media]] * [[Politico-media complex]] * [[Propaganda model]] * [[State controlled media]] * [[Telecommunications Act of 1996]] * [[Western media]] * [[Television in the United States]] {{div col end}}

==References== {{reflist|33em}}

{{Federal Communications Commission}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Media Cross-Ownership In The United States}} [[Category:American mass media owners| ]] [[Category:United States communications regulation]]