John Tukey

{{Short description|American mathematician (1915–2000)}} {{Redirect|Tukey}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019|cs1-dates=y}} {{Infobox scientist | name = John Tukey | image = John Tukey.jpg | birth_date = {{Birth date|1915|06|16}} | birth_place = [[New Bedford, Massachusetts]], U.S. | death_date = {{death date and age|2000|07|26|1915|06|16}} | death_place = [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]], U.S. | thesis_title = On Denumerability in Topology<ref name="math">{{MathGenealogy|id=15860}}</ref> | doctoral_advisor = [[Solomon Lefschetz]]<ref name="math"/> | doctoral_students = {{plainlist| *[[David R. Brillinger]] *[[Kai Lai Chung]] *[[Arthur P. Dempster|Arthur Dempster]] *[[Leo Goodman]] *[[Karen Kafadar]] *[[Thomas E. Kurtz]] *[[Paul Meier (statistician)|Paul Meier]] *[[Frederick Mosteller]] *[[John A. Hartigan]] }} | known_for = {{ubli|[[Exploratory data analysis]]|[[Multiple comparisons problem]]|[[Projection pursuit]]|[[Box plot]]|[[Blackman–Tukey transformation]]|[[Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm]]|[[Anscombe transform#Alternatives|Freeman–Tukey transformation]]|[[Siegel–Tukey test]]|[[Ham sandwich theorem|Stone–Tukey theorem]]|[[Tukey–Duckworth test]]|[[Tukey's range test]]|[[Tukey lambda distribution]]|[[Trimean|Tukey's trimean]]|[[Tukey's test of additivity]]|[[Teichmüller–Tukey lemma|Tukey's lemma]]|[[Bland–Altman plot|Tukey mean difference plot]]|[[Centerpoint (geometry)|Tukey median]]|[[Tukey depth]]|[[Robust statistics#Empirical influence function|Tukey's biweight function]]|[[Outlier#Tukey's fences|Tukey's fences]]|[[Window function#Tukey window|Tukey window]]|[[Cepstrum]]|[[Flexagon]]|[[Median polish]]|[[Midhinge]]|[[Slash distribution]]|[[Theory of conjoint measurement]]|[[Bit|Coining the term 'bit']]|[[Scagnostics]]}} | footnotes = | field = [[Topology]] | work_institution = {{ubl|[[Bell Labs]]|[[Princeton University]]}} | prizes = {{ubli|[[Wilks Memorial Award]] (1965)|[[National Medal of Science]] (1973)|[[Shewhart Medal]] (1976)|[[IEEE Medal of Honor]] (1982)|Deming Medal (1982)<ref>[https://asq.org/about-asq/asq-awards/honors/deming "Deming Medalists"]. American Society for Quality, 2025. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204032747/https://asq.org/about-asq/asq-awards/honors/deming|archive-date=2024-12-04 }}. Accessed June 19, 2025.</ref>|[[Foreign Member of the Royal Society]] (1991)}} | education = {{ubl|[[Brown University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Science|MS]])|[[Princeton University]] ([[PhD]])}} }} '''John Wilder Tukey''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|uː|k|i}};<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=A Discussion. John Tukey, Ram Gnanadesikan and David Hoaglin (1994) | website=[[YouTube]] | date=14 September 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kZTQ7G1LwBM&t=50}}</ref> June 16, 1915 – July 26, 2000) was an American [[mathematician]] and [[statistician]], best known for the development of the [[Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm|fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm]], the [[box plot]] and for laying the foundations of the field of [[exploratory data analysis]].<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Sande |author-first=Gordon |title=Obituary: John Wilder Tukey |journal=[[Physics Today]] |date=July 2001 |volume=54 |issue=7 |pages=80–81 |doi=10.1063/1.1397408|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Tukey's range test|Tukey range test]], the [[Tukey lambda distribution]], the [[Tukey's test of additivity|Tukey test of additivity]], and the [[Teichmüller–Tukey lemma]] all bear his name. He is also credited with coining the term ''[[bit]]'' and the first published use of the word ''[[software]]''.

== Biography == Tukey was born in [[New Bedford, Massachusetts]], in 1915, to a Latin teacher father and a private tutor. He was mainly taught by his mother and attended regular classes only for certain subjects like French.<ref name="Leonhardt_2000"/> Tukey obtained a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in 1936 and [[M.S.]] in 1937 in chemistry, from [[Brown University]], before moving to [[Princeton University]], where in 1939 he received a [[PhD]] in [[mathematics]] after completing a doctoral dissertation titled "On [[denumerability]] in [[topology]]".<ref name="math"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Tukey|first=John W.|url=https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/2700812|title=On denumerability in topology|date=1939|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/John_Tukey |title=John Tukey |work=IEEE Global History Network |publisher=IEEE |access-date=2011-07-18}}</ref>

During [[World War II]], Tukey worked at the Fire Control Research Office and collaborated with [[Samuel S. Wilks|Samuel Wilks]] and [[William Gemmell Cochran|William Cochran]]. After the war, he returned to Princeton, dividing his time between the university and [[Bell Labs|AT&T Bell Laboratories]]. In 1962, Tukey was elected to the [[American Philosophical Society]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=APS Member History|url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=John+W.+Tukey&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced|access-date=2021-01-28|website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> He became a full professor at 35 and founding chairman of the Princeton statistics department in 1965.<ref name="Leonhardt_2000"/>

He was awarded the [[National Medal of Science]] by President Nixon in 1973.<ref name="Leonhardt_2000"/> He was awarded the [[IEEE Medal of Honor]] in 1982 "For his contributions to the spectral analysis of random processes and the [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) [[algorithm]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=John Wilder Tukey |url=https://corporate-awards.ieee.org/recipient/john-wilder-tukey/ |website=IEEE Awards |access-date=24 July 2025}}</ref>

Tukey retired in 1985. He died in [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]], on July 26, 2000.<ref name="Leonhardt_2000"/>

== Scientific contributions == Early in his career Tukey worked on developing [[statistical]] methods for computers at [[Bell Labs]], where he coined the word ''bit'' in 1947.<ref name="Shannon_1948_1"/><ref name="Shannon_1948_2"/><ref name="Shannon_1949"/>

His statistical interests were many and varied. He is particularly remembered for his development with [[James Cooley]] of the [[Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm]]. In 1970, he contributed significantly to what is today known as the [[Jackknife resampling|jackknife]]—also termed [[Maurice Quenouille|Quenouille]]–Tukey jackknife. He introduced the [[box plot]] in his 1977 book, "Exploratory Data Analysis", building on the earlier work of [[Mary Eleanor Spear]].

[[Tukey's range test]], the [[Tukey lambda distribution]], [[Tukey's test of additivity]], [[Tukey's lemma]], and the [[Tukey window]] all bear his name. He is also the creator of several little-known methods such as the [[trimean]] and [[Median#Median.E2.80.93median line|median-median line]], an easier alternative to [[linear regression]].

In 1974, he developed, with [[Jerome H. Friedman]], the concept of the [[projection pursuit]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Projection Pursuit Algorithm for Exploratory Data Analysis |author-first1=Jerome H. |author-last1=Friedman |author-link1=Jerome H. Friedman |author-first2=John Wilder |author-last2=Tukey |author-link2=John Tukey |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Computers]] |date=September 1974 |volume=C-23 |issue=9 |pages= 881–890 |issn=0018-9340 |doi=10.1109/T-C.1974.224051|osti=1442925 |s2cid=7997450 }}</ref>

=== Data analysis and foundations of data science ===

John Tukey contributed greatly to statistical practice and data analysis in general. In fact, some regard John Tukey as the father of data science. At the very least, he pioneered many of the key foundations of what came later to be known as [[data science]].<ref>David Donoho (2017), 50 Years of Data Science, Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1080/10618600.2017.1384734</ref>

Making sense of data has a long history and has been addressed by statisticians, mathematicians, scientists, and others for many many years. During the 1960s, Tukey challenged the dominance at the time of what he called "confirmatory data analysis", statistical analyses driven by rigid mathematical configurations.<ref>John W. Tukey (1962) The Future of Data Analysis. Ann. Math. Statist. 33(1): 1-67. DOI: 10.1214/aoms/1177704711.</ref> Tukey emphasized the importance of having a more flexible attitude towards data analysis and of exploring data carefully to see what structures and information might be contained therein. He called this "exploratory data analysis" (EDA). In many ways, EDA was a precursor to data science.

Tukey also realized the importance of computer science to EDA. Graphics are an integral part of EDA methodology and, while much of Tukey's work focused on static displays (such as box plots) that could be drawn by hand, he realized that computer graphics would be much more effective for studying multivariate data. PRIM-9, the first program for viewing multivariate data, was conceived by him during the early 1970s.<ref>Friedman, J. H., & Stuetzle, W. (2002). John W. Tukey’s Work on Interactive Graphics. The Annals of Statistics, 30(6), 1629-1639. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1558733</ref>

This coupling of data analysis and computer science is what is now called data science.

Tukey articulated the important distinction between [[exploratory data analysis]] and [[confirmatory data analysis]], believing that much statistical methodology placed too great an emphasis on the latter. Though he believed in the utility of separating the two types of analysis, he pointed out that sometimes, especially in [[natural science]], this was problematic and termed such situations [[uncomfortable science]].

A. D. Gordon of the [[University of St. Andrews]] offered the following summary of Tukey's principles for statistical practice:<ref name="mathshistory">{{cite web |title=John Tukey - Biography |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Tukey/ |website=Maths History |access-date=18 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> {{blockquote|... the usefulness and limitation of mathematical statistics; the importance of having methods of statistical analysis that are robust to violations of the assumptions underlying their use; the need to amass experience of the behaviour of specific methods of analysis in order to provide guidance on their use; the importance of allowing the possibility of data's influencing the choice of method by which they are analysed; the need for statisticians to reject the role of "guardian of proven truth", and to resist attempts to provide once-for-all solutions and tidy over-unifications of the subject; the iterative nature of data analysis; implications of the increasing power, availability, and cheapness of computing facilities; the training of statisticians.}}

Tukey's lectures were described to be unusual. McCullagh described his lecture given in London in 1977:<ref name="mathshistory"/><ref>P McCullagh, John Wilder Tukey, ''Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society'' 49 (2003), 538-559.</ref> {{blockquote|Tukey ambled to the podium, a great bear of a man dressed in baggy pants and a black knitted shirt. These might once have been a matching pair but the vintage was such that it was hard to tell. ... Carefully and deliberately a list of headings was chalked on the blackboard. The words came too, not many, like overweight parcels, delivered at a slow unfaltering pace. ... When it was complete, Tukey turned to face the audience and the podium ... "Comments, queries, suggestions?" he asked the audience ... As he waited for a response, he clambered onto the podium and manoeuvred until he was sitting cross-legged facing the audience. ... We in the audience sat like spectators at the zoo waiting for the great bear to move or say something. But the great bear appeared to be doing the same thing, and the feeling was not comfortable.}}

==Contributions to other fields==

Tukey made wide-ranging contributions beyond statistics, once reportedly remarking, "The best thing about being a statistician is that you get to play in everyone's backyard."<ref name="Leonhardt_2000" />

In the 1950s, Tukey served on a committee of the [[National Research Council (United States)|National Research Council]] that produced a report critiquing the statistical methodology of the [[Kinsey Reports|Kinsey Report]], and he chaired a committee in the 1970s on the role of aerosol sprays in damaging the [[ozone layer]].<ref name="Leonhardt_2000" />

From 1960 to 1980, Tukey helped design the NBC television network polls used to predict and analyze elections. He was also a consultant to the [[Educational Testing Service]], the [[Xerox Corporation]], and [[Merck & Company]].<ref name="Leonhardt_2000" />

During the 1970s and early 1980s, Tukey played a key role in the design and conduct of the [[National Assessment of Educational Progress]].{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}

===Coining neologisms=== While working with [[John von Neumann]] on early computer designs, Tukey introduced the word ''[[bit]]'' as a portmanteau of ''binary digit''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.linfo.org/bit.html|title=Bit definition by The Linux Information Project (LINFO)|website=www.linfo.org}}</ref> The term ''bit'' was first used in [[A Mathematical Theory of Communication|an article]] by [[Claude Shannon]] in 1948.

Tukey is also credited with the first use of the word ''[[software]]'' to describe computer programs in a 1958 article<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tukey |first1=John W. |title=The Teaching of Concrete Mathematics. |journal=American Mathematical Monthly |date=1958 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.2307/2310294 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2310294 |access-date=15 July 2025}}</ref> in [[American Mathematical Monthly]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author= |date=2024 |title=software (n.), sense 2.a |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/3803978366 |encyclopedia=Oxford English dictionary |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2025-07-15}}</ref>

==See also== * [[List of pioneers in computer science]]

== Books ==

* Tukey, John W. (1977). Exploratory Data Analysis. Pearson. ISBN 978-0-201-07616-5. * Tukey, John W. (1991) Visual Display of Quantitative Phenomena ASIN B00EB04I6C * Tukey, John W. (1982) Understanding Robust and Exploratory Data Analysis Wiley, ISBN 0471097772 * Tukey, John W. (1991) Configural Polysampling Wiley, ISBN 0471523720 * Basford, K. and Tukey J. (1998) Graphical Analysis of Multi-response Data, CRC ISBN 0412818906

== Publications == * {{cite book |author-last1=Andrews |author-first1=David F. |author-first2=Peter J. |author-last2=Bickel |author-first3=Frank R. |author-last3=Hampel |author-first4=Peter J. |author-last4=Huber |author-first5=W. H. |author-last5=Rogers |author-first6=John Wilder |author-last6=Tukey |author-link6=John Tukey |title=Robust estimates of location: survey and advances |date=1972 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-08113-7 |oclc=369963 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/robustestimateso0000unse }} * {{cite book |author-last1=Basford |author-first1=Kaye E. |author-link1=Kaye Basford |author-first2=John Wilder |author-last2=Tukey |author-link2=John Tukey |title=Graphical Analysis of Multiresponse Data |url=https://archive.org/details/graphicalanalysi0000basf |url-access=registration |date=1998 |publisher=[[Chapman & Hall]]/[[CRC Press]] |isbn=978-0-8493-0384-5 |oclc=154674707}}<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Talbot |author-first=M. |date=June 2000 |issue=2 |journal=Biometrics |jstor=2677019 |pages=649–650 |title=none |volume=56 |doi=10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00647.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Cooper |author-first=Mark |date=July–August 2000 |doi=10.2135/cropsci2000.0015br |issue=4 |journal=Crop Science |page=1184 |title=none |volume=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Heckler |author-first=Charles E. |date=February 2001 |doi=10.1198/tech.2001.s547 |issue=1 |journal=Technometrics |jstor=1270862 |pages=97–98 |title=none |volume=43|s2cid=26430218 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Broadfoot |author-first=L. |date=June 2001 |doi=10.1017/s002185960124893x |issue=4 |journal=[[The Journal of Agricultural Science]] |title=none |volume=136|pages=471–475 |s2cid=86230606 }}</ref> * {{cite book |author-last1=Blackman |author-first=R. B. |author-link=R. B. Blackman |author-first2=John Wilder |author-last2=Tukey |author-link2=John Tukey |title=The measurement of power spectra from the point of view of communications engineering |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMeasurementOfPowerSpectra |date=1959 |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] }} {{ isbn|978-0-486-60507-4 }}. * {{cite book |author-last1=Cochran |author-first1=William Gemmell |author-link1=William Gemmell Cochran |author-first2=Charles Frederick |author-last2=Mosteller |author-link2=Charles Frederick Mosteller |author-first3=John Wilder |author-last3=Tukey |author-link3=John Tukey |title=Statistical problems of the Kinsey report on sexual behavior in the human male |date=1953 |publisher=[[Journal of the American Statistical Association]]|doi=10.1080/01621459.1953.10501194}} * {{cite journal |last1=Cooley |first1=James W. |first2=John W. |last2=Tukey |title=An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier series |journal=[[Mathematics of Computation|Math. Comput.]] |volume=19 |issue= 90|pages=297–301 |year=1965 |doi=10.2307/2003354 |jstor=2003354 |doi-access=free }}* {{cite book |editor-last1=Hoaglin |editor-first1=David C. |editor-first2=Charles Frederick |editor-last2=Mosteller |editor-link2=Charles Frederick Mosteller |editor-first3=John Wilder |editor-last3=Tukey |editor-link3=John Tukey |title=Understanding Robust and Exploratory Data Analysis |date=1983 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=978-0-471-09777-8 |oclc=8495063}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Hoaglin |editor-first1=David C. |editor-first2=Charles Frederick |editor-last2=Mosteller |editor-link2=Charles Frederick Mosteller |editor-first3=John Wilder |editor-last3=Tukey |editor-link3=John Tukey |title=Exploring Data Tables, Trends and Shapes |year=1985 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=978-0-471-09776-1 |oclc=11550398 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/exploringdatatab0000unse }} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Hoaglin |editor-first1=David C. |editor-first2=Charles Frederick |editor-last2=Mosteller |editor-link2=Charles Frederick Mosteller |editor-first3=John Wilder |editor-last3=Tukey |editor-link3=John Tukey |title=Fundamentals of exploratory analysis of variance |date=1991 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=978-0-471-52735-0 |oclc=23180322}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Morgenthaler |editor-first1=Stephan |editor-first2=John Wilder |editor-last2=Tukey |editor-link2=John Tukey |title=Configural polysampling: a route to practical robustness |date=1991 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=978-0-471-52372-7 |oclc=22381036}} * {{cite book |author-last1=Mosteller |author-first1=Charles Frederick |author-link1=Charles Frederick Mosteller |author-first2=John Wilder |author-last2=Tukey |author-link2=John Tukey |title=Data analysis and regression: a second course in statistics |url=https://archive.org/details/dataanalysisregr0000most |url-access=registration |date=1977 |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]] |isbn=978-0-201-04854-4 |oclc=3235470}} * {{cite book |author-first=John Wilder |author-last=Tukey |author-link=John Tukey |title=Convergence and Uniformity in Topology |date=1940 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |oclc=227948615}} {{ isbn|978-0-691-09568-4 }}. * {{cite book |author-first=John Wilder |author-last=Tukey |author-link=John Tukey |title=Exploratory Data Analysis |date=1977 |publisher=[[Addison-Wesley]] |isbn=978-0-201-07616-5 |oclc=3058187 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/exploratorydataa00tuke_0 }} * {{cite book |author-first1=John Wilder |author-last1=Tukey |author-link1=John Tukey |author-first2=Ian C. |author-last2=Ross |author-first3=Verna |author-last3=Bertrand |title=Index to statistics and probability |date=1973 |publisher=R & D Press |isbn=978-0-88274-001-0 |oclc=745715}}

; ''The collected works of John W Tukey'', edited by William S. Cleveland * {{cite book |editor-last=Brillinger |editor-first=David R. |title=Volume I: Time series, 1949–1964 |date=1984 |publisher=[[Wadsworth, Inc.]] |isbn=978-0-534-03303-3 |oclc=10998116}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Brillinger |editor-first=David R. |title=Volume II: Time series, 1965–1984 |date=1985 |publisher=[[Wadsworth, Inc.]] |isbn=978-0-534-03304-0 |oclc=159731367}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lyle V. |title=Volume III: Philosophy and principles of data analysis, 1949–1964 |date=1985 |publisher=[[Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole]] |isbn=978-0-534-03305-7 |oclc=159731367}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lyle V. |title=Volume IV: Philosophy and principles of data analysis, 1965–1986 |date=1986 |publisher=[[Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole]] |isbn=978-0-534-05101-3 |oclc=165832503}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Cleveland |editor-first=William S. |editor-link=William S. Cleveland|title=Volume V: Graphics, 1965–1985 |date=1988 |publisher=[[Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole]] |isbn=978-0-534-05102-0 |oclc=230023465}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Mallows |editor-first=Colin L. |title=Volume VI: More mathematical, 1938–1984 |date=1990 |publisher=[[Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole]] |isbn=978-0-534-05103-7 |oclc=232966724}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Cox |editor-first=David R. |title=Volume VII: Factorial and ANOVA, 1949–1962 |date=1992 |publisher=[[Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole]] |isbn=978-0-534-05104-4 |oclc=165366083}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Braun |editor-first=Henry I. |title=Volume VIII: Multiple comparisons, 1949–1983 |date=1994 |publisher=[[Chapman & Hall]]/[[CRC Press]] |isbn=978-0-412-05121-0 |oclc=165099761}}

;About John Tukey * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Tukey}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150310080320/http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/mathoral/pmc41.htm Interview of John Tukey about his experience at Princeton] * [[Frederick Mosteller]] and John W. Tukey: [https://projecteuclid.org/download/pdf_1/euclid.ss/1177013020 A Conversation moderated by Francis J. Anscombe, ''Statistical Science'' Vol. 3, No. 1 (Feb. 1988), pp. 136–144.]

== References == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Shannon_1948_1">{{cite journal |author-last=Shannon |author-first=Claude Elwood |author-link=Claude Elwood Shannon |title=A Mathematical Theory of Communication |journal=[[Bell System Technical Journal]] |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=379–423 |date=July 1948 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4314-2 |url=http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980715013250/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=1998-07-15 |quote=The choice of a logarithmic base corresponds to the choice of a unit for measuring information. If the base 2 is used the resulting units may be called binary digits, or more briefly ''[[bit]]s'', a word suggested by J. W. Tukey.|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Shannon_1948_2">{{cite journal |author-last=Shannon |author-first=Claude Elwood |author-link=Claude Elwood Shannon |title=A Mathematical Theory of Communication |journal=[[Bell System Technical Journal]] |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=623–666 |date=October 1948 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb00917.x |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4314-2|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Shannon_1949">{{cite book |author-last1=Shannon |author-first1=Claude Elwood |author-link1=Claude Elwood Shannon |author-first2=Warren |author-last2=Weaver |author-link2=Warren Weaver |title=A Mathematical Theory of Communication |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |date=1949 |url=http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980715013250/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=1998-07-15}} {{ isbn|0-252-72548-4 }}.</ref> <ref name="Leonhardt_2000">{{cite news |title=John Tukey, 85, Statistician; Coined the Word 'Software' |author-last=Leonhardt |author-first=David |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=2000-07-28 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/07/28/us/john-tukey-85-statistician-coined-the-word-software.html |access-date=2025-07-15}}</ref>  }}

== External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/49/537.full.pdf+html Royal Society obit. by Peter McCullagh] * [http://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~brill/Papers/life.pdf John W. Tukey: His Life and Professional Contributions] published in ''The Annals of Statistics'' * [https://www.ams.org/notices/200202/fea-tukey.pdf John Wilder Tukey (1915–2000)] in ''[[Notices of the American Mathematical Society]]'' * [https://archive.today/20121205150114/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/departments/sia/tukey/index.html Memories of John Tukey] * [https://archive.today/20130102063037/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/departments/sia/tukey/bio.html Short biography] by Mary Bittrich * {{Citation|title=John Tukey, 85, Statistician; Coined the Word 'Software'|newspaper=The New York Times|date=July 28, 2000|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/07/28/us/john-tukey-85-statistician-coined-the-word-software.html?pagewanted=print}} * [http://projecteuclid.org/Dienst/UI/1.0/Summarize/euclid.ss/1076102421 "Remembering John W. Tukey"], special issue of ''[[Statistical Science]]''

{{IEEE Medal of Honor 1976-2000}} {{Winners of the National Medal of Science|math-stat-comp}} {{John von Neumann Lecturers}} {{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tukey, John Wilder}} [[Category:1915 births]] [[Category:2000 deaths]] [[Category:Mathematicians from Massachusetts]] [[Category:National Medal of Science laureates]] [[Category:Presidents of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics]] [[Category:Fellows of the American Statistical Association]] [[Category:IEEE Medal of Honor recipients]] [[Category:Survey methodologists]] [[Category:Exploratory data analysis]] [[Category:Princeton University faculty]] [[Category:Princeton University alumni]] [[Category:Brown University alumni]] [[Category:Burials at Princeton Cemetery]] [[Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society]] [[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]] [[Category:Computational statisticians]] [[Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society]] [[Category:American fellows of the Royal Society]] [[Category:20th-century American statisticians]]