Torosaurus

{{Short description|Extinct genus of dinosaurs}} {{Distinguish|Torvosaurus}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2023}} {{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian), {{Fossil range|68|66}} | image = Tiny the Torosaurus.jpg | image_caption = Specimen nicknamed "Tiny", Denver Museum of Nature and Science | taxon = Torosaurus | authority = Marsh, 1891 | type_species = {{extinct}}'''''Torosaurus latus''''' | type_species_authority = Marsh, 1891 | subdivision_ranks = Other species | subdivision = * {{extinct}}'''''T.? utahensis''''' (Gilmore, 1946) Lawson, 1976 | synonyms = * ''Arrhinoceratops? utahensis'' Gilmore, 1946 *''Torosaurus gladius'' Marsh, 1891 }}

'''''Torosaurus''''' (meaning "perforated lizard", in reference to the large openings in its frill) is a genus of herbivorous chasmosaurine ceratopsian dinosaur that lived during the late Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous period, between 68 and 66 million years ago, though it is possible that the species range might extend to as far back as 69 million years ago.<ref name="hicksetal2003">*Hicks, J.F., Johnson, K.R., Obradovich, J. D., Miggins, D.P., and Tauxe, L. 2003. Magnetostratigraphyof Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) to lower Eocene strata of the Denver Basin, Colorado. In K.R. Johnson, R.G. Raynolds and M.L. Reynolds (eds), Paleontology and Stratigraphy of Laramide Strata in the Denver Basin, Pt. II., Rocky Mountain Geology 38: 1-27.</ref> Fossils have been discovered across the Western Interior of North America, from as far north as Saskatchewan to as far south as Texas.

Measuring between {{cvt|7.5 and 9|m|ft}} and weighing around {{cvt|8|MT|lb}}, ''Torosaurus'' possessed the largest skulls of any known land animal, with the frilled skull reaching {{convert|2.77|m|ft}} in length. ''Torosaurus'' is thought to have been the same size as the contemporary ''Triceratops'',<ref>{{cite journal|year=2000|title=Forelimb posture in neoceratopsian dinosaurs: implications for gait and locomotion|author1=Paul, G.S.|author2=Christiansen, P.|url=http://gspauldino.com/Forelimb.pdf|journal=Paleobiology|volume=26|issue=3|pages=450–465|doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0450:FPINDI>2.0.CO;2 |jstor=2666120 |bibcode=2000Pbio...26..450P |s2cid=85280946 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/princetonfieldgu0000paul/page/265 | title=The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs | publisher=Princeton University Press | last=Paul | first=G. S. | author-link=Gregory S. Paul | year=2010 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/princetonfieldgu0000paul/page/265 265–267] | isbn=978-0-691-13720-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Holtz |first=Thomas R. Jr. |year=2012 |title=Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages |url=http://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/dinoappendix/HoltzappendixWinter2011.pdf |quote=Winter 2011 Appendix}}</ref> but is distinguished by an elongated frill with large oval shaped openings, long squamosal bones of the frill with a trough on their upper surface, and the presence of five or more pairs of hornlets on the back of the frill.<ref name="richyrich">{{cite journal|author=Longrich, N. R.|author2=Field, D. J.|name-list-style=amp|year=2012|title=''Torosaurus'' is not ''Triceratops'': Ontogeny in chasmosaurine ceratopsids as a case study in dinosaur taxonomy|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=7|issue=2|article-number=e32623|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0032623|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...732623L|pmid=22393425|pmc=3290593|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''Torosaurus'' also lacked the long nose horn seen in ''Triceratops prorsus.'' It instead resembled the earlier and more basal ''Triceratops horridus'', thanks to having a short nose horn.<ref name="richyrich" /> Three species have been named so far: ''Torosaurus latus'', ''T. gladius'', and ''T. utahensis''. ''T. gladius'' is no longer considered a valid species, however.

In 2010, the validity of ''Torosaurus'' was disputed.<ref name=newsci>{{cite journal|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20727713.500-morphosaurs-how-shapeshifting-dinosaurs-deceived-us.html?full=true |title=Morph-osaurs: How shape-shifting dinosaurs deceived us – life – 28 July 2010 |doi=10.1080/02724634.2010.483632 |publisher=New Scientist |bibcode=2010JVPal..30.1157S |s2cid=86767957 |access-date=August 3, 2010|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A study of fossil bone histology combined with an investigation of frill shape concluded that ''Torosaurus'' probably represented the mature form of ''Triceratops'', with the bones of typical ''Triceratops'' specimens still immature and showing signs of a first development of distinct ''Torosaurus'' frill holes. During maturation, the skull frill would have been greatly lengthened and holes would have appeared in it.<ref name=scannella&horner2010 /><ref>{{cite web|last=Switek|first=Brian|title=New Study Says Torosaurus=Triceratops|url=http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/dinosaur/2010/07/new-study-says-torosaurustriceratops/|work=Dinosaur Tracking|publisher=Smithsonian.com|access-date=March 2, 2011|archive-date=November 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113071439/http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/dinosaur/2010/07/new-study-says-torosaurustriceratops/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference|last=Horner |first=Jack |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/jack_horner_where_are_the_baby_dinosaurs |title=Shape-shifting Dinosaurs |publisher=TEDX Talks |date=Nov 2011 |access-date=November 20, 2012}}</ref> In 2011, 2012, and 2013, however, studies of external features of known specimens have claimed that morphological differences between the two genera preclude their synonymy. The main problems are a lack of good transitional forms, the apparent existence of authentic ''Torosaurus'' subadults, different skull proportions independent of maturation, and hole formation at an adult stage not being part of a normal ceratopsian maturation sequence.<ref name="richyrich" /><ref name="fark" /><ref name="Maiorino2013" /> Consequently, newer research has favored the interpretation that ''Torosaurus'' is indeed a separate genus from ''Triceratops''.<ref name="Mallon2022"/>

== Discovery and species == In 1891, two years after the naming of ''Triceratops'', a pair of ceratopsian skulls with elongated frills bearing holes were found by John Bell Hatcher in Niobrara County in southeastern Wyoming. Hatcher's employer, paleontologist Professor Othniel Charles Marsh, coined the genus ''Torosaurus'' for them.<ref name="Marsh1891">O.C. Marsh, 1891, "Notice of new vertebrate fossils", ''The American Journal of Science, series 3'' '''42''': 265-269</ref> thumb|Marsh's original illustrations of the skulls of ''T. latus'' and its synonym ''T. gladius''

The name ''Torosaurus'' is frequently mistranslated as "bull lizard" from the Latin noun ''taurus'' or the Spanish word ''toro'', but is much more likely derived from the Greek verb {{linktext|τορέω}} (''toreo)'', which means "to perforate".<ref>Dodson, P. ''The Horned Dinosaurs''. Princeton Univ. Press (Princeton), 1996.</ref> The allusion is to the ''fenestrae'', "window-like" holes, in the elongated frill, which have traditionally served to distinguish it from the solid frill of ''Triceratops''. In 1896, Marsh explained: "The open perforations in the parietal, which have suggested the name ''Torosaurus'', readily separate this genus from all the gigantic species hitherto known in the Ceratopsidae..." (pg. 216).<ref name="marsh1896">{{cite book |last=Marsh |first=Othniel Charles |author-link=Othniel Charles Marsh |year=1896 |chapter=The dinosaurs of North America |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |location=Washington, D.C. |title=Sixteenth Annual report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior, 1894–1895: Part 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dinosaursofnorth00mars/page/216/mode/1up }}</ref>

Two ''Torosaurus'' species have been identified: * ''T. latus'' {{Taxobox authority | author = Marsh | date = 1891}} (type species). ''Latus'' means "the wide one" in Latin, in reference to the frill. * ''T. utahensis'' ({{Taxobox authority | author = Gilmore| date = 1946}}) Lawson, 1976

Another species was subsequently regarded as identical to ''T. latus'': * ''T. gladius'' {{Taxobox authority | author = Marsh | date = 1891}}. ''Gladius'' is "sword" in Latin, in reference to the elongated shape of the squamosal.

''T. latus'' was based on holotype '''YPM 1830''', which is a partial skull. The holotype of ''T. gladius'' was specimen YPM 1831, which is an even larger skull. Both fossils were found in the Lance Formation of the late Maastrichtian. Similar specimens found in Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, North Dakota, Colorado, Utah, and Saskatchewan have since been referred to ''Torosaurus''. Those that can be identified with some certainty include ANSP 15192 (a smaller individual in South Dakota uncovered by Edwin Harris Colbert in 1944),<ref>Colbert, E.H. and J.D. Bump, 1947, "A skull of ''Torosaurus'' from South Dakota and a revision of the genus:, ''Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia'', '''99''': 93–106</ref> MPM VP6841 (a partial skeleton with a skull mounted at the Milwaukee Public Museum), SMM P97.6.1 (a skull lacking the snout), and two partial skulls from the Hell Creek Formation reported in 2002: MOR 981 (discovered in 1998) and MOR 1122 (from 2001).<ref>Farke, A., 2002, "A review of ''Torosaurus'' (Dinosauria: Ceratopsidae) specimens from Texas and New Mexico", ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology'', '''22''': 52A</ref> Fragmentary remains that could possibly be identified as ''Torosaurus'' have been found in the Big Bend Region of Texas and the San Juan Basin of New Mexico.<ref>Lucas, S.G., Mack, G.H., Estep, G.W., 1998, "The Ceratopsian dinosaur ''Torosaurus'' from the Upper Cretaceous McRae Formation, Sierra County, New Mexico", ''New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook'', 49th Field Conference, Las Cruces County II</ref> Paleontologists have observed that ''Torosaurus'' specimens are uncommon in the fossil record, with specimens of ''Triceratops'' being much more abundant.

''Torosaurus utahensis'' was originally described as ''Arrhinoceratops utahensis'' by Charles Whitney Gilmore in 1946, based on specimen USNM 15583 (a frill fragment from Emery County, Utah).<ref>C.W. Gilmore, 1946, "Reptilian fauna of the North Horn Formation of central Utah", ''United States Department of the Interior Geological Survey Professional Paper'' '''210'''-C: 29-53</ref> In 1976, it was renamed to ''Torosaurus utahensis'' by Douglas Lawson.<ref>D.A. Lawson, 1976, "''Tyrannosaurus'' and ''Torosaurus'', Maestrichtian dinosaurs from Trans-Pecos, Texas", ''Journal of Paleontology'' '''50'''(1): 158-164</ref> Review by Robert Sullivan ''et al.'' in 2005<ref>Sullivan, R. M., A. C. Boere, and S. G. Lucas. 2005. Redescription of the ceratopsid dinosaur ''Torosaurus utahensis'' (Gilmore, 1946) and a revision of the genus. ''Journal of Paleontology'' 79:564-582.</ref> left it as ''Torosaurus utahensis'' and somewhat older than ''T. latus''. In 2008, Rebecca Hunt referred considerable additional material to this species.<ref name="Hunt2008" /> Research has not yet been published on whether ''T. utahensis'' should be regarded as a new genus or, as has been suggested for ''T. latus'', the mature growth stage of a species of ''Triceratops''.<ref name=scannella&horner2010 />

== Description ==

thumb|Restoration of ''T. latus'' The individuals referred to ''Torosaurus'' are all large, comparable to the largest ''Triceratops'' specimens, measuring {{cvt|7.5 to 9|m|ft}} long and weighing {{Convert|6|-|11|MT|ST}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stein |first1=Walter W. |title=TAKING COUNT: A Census of Dinosaur Fossils Recovered From the Hell Creek and Lance Formations (Maastrichtian). |journal=The Journal of Paleontological Sciences |date=2019 |volume=8 |pages=1–42 |url=https://www.aaps-journal.org/pdf/JPS.C.2019.01a.pdf }}</ref> Due to the elongated frill, the skull length is especially considerable. Hatcher estimated the skull of YPM 1830 at {{cvt|2.2|m|ft}} and that of YPM 1831 at {{cvt|2.35|m|ft}}.<ref>Hatcher, J.B., Marsh O.C. and Lull, R.S., 1907, ''The Ceratopsia'', Monographs of the United States Geological Survey '''49''': 1-198</ref> In 1933, Richard Swann Lull increased this to {{cvt|2.4|m|ft}} and {{cvt|2.57|m|ft}}, respectively.<ref>Lull, R.S., 1933, ''A revision of the Ceratopsia or horned dinosaurs'', Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Natural History '''3'''(3): 1-175</ref> Based on this, ''Torosaurus'' was seen as having the longest skull of any known land animal. In 1998, however, Thomas Lehman claimed that a ''Pentaceratops'' specimen possessed a partial skull that would have been {{cvt|2.9|m|ft}} long in life.<ref>Lehman, T.M., 1998, "A gigantic skull and skeleton of the horned dinosaur ''Pentaceratops sternbergi'' from New Mexico: Journal of Paleontology, '''72'''(5): 894-906</ref> This was again doubted by Nicholas Longrich who, in 2011, named this exemplar as a separate genus, ''Titanoceratops'', and concluded its skull had been reconstructed as too long.<ref>Nicholas R. Longrich, 2011, "''Titanoceratops ouranous'', a giant horned dinosaur from the Late Campanian of New Mexico", ''Cretaceous Research'', '''32''': 264-276</ref> Furthermore, in 2006, Andrew Farke had pointed out that the new skulls described by him were even longer on average than Hatcher's original two. MOR 1122 has a length of {{cvt|2.52|m|ft}} and MOR 981 has a length of {{cvt|2.77|m|ft}}.<ref name="Farke2006" /> The well preserved skull of the ''Torosaurus'' specimen nicknamed "Adam", first put on display in 2023, is the largest known at {{cvt|3|m|ft}} long.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.museumofevolution.com/dinosaurs/torosaurus |title=This Torosaurus skeleton is the largest horned dinosaur ever discovered in the world |author= |website=museumofevolution.com |access-date=June 20, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Largest dinosaur skull ever found on display in Denmark | url=https://madison.com/news/largest-dinosaur-skull-ever-found-on-display-in-denmark/video_89a22ce8-5330-5c0f-9f4e-27447d5298ac.html | date=June 13, 2023 | publisher=Wisconsin State Journal | access-date=July 1, 2023 }}</ref>

In 2006, Farke established some diagnostic traits of ''Torosaurus''. The frill is extremely long in comparison to the remainder of the skull. The rear edge of the frill bears ten or more epiperietals, or triangular osteoderms. A midline triangular osteoderm is absent. Likewise, no osteoderm straddles the parietal-squamosal boundary. The parietal bone is thin and pierced by parietal ''fenestrae'' in the form of circular or transversely ovalur openings. The parietal bone is about 20% wider than it is long. Farke identified a single trait in which ''T. latus'' differed from both ''Triceratops horridus'' and ''T. utahensis''. Its squamosal bore a conspicuous ridge on the edge with the parietal combined with a deep longitudinal trough parallel to it.<ref name="Farke2006" />

[[File:Milwaukee Public Museum November 2022 029 (Third Planet--Torosaur).jpg|thumb|left|Mounted skeleton (MPM VP6841), Milwaukee]] Farke pointed out that the known ''Torosaurus'' specimens are rather variable. The orbital "brow" horns are sometimes large and curved to the front, as with MOR 981, or sometimes short and straight, as shown by MOR 1122 and ANSP 15191. Also, the position of these horns differs, as they are often located directly on top of the eye socket. With YPM 1831, however, they originate at the rear edge of the orbit. Likewise, there is a variation in the form of the nose horn. YPM 1831 and, to a lesser extent, YPM 1830 have a straight, upright nasal horn, but MOR 981, ANSP 15192, and especially MOR 1122 possess a low bump at most. The frill differs too, as ANSP 15192 and YPM 1830 have a shield curving upwards at the rear, but the frill of YPM 1831 is nearly flat, though this could be an artefact of restoration. The frill of YPM 1831 is also heart-shaped, with a clear midline notch, whereas the rear edge of the other specimens is straight. The frill proportions are quite variable. With YPM 1831, the length-width ratio is 1.26, but MOR 981 has a shield 2.28 times longer than it is wide. The number of triangular osteoderms is difficult to assess, as most fossils seem to have lost them. MOR 981 and MOR 1122 have ten and twelve epiparietals, respectively. YPM 1831 has been restored with a fontanelle in the skull roof, which is possibly authentic. Farke also concluded that the degree of variability did not exceed that shown by related genera.<ref name="Farke2006" />

Farke stressed that, apart from the frill, no systematic differences could be found between ''Torosaurus'' and ''Triceratops''. All ''Torosaurus'' specimens are similar in that they lack a truly long nasal horn and a horizontal arterial groove at the front base of said horn, but ''Triceratops'' fossils with the same combination of traits are not uncommon.<ref name="Farke2006" /> In 2008, Hunt concluded that ''T. utahensis'', contrary to ''T. latus'', but similar to ''Triceratops'', possessed a midline epiparietal.<ref name="Hunt2008" />

== Classification == thumb|right|upright|Specimen MOR 1122 thumb|right|Restoration of ''T. utahensis'' Below is a ceratopsid cladogram based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Sampson ''et al.'' in 2010:<ref name=pone0012292>{{cite journal|author=Scott D. Sampson|author2=Mark A. Loewen|author3=Andrew A. Farke|author4=Eric M. Roberts|author5=Catherine A. Forster|author6=Joshua A. Smith|author7=Alan A. Titus|name-list-style=amp|title=New Horned Dinosaurs from Utah Provide Evidence for Intracontinental Dinosaur Endimism|journal=PLOS ONE|year=2010|series=5|issue=9|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0012292|pmid=20877459|pmc=2929175|volume=5|article-number=e12292|bibcode=2010PLoSO...512292S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:90%; |label1=Ceratopsidae |1={{clade |1=Centrosaurinae |label2=Chasmosaurinae |2={{clade |1=''Chasmosaurus'' |2={{clade |1=''Mojoceratops'' |2={{clade |1=''Agujaceratops'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Utahceratops'' |2=''Pentaceratops'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Coahuilaceratops'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Kosmoceratops'' |2=''Vagaceratops'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Anchiceratops'' |2={{clade |1=''Arrhinoceratops'' |label2=Triceratopsini |2={{clade |1=''Ojoceratops'' |2=''Eotriceratops'' |3={{clade |1='''''Torosaurus''''' |2={{clade |1=''Nedoceratops'' |2=''Triceratops'' }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

In 1891, Marsh placed ''Torosaurus'' in the Ceratopsidae family of Ceratopsia (Greek: "horned faces"),<ref name="Marsh1891" /> a group of herbivorous dinosaurs with parrot-like beaks that thrived in North America and Asia during the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.

''Torosaurus'' has, with its long frill, traditionally been classified in Chasmosaurinae. It was seen as a late member of a line descending from ''Anchiceratops'' or ''Arrhinoceratops''. It was thus placed in a different branch from ''Triceratops'' which, well into the 1980s, was seen as a member of Centrosaurinae because of its short frill. However, in the 1990s, exact cladistic analysis showed that both genera were chasmosaurines. Recent analyses invariably show a close relationship between ''Torosaurus'' and ''Triceratops''.<ref name="Farke2006">Farke, A. A. "Cranial osteology and phylogenetic relationships of the chasmosaurine ceratopsid ''Torosaurus latus''", pp. 235-257. In K. Carpenter (ed.). ''Horns and Beaks: Ceratopsian and Ornithopod Dinosaurs''. Indiana Univ. Press (Bloomington), 2006.</ref><ref name=pone0012292 />

=== Possible synonymy with ''Triceratops'' === [[File:Triceratops_AMNH_01.jpg|thumb|A mounted specimen of ''Triceratops'', conventionally considered a distinct genus from ''Torosaurus'']] During the late 2000s and early 2010s, a debate has sparked over the possibility that ''Torosaurus'' might be identical to ''Triceratops''. In the Maastrichtian age of Laramidia, two closely related chasmosaurines shared the same habitat. The only discernible difference between them was the form of the frill. No ''Torosaurus'' juveniles are known, but a considerable number of ''Triceratops'' juveniles have been found. ''Triceratops'' differs from other chasmosaurines in the retention as an adult of a juvenile trait. Adults retain the short squamosals, a case of paedomorphosis. In 2009, John Scannella, investigating dinosaur ontogeny in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana, concluded that this situation could be best explained by the hypothesis that ''Triceratops'' and ''Torosaurus'' were growth stages of a single genus. The ''Torosaurus'' specimens would be fully mature individuals of ''Triceratops''. ''Torosaurus'' would be a junior synonym of ''Triceratops'', the latter name having priority.<ref>Scannella J., 2009, "And then there was one: synonymy consequences of ''Triceratops'' cranial ontogeny", ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology'' '''29''': 177A</ref> left|thumb|According to the "toromorph" hypothesis, ''Triceratops'' subadults (A, ''Triceratops prorsus'' holotype YPM 1822) would have gotten longer frills with holes as shown by B, ''Torosaurus latus'' specimen ANSP 15192 thumb|left|The end phase would have consisted of an enormously large and flat frill as exemplified by specimen YPM 1831 (A), its size shown by comparison to ANSP 15192 (B), an early adult In 2010, Scanella and Jack Horner, Scannella's mentor at Montana State University, published research on the growth patterns in thirty-eight skull specimens (twenty-nine of ''Triceratops'', nine of ''Torosaurus'') from the Hell Creek formation. They concluded that ''Torosaurus'' indeed represents the mature form of ''Triceratops''.<ref name=scannella&horner2010>Scannella, J. and Horner, J.R. (2010). "''Torosaurus'' Marsh, 1891, is ''Triceratops'' Marsh, 1889 (Ceratopsidae: Chasmosaurinae): synonymy through ontogeny ." ''Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology'', '''30'''(4): 1157–1168. {{doi|10.1080/02724634.2010.483632}}</ref> Horner stressed that the frill of ceratopsian skulls consisted of metaplastic bone. A characteristic of metaplastic bone is that it can lengthen and shorten over time, extending and resorbing to form new shapes. Significant development is seen even in those skulls already identified as ''Triceratops'', Horner observed, "where the horn orientation is backwards in juveniles and forward in adults". Approximately 50% of all subadult ''Triceratops'' skulls have two thin areas in the frill that correspond with the placement of the "holes" in ''Torosaurus'' skull frills, which are surrounded by mature granular bone, suggesting that these developed to offset the weight that would otherwise have been added as maturing ''Triceratops'' individuals grew longer frills. Horner made this part of a larger argument that, in general, many purported dinosaur species might have been growth stages of other known species.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/10/091031002314.htm |title=New Analyses Of Dinosaur Growth May Wipe Out One-third Of Species |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=October 31, 2009 |access-date=August 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007626|pmid=19859556|title=Extreme Cranial Ontogeny in the Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Pachycephalosaurus|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=4|issue=10|article-number=e7626|year=2009|last1=Horner|first1=John R|last2=Goodwin|first2=Mark B|bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.7626H|pmc=2762616|doi-access=free}}</ref> With old ''Triceratops'' individuals, the frill would have begun to lengthen considerably, causing it to flatten and widen at its rear edge. At the same time, parietal ''fenestrae'' would have appeared, resulting in the typical chasmosaurine frill shape.<ref name=scannella&horner2010 />

Scanella and Horner recognised that not all data were easily explained by their hypothesis. For these, they advanced auxiliary hypotheses. One problem was that if ''Torosaurus'' were the normal last maturation phase of ''Triceratops'', which they called the "toromorph phase", it would be expected that ''Torosaurus'' fossils were quite common, whereas in fact they are fairly rare. They explained this by a high mortality of subadults and the possibility that old animals preferentially lived on heights where erosion prevented fossilization . A second problem was the size range of ''Torosaurus'' specimens, which seems to suggest the existence of authentic ''Torosaurus'' subadults. Of these, they claimed that the bone structure indicated a fully mature age, with the size difference being the apparent result of individual variation. A third possible objection was the seeming lack of transitional forms between individuals with and without parietal holes. These ''fenestrae'' are always perfectly shaped, not like incipient perforations. To counter it, they pointed to specimen USNM 2412, the holotype of the contentious ''Nedoceratops'', as an example of precisely such a transitional form. The problematic traits of this genus would simply reflect its being in the first stages of transforming into a "toromorph". A last problem was offered by the number of osteoderms on the frill edge. With ''Triceratops'', there are typically five epiparietals, including a midline osteoderm. With ''Torosaurus'', there are ten or twelve, a midline epiparietal being absent. Also the number of episquamosals on the side edge of the frill differs (five with ''Triceratops'', six or seven with ''Torosaurus''). This was explained by the assumption that the number of epoccipitals increased during maturation. Also, it was pointed out that both number and position of the osteoderms are variable with ''Triceratops''. This is shown through specimen MOR 2923, which has six epiparietals, but lacks a midline one.<ref name=scannella&horner2010 />

Scannella and Horner's conclusions have not been widely accepted. Several experts, though admitting the possibility that the "toromorph" hypothesis is correct, have denied that this is probable. The hypothesis was directly challenged by a 2011 paper by Andrew Farke and a 2012 paper by Nicholas Longrich. In 2011, Farke redescribed the problematic ''Nedoceratops hatcheri'' as an aged or diseased individual of its own genus. Scannella and Horner argued for its identification with ''Triceratops''. Farke pointed out that the irregular holes in the ''Nedoceratops'' frill, far from piercing thinning bone, were surrounded by thick swellings. Farke further concluded that several facts were difficult to reconcile with the proposed development of a ''Triceratops'' into a ''Torosaurus''. In general, the number of epoccipitals in ceratopsians does not increase when the frill grows. Even though the number of episquamosals is often variable, there seems to be no relation with size because some juveniles already show the maximum number. Apparently, this is a matter of individual variation, not ontogeny. Likewise, with Ceratopia in general, the formation of holes in the frill is not related to age, as even the youngest individuals often possess the parietal ''fenestrae''. Farke explained the thin bone areas on the frill of ''Triceratops'', the purported location of incipient holes, to be muscle attachment sites. There would be no consistent relation between holes and a granular bone structure. Many ''Triceratops'' specimens have frills with a deeply veined surface, indicating considerable age. The bone of their frills would have to be rejuvenated and then become granulated again in order for hole formation to begin, which Farke considered to be an unlikely sequence. Finally, Farke pointed out that specimen YPM 1831, despite its enormous size, was apparently not yet fully-grown, as shown by its unfused sutures and smooth bone texture. Thus, it seemed to represent an authentic ''Torosaurus'' subadult.<ref name="fark">{{cite journal |last1=Farke |first1=Andrew A. |title=Anatomy and Taxonomic Status of the Chasmosaurine Ceratopsid Nedoceratops hatcheri from the Upper Cretaceous Lance Formation of Wyoming, U.S.A |journal=PLOS ONE |date=January 20, 2011 |volume=6 |issue=1 |article-number=e16196 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0016196 |pmid=21283763 |pmc=3024410 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...616196F |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref> thumb|upright|Specimen ANSP 15192 might, according to Longrich, be a young female adult The same year, Scanella and Horner responded to some of Farke's critique. They admitted that USNM 2412, in view of its pathologies, was not an ideal candidate for a transitional form, but stressed that, apart from swellings, the holes in its frill were also bordered by granular and thinning bone. Taking all the evidence into consideration, they thought it much more likely that ''Nedoceratops'' represented a diseased individual of ''Triceratops'' than a genus of its own. They also pointed to ''Triceratops'' specimens showing the precise combination of veined, granular, and young striated bone that Farke had considered to be improbable. The idea that the thin areas on ''Triceratops'' frills were muscle attachment sites was rejected by them because the bone at these points did not show the rugose surface typical for such an attachment. For the difference in the number of epoccipitals, they offered two additional explanations. The osteoderm tips of old individuals might have eroded during life in such a way that each osteoderm gave the impression of two being present. In this way, the normal number of five or six ''Triceratops'' epiparietals could have doubled to ten or twelve, precisely the amount seen with the ''Torosaurus'' specimens. Alternatively, the ''Torosaurus latus'' specimens, having been found in older layers, might, in a process of anagenesis, represent an early stage of ''Triceratops'' evolution. The oldest specimen that can be dated, MOR 1122, has twelve epiparietals, while the younger MOR 981 possesses ten, seeming to indicate an evolutionary sequence in which the number of epiparietals gradually decreased.<ref>Scannella, J.B. & Horner, J.R., 2011, "'Nedoceratops': An Example of a Transitional Morphology", ''PLoS ONE'' '''6'''(12): DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0028705</ref> [[File:Nedoceratops hatcheri 2.jpg|left|thumb|Scanella & Horner saw ''Nedoceratops'' as an ontogenetic transitional form between ''Triceratops'' and ''Torosaurus'']] In 2012, Longrich investigated the problem by applying the principle of falsification. From any valid scientific hypothesis, predictions can be derived by which it can be tested. Longrich argued that the "toromorph" hypothesis implied three such predictions. Firstly, if ''Torosaurus'' were identical to ''Triceratops'', their fossils should be found in the same locations. In fact, their geographical ranges do not perfectly coincide. In the very north, no ''Torosaurus'' fossils have been found, while from the south, only ''Torosaurus utahensis'' is known. However, this situation could be an artefact of the relative scarcity of ''Torosaurus'' remains and imperfect sampling. Longrich therefore concluded that the hypothesis was corroborated by the first prediction. Secondly, the hypothesis predicted that all ''Torosaurus'' specimens would be adults, while no ''Triceratops'' specimens would be very old. According to Longrich, this last point had not yet been established. Admittedly, in 2011, Horner had published a histological study showing that all ''Triceratops'' specimens investigated possessed a subadult bone structure,<ref>Horner, J.R., Lamm, E-T., 2011, "Ontogeny of the parietal frill of ''Triceratops'': a preliminary histological analysis", ''Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences Paris série D'' '''10''': 439–452</ref> but the sample had been too small to allow for a valid generalisation to all ''Triceratops'' fossils. To better test the prediction, Longrich proposed a list of twenty-four external skull traits, by which specimens could be checked regarding their level of skull element fusion and their maturation. Thirty-six specimens were investigated upon applying these criteria. It transpired that the fusion typically took place in a certain sequence, providing additional information about their age. Indeed, by these criteria, most ''Torosaurus'' specimens were very old. However, there were two exceptions. The small individual ANSP 15192 was a relatively young adult, as shown by the lack of fusion of the snout bones. The youngest specimen was YPM 1831, with an unfused snout, epijugal, and occipital condyle. Furthermore, it had lost all of its frill osteoderms because they apparently had not been fused yet, while the frill edge had the external appearance of growing, young bone. On the other hand, Longrich found that ten of the ''Triceratops'' skulls investigated had attained the same level of maturation as the most aged ''Torosaurus'' specimens. Longrich concluded that the test of the second prediction refuted the hypothesis. The third prediction was that transitional forms could be found between ''Torosaurus'' and ''Triceratops''. Longrich considered the claim that the thin areas on ''Triceratops'' frills were precursors of parietal ''fenestrae'', as the strongest proof of a transitional phase. However, he pointed out that these structures differed in position. The ''Triceratops'' depressions are partly located on the squamosal, while the ''Torosaurus'' holes are fully surrounded by the parietal. Furthermore, the depressions are bordered by much thicker bone, while the ''Torosaurus'' holes are surrounded by thin bone. Longrich concluded that the hypothesis failed regarding the third prediction. Being refuted in two of the three predictions, the hypothesis should be rejected.<ref name="richyrich" />

Longrich also suggested some additional objections to the "toromorph" hypothesis. There are no transitional forms known regarding the number of epiparietals. Also, it is hard to see how their number could have increased, as they occupied the full frill edge and would, in a metaplastic growth process, simply have increased their size and the remainder of the frill. The proposed splitting of osteoderms by erosion has only been established with episquamosals, never with epiparietals. ''Torosaurus'' has a squamosal that is thickened at the inner side and concave at the outer surface, while the ''Triceratops'' squamosal is concave at the inner side and flat on top. Transitional forms are unknown. The ''Torosaurus'' squamosal is also, independent from absolute size, much more elongated. Longrich pointed out that when ''Torosaurus'' and ''Triceratops'' specimens are combined to create a single growth sequence, as Scanella and Horner had done, ''Torosaurus'' specimens ANSP 15192 and YPM 1831 were outliers relative to the regression line because their squamosals were more elongated than could be explained by allometry. Longrich admitted that the fact that Horner, in his histological study, could only find ''Triceratops'' subadults was suggestive, but offered the alternative explanation that ''Triceratops'' differed from its relatives in retaining a relative young bone structure until old age. On the other hand, bone remodelling is not a reliable estimator of maturity in view of experimental studies demonstrating that differences in the mechanical strain conditions of various bones can significantly alter the rate or degree of such remodelling and may generate the illusion of old bone tissue. Longrich foresaw that Scanella and Horner would respond to his second test of their hypothesis by claiming that its results were caused by individual variation. According to Longrich, the importance of this factor was limited however: e.g. the size difference between ANSP 15192 and YPM 1831 had better been explained by sexual dimorphism, the former possibly being a young adult female and the latter being a subadult male.<ref name="richyrich" />

upright=1.35|thumb|Principal Component Analysis and linear regression between shape and size performed on skulls (A) and squamosals (B), showing that ''Torosaurus'', independent of size, occupied a different morphospace than ''Triceratops horridus'' or ''Triceratops prorsus'' In 2013, Farke and Leonardo Maiorino published morphometric research, a statistical analysis of the morphospace (shape space) describing the variation of the ''Torosaurus'', ''Triceratops horridus'', ''Triceratops prorsus'', and ''Nedoceratops'' skulls correlated with maturation. They concluded that ''Torosaurus latus'' skulls throughout maturation retained a different form from ''T. horridus'' and ''T. prorsus'', the last two species showing an overlapping in their proportions. This is even true when the frill shape is disregarded. ''Nedoceratops'' proved, except for size, not to be a plausible transitional form between ''Torosaurus'' and ''Triceratops horridus''. Farke and Maiorino admitted that the low number of ''Torosaurus'' specimens reduced the reliability of these results, but concluded that ''Torosaurus'' and ''Triceratops'' were separate taxa, though allowing for the possibility of anagenesis, i.e. the several taxa forming a single chronospecies line of descent, given the lack of good stratigraphic data.<ref name="Maiorino2013">Maiorino L., Farke A.A., Kotsakis T., Piras P.,2013, "Is ''Torosaurus'' ''Triceratops''? Geometric Morphometric Evidence of Late Maastrichtian Ceratopsid Dinosaurs", ''PLoS ONE'' '''8'''(11): e81608. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081608</ref>

The hypothesis that the ''Torosaurus latus'' specimens might represent a "toromorph" phase of ''Triceratops'' maturation has raised the question of whether the second ''Torosaurus'' species, ''Torosaurus utahensis'', is a "toromorph" as well. This issue has been complicated by the lack of good fossil material, as most specimens consist of isolated bones. ''T. utahensis'' was largely referred to ''Torosaurus'' because of elongated squamosals, indicating a long frill. The number of epiparietals and the size, location, or even existence of parietal ''fenestrae'' are unknown. Researchers have claimed that distinct juvenile ''Torosaurus'' have been excavated from a bonebed in the Javelina Formation of Big Bend National Park, basing their identification as ''Torosaurus'' cf. ''utahensis'' on their proximity to an adult with a characteristic ''Torosaurus'' parietal.<ref name="Hunt2008">Hunt, Rebecca K. and Thomas M. Lehman. 2008. Attributes of the ceratopsian dinosaur ''Torosaurus'', and new material from the Javelina Formation (Maastrichtian) of Texas. Journal of Paleontology 82(6): 1127–1138.</ref> Scanella and Horner concluded that only future finds could solve this problem. They suggested that this taxon, which extends the ''Torosaurus'' range southwards of that of ''Triceratops'', might represent a separate chasmosaurine genus or a third ''Triceratops'' species. Farke's 2013 morphometric study was inconclusive on this point, with ''T. utahensis'' morphospace falling in between ''Triceratops'' and ''Torosaurus latus'' and not well separated from either.<ref name="Maiorino2013" />

In 2022, Mallon ''et al.'' argued that two specimens found in Canada's Frenchman and Scollard Formations, EM P16.1. (at Eastend Historical Museum in Saskatchewan) and UALVP 1646 (at the University of Alberta), are subadults and can be referred to ''Torosaurus'', this indicating that it is a valid taxon. The same study also noted that ''Torosaurus'' indeed lived during the Late Maastrichtian.<ref name="Mallon2022">{{cite journal |last1=Mallon |first1=Jordan C |last2=Holmes |first2=Robert B |last3=Bamforth |first3=Emily L |last4=Schumann |first4=Dirk |title=The record of Torosaurus (Ornithischia: Ceratopsidae) in Canada and its taxonomic implications |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |date=May 7, 2022 |volume=195 |issue=1 |pages=157–171 |doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zlab120|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== See also == * Timeline of ceratopsian research

== References == {{Reflist|2}} * Dodson, P. (1996). ''The Horned Dinosaurs''. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, pp. xiv-346

== External links == {{Wikispecies|Torosaurus}} {{Commons category|Torosaurus}}

* [http://www.dinosaurvalley.com/Visiting_Drumheller/Kids_Zone/Groups_of_Dinosaurs/index.php Kids Zone - ''Torosaurus''] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071005151857/http://www.dinosaurier-web.de/galery/pages_t/torosaurus.html Dinosaurier Web - ''Torosaurus''] * [https://www.newscientist.com/articleimages/mg20727713.500/1-morphosaurs-how-shapeshifting-dinosaurs-deceived-us.html Chart showing Triceratops/Torosaur growth and development (New Scientist)]

Category:Chasmosaurinae Category:Dinosaur genera Category:Maastrichtian dinosaurs Category:Hell Creek fauna Category:Lance Formation Category:Frenchman Formation Category:Taxa named by Othniel Charles Marsh Category:Fossil taxa described in 1891 Category:Dinosaurs of Canada Category:Dinosaurs of the United States