{{Short description|Subfamily of freshwater fishes}} {{Automatic taxobox | image = Golden mahseer (Tor putitora) Babai River.jpg | image_caption = Golden mahseer (''Tor putitora'') Babai River, Nepal | taxon = Torinae | authority = M. S. Karaman, 1971<ref name = Yang2015>{{cite journal |author=Lei Yang |author2=Tetsuya Sado |author3=M. Vincent Hirt |author4=Emmanuel Pasco-Viel |author5=M. Arunachalam |author6=Junbing Li |author7=Xuzhen Wang |author8=Jörg Freyhof |author9=Kenji Saitoh |author10=Andrew M. Simons |author11=Masaki Miya |author12=Shunping He |author13=Richard L. Mayden |display-authors=1 |year=2015 |title=Phylogeny and polyploidy: Resolving the classification of cyprinine fishes (Teleostei: Cypriniformes) |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume=85 |pages=97–116 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2015.01.014 |pmid=25698355 |bibcode=2015MolPE..85...97Y }}</ref> | type_species = ''Tor tor'' | type_species_authority = (Hamilton, 1822) }} '''Torinae''' is a subfamily of freshwater ray-finned fishes belonging to the family Cyprinidae, which includes the carps, barbs and related fishes. Fish in this subfamily inhabit the paleotropics, ranging from Africa, the Middle East including the Arabian Peninsula, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and up to Nepal and China. Members of Torinae inhabit both rivers and lakes, with some species ascending into rapids with rocky bottoms for breeding. Like other carp, they are generalist omnivores, eating algae, crustaceans, insects, frogs, other fish, and fruit that fall from overhead trees.
The Asian species were often revered by the cultures native to their range. Due to their size, they are commercially important, being appreciated as game fish as well as highly esteemed food fish, with some species being aquacultured for both food and as ornamentals. Several species have suffered severe declines due to pollution, habitat loss, overfishing, along with introduced species; they are now considered threatened.
==Common names== A number of Asian species within the subfamily are known as '''mahseers''', a term originating from the Indian subcontinent as a generic term for large-bodied cyprinids,<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name=ZSI/><ref>{{cite web |title=mahseer |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/mahseer |publisher=Random House, Inc. |access-date=18 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=Merriam/> especially those with barbels and large scales.<ref name="FAOTor"/> The term, alternatively rendered as mahsir {{IPA|[ˈmäˌsi(ə)r]}}, mahsur {{IPA|[ˈmäˌsə(r)]}}, mahaseer, or mahasir, has a disputed etymology, though it seems to originate from the Hindi word ''mahāsir''.<ref name=Merriam>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|mahseer|access-date=2026-03-18}}</ref> This word may have ultimately originated from: * ''Mahasir'', ''mahasirasha'', or ''mahasiras'', from the Sanskrit words ''mahat'' (big, great) + ''śiras'' ("head"; alternatively "front of body"),<ref name=ZSI/><ref name="FAOTor"/><ref name=Rod/><ref>Lacy, G.H. & E. Cretin. 1905. The Angler's Handbook for India. 4th edition. Newman & Co. Calcutta.</ref><ref name=Merriam/> though this may merely be an "attempt to give a meaning to the word".<ref name=ZSI/> * ''Massulah'', ''mahasaula'', ''mahasaul'', ''mahasalka'', ''mahā-śalka'', ''mahashol'', or ''mahasol'' (big-scaled);<ref name="FAOTor"/><ref name="Mighty"/><ref>Nautiyal, P. 2014. Review of the art and science of Indian mahseer (game fish) from nineteenth to twentieth century: Road to extinction or conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 84(2): 215-236.</ref> ''shol'' is also the Bengali name for ''Channa striata'', and large mahseers are noted to have scales "as big as the murrel [''C. striata'']".<ref name=ZSI/> * ''Matsya'' (Sanskrit for "fish");<ref name="ZSI"/><ref name="FAOTor"/> name shared with an avatar of Vishnu. * ''Mahā-āsya'' ("great mouth"); proposed by Henry Sullivan (H.S.) Thomas.<ref>Yule, Henry, Sir. Hobson-Jobson: ''A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive''. New ed. edited by William Crooke, B.A. London: J. Murray, 1903.{{Verify source|date=March 2026}}</ref> * ''Mahashila'', translated by Sadhale and Nene as "stone-like", alluding to the fish's power.<ref name="Pinder2019" /><ref name=Sadhale2005>On fish in Manasollasa (c. 1131 AD) N Sadhale, YL Nene – Asian Agri-Hist, 2005 – asianagrihistory.org {{Verify source|date=March 2026}}</ref> * ''Mahasher'', ''mahāser'', or ''mahaseer'' (Persian for "big tiger",<ref name=ZSI/> or "big lion", in recognition of their gameness<ref name="FAOTor"/>); may be a fanciful translation,<ref name=ZSI/> though is considered by some to be the most likely etymology.<ref name="FAOTor"/>
In English, "mahseer" may be used for fish in multiple genera, such as the species of ''Tor'', ''Neolissochilus'', ''Naziritor'',<ref name="Mighty"/><ref name=Pinder/><ref name="Instability"/><ref name="Forget" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Search for "mahseer" |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=mahseer&searchType=species |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> and (erroneously) ''Hypselobarbus mussullah'',<ref name=Remad>{{Cite journal|last1=Pinder|first1=Adrian C.|last2=Manimekalan|first2=Arunachalam|last3=Knight|first3=J. D. Marcus|last4=Krishnankutty|first4=Prasannan|last5=Britton|first5=J. Robert|last6=Philip|first6=Siby|last7=Dahanukar|first7=Neelesh|last8=Raghavan|first8=Rajeev |name-list-style=amp |date=2018-06-20|title=Resolving the taxonomic enigma of the iconic game fish, the hump-backed mahseer from the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot, India|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=13|issue=6|article-number=e0199328|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0199328|pmid=29924871|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6010267|doi-access=free|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1399328P }}</ref> though its use is often restricted to the genus ''Tor'',<ref name="FAOTor" /> the "true" mahseer.<ref name=Pinder>{{Cite thesis |title=CONSERVING THE ICONIC AND HIGHLY THREATENED MAHSEER FISHES OF SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA |last=Pinder |first=Adrian C. |date=March 2020 |access-date=2026-03-18 |publisher=Bournemouth University |url=https://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/34338/1/PINDER%2C%20Adrian%20C._Ph.D._2020.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Thuy T.T. |last2=Na-Nakorn |first2=Uthairat |last3=Sukmanomon |first3=Srijanya |last4=Ziming |first4=Chen |title=A study on phylogeny and biogeography of mahseer species (Pisces: Cyprinidae) using sequences of three mitochondrial DNA gene regions |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=September 2008 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=1223–1231 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.01.006 |pmid=18325793 |bibcode=2008MolPE..48.1223N }}</ref> Fish of the other two genera are sometimes distinguished as "lesser mahseer",<ref>{{cite web |title=Tales From Velimeen Land |date=20 August 2021 |url=https://www.mahseertrust.org/post/tales-from-velimeen-land |publisher=Mahseer Trust |access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref><ref name="Agenda">{{cite web |title=India needs to set a new conservation agenda for mahseer |date=2 March 2020 |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/wildlife-biodiversity/india-needs-to-set-a-new-conservation-agenda-for-mahseer-69546 |publisher=DownToEarth |access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> or "mahseer barb".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Effects of omaga-3 fatty acids (from krill oil) on sperm quality of mahseer barb, Neolissochilus stracheyi, brooders reared in captivity |journal=SNRU Journal of Science and Technology |date=2017 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=474 482 |url=https://www.thaiscience.info/Journals/Article/SNRU/10997775.pdf |access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duangjai |first1=Ekachai |last2=Punroob |first2=Natthawoot |last3=Punroob |first3=Jittra |title=Effect of Different Luteinizing Hormone Releasing Hormone Analogs (LHRHa) on Spawning in Mahseer barb (Neolissochilus stracheyi) |journal=ASEAN Journal of Scientific and Technological Reports |date=30 June 2025 |volume=28 |issue=4 |article-number=e256823 |doi=10.55164/ajstr.v28i4.256823}}</ref>
In addition, a multitude of local common names are known,<ref name="ZSI">{{cite book |last1=Sen |first1=T. K. |title=The mahseer fishes of India: a review |date=1982 |publisher=Zoological Survey of India |location=Calcutta |page=38 |lccn=83900473 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.zoological.occpapers.039 |access-date=18 March 2026}}</ref> as the distribution of Torinae, including the mahseers, encompass a vast geographical region containing hundreds of languages.<!--Unlikely to have a good comprehensive citation, though good luck!--> Mahseers in Indonesia possess a multitude of names owing to the multiethnic composition of the country; in certain parts of Java, they are referred to as ''ikan dewa''; literally God-Fish or Fish of the Gods.<ref name="Detik"/><ref name="Liputan6"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Mengenal Lebih Dekat Ikan Dewa, Harganya Jutaan dan Selalu Diburu Jelang Imlek |editor=Michael Hangga Wismabrata |url=https://regional.kompas.com/read/2020/01/22/06390061/mengenal-lebih-dekat-ikan-dewa-harganya-jutaan-dan-selalu-diburu-jelang |website=Kompas.com |date=21 January 2020 |publisher=Kompas |access-date=17 February 2023|language=Indonesian}}</ref> Some names are shared with Malay, such as ''empurau'',<ref name=Empurau>{{cite web| url = https://www.thestar.com.my/news/community/2014/01/24/empurau-as-national-fish-breeder-suggests-to-tourism-malaysia-boss| title = Empurau as national fish, breeder suggests to Tourism Malaysia boss {{!}} The Star| date = 24 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Empurau |url=https://inaexport.id/produk/seafood/2649/empurau |website=inaexport.id |publisher=Ministry of Trade Republic of Indonesia |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> ''kelah'', ''semah'', or ''pelian''.<ref name="Micros"/><!--If you feel this is undue focus feel free to add other local names-->
==Description== Members of this subfamily are united by several features, such as polyploidy, large scales, and a smooth, ossified, last unbranched dorsal-fin ray.<ref name="MEA"/><ref>Berrebi, P., Chenuil, A., Kotlík, P., Machordom, A. & Tsigenopoulos, C.S. (2014) Disentangling the evolutionary history of the genus Barbus sensu lato, a twenty years adventure. In: Alves, M.J., Cartaxana, A., Correia, A.M. & Lopes, L.F. (Eds.), Professor Carlos Almaça (1934–2010). Estado da Arte em Áreas Cientícas que Desenvolveu. Museu Nacional de História Natural e da Ciência, Lisboa, pp. 29–55</ref><ref>Arai, R. (2011) Fish Karyotypes: A Check List. Springer, Tokyo, 348 pp.</ref> As members of the carp family, they possess no teeth in their jaws, instead possessing pharyngeal teeth that they use to crush and masticate food,<ref name="FAOTor"/> such as bivalves and gastropods.<ref>Hora, S.L. 1940. The game fishes of India IX. The mahseer or the large scaled barbels of India 2. The tor mahseer, Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 41:518-25.</ref><ref name=Donald/>
These fish are sizeable, with the largest member of this subfamily, the golden mahseer ''Tor putitora'', being known to reach {{cvt|2.75|m|abbr=on}} in total length and {{cvt|54|kg|abbr=on}} in weight,<ref>{{cite web |title=Tor putitora (Hamilton, 1822) Putitor mahseer |url=https://www.fishbase.ca/summary/9194 |publisher=FishBase |access-date=18 March 2026}}</ref> though these measurements are exceptional, historical records. Sexual dimorphism is mild if present, with males often being slightly smaller, developing tubercles on their head, and/or possessing brighter coloration, though reliable distinction between sexes is only possible during the breeding season, where ripe females have bulging, soft abdomens and slightly swollen vents.<ref name="FAOTor" /> [[File:Image 11638f-Neolissochilus-pnar.jpg|thumb|left|''Neolissochilus pnar'']] Mahseers generally prefer fast-flowing cold-water rivers and streams, especially those with rocky bottoms and deep pools.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name="Mighty"/><ref>Dinesh, K., Nandeesha, M. C., Nautiyal, P. and Aiyyappa, P. 2010. Mahseers in India: A review with focus on conservation and management. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 80: 26-38</ref><ref>Ng, C. K. 2004. King of the rivers: Mahseer in Malaysia and the region. Inter Sea Fishery (M) SDN BHD, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 170 pp.</ref> Two species of ''Neolissochilus'' are known to inhabit caves, being ''N. subterraneus'' of Thailand and ''N. pnar'' of India.<ref>Vidthayanon, C. and Kottelat, M. 2003. Three new species of fishes from Tham Phra Wang Daeng and Tham Phra Sai Ngam caves in northern Thailand (Teleostei: Cyprinidae and Balitoridae). Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters v. 14(no. 2): 159-174.</ref><ref name="Pnar">{{Cite journal |last1=Dahanukar |first1=Neelesh |last2=Sundar |first2=Remya L. |last3=Rangad |first3=Duwaki |last4=Proudlove |first4=Graham |last5=Raghavan |first5=Rajeev |date=2023-06-02 |title=The world's largest cave fish from Meghalaya, Northeast India, is a new species, Neolissochilus pnar (Cyprinidae, Torinae) |url=https://vertebrate-zoology.arphahub.com/article/101011/ |journal=Vertebrate Zoology |language=en |volume=73 |pages=141–152 |doi=10.3897/vz.73.e101011 |s2cid=256647128 |issn=2625-8498|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Like typical carp, species of Torinae are generalist feeders, eating a variety of food sources such as detritus (including municipal sewage and buffalo dung), macrophytes, algae of the filamentous and epilithic (aufwuchs) variety, invertebrates such as mollusks, crustaceans, and insects, along with the occasional small fish.<ref name="ZSI" /><ref name="Gumara"/> The barbels, protrusible and suctorial mouth, along with mud, sand, and debris within the stomach content of ''Tor spp.'' is indicative of a bottom-feeding niche.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name="ZSI" /> The mbaraga (''Acapoeta tanganicae'') retains a generalist diet despite the species' morphological specializations for scrape-feeding on aufwuchs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Acapoeta tanganicae (Boulenger, 1900) |url=https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Acapoeta-tanganicae |publisher=FishBase |access-date=18 March 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite IUCN|title=Acapoeta tanganicae|last=Ntakimazi|first=G.|year=2006|access-date=2026-03-18|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T61308A12459046.en}}</ref><ref>Eccles, D.H. 1992. FAO species identification sheets for fishery purposes. Field guide to the freshwater fishes of Tanzania. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome</ref><ref>Takamura K. 1984. Interspecific relationships of aufwuchs-eating fishes in Lake Tanganyika. Environmental Biology of Fishes 10 (4): 225–241. [https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00001476 DOI Link]</ref> Dietary niche shift is observed, with juveniles consuming more animal matter than the more herbivorous adults.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name="ZSI" /><ref name="Gumara">{{cite journal |last1=Zelalem |first1=Wondie |last2=Anteneh |first2=Wassie |last3=Mingist |first3=Minwyelet |last4=Kibret |first4=Mulugeta |last5=Adgo |first5=Enyew |last6=Nyssen |first6=Jan |last7=Verleyen |first7=Elie |last8=Soto |first8=David X. |last9=Bouillon |first9=Steven |last10=De Vocht |first10=Alain |title=Importance of environmental flow on feeding and distribution of juvenile Labeobarbus species in the Gumara River, Lake Tana Sub-basin, Ethiopia |journal=Great Lakes Research |date=December 2022 |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=1647–1658 |doi=10.1016/j.jglr.2022.08.021 |bibcode=2022JGLR...48.1647Z }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhatt |first1=Jay P. |last2=Pandit |first2=Maharaj K. |title=Endangered Golden mahseer Tor putitora Hamilton: a review of natural history |journal=Rev Fish Biol Fisheries |date=14 November 2015 |volume=26 |pages=25–38 |doi=10.1007/s11160-015-9409-7 |url=https://baliparafoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Endangered-Golden-Mahseer-a-review-of-natural-history.pdf |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref><ref>Engdaw, F., 2014. Morphometric relations, diet composition and ontogenetic dietary shift of L. intermedius (Ruppell, 1836) in Lake Tana gulf of Gorgora, Ethiopia. International Journal of Fishery and Aquaculture, 6: 9-16.</ref>
Migratory habits are well known in the larger species, and most migrations occur for reproduction.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name="ZSI" /><ref>W. Anteneh Ecology of Spawning Migration and Juvenile Habitat Use by Labeobarbus Spp Addis Ababa University (2013)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zelalem |first1=Wondie |last2=Mingist |first2=Minwyelet |last3=Anteneh |first3=Wassie |last4=Kibret |first4=Mulugeta |last5=Adgo |first5=Enyew |last6=Nyssen |first6=Jan |last7=Verleyen |first7=Elie |last8=De Vocht |first8=Alain |title=Spawning migration and habitat characteristics of Labeobarbus species in the Gumara River and its tributaries, Lake Tana subbasin, Ethiopia |journal=Belgian Journal of Zoology |date=9 July 2024 |volume=154 |pages=97–116 |doi=10.26496/bjz.2024.183}}</ref><ref name="Emulating"/> Mahseer may have multiple spawning events in a year.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name="Mighty" /> Spawning behaviors are triggered by changes in temperature and the monsoon flood.<ref name=Donald>MacDonald, A. S. J. 1948. Circumventing the mahseer and other sporting fish in India and Burma. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., (Bombay) Published 1992, Natraj Publishers, Dehradun.</ref><ref>Thomas, H. S. 1897. The rod in India being hints how to obtain sport with remarks on the natural history of fish and their culture, 3rd edn. W. Thacker and Co., London, UK.</ref> For approximately a week after hatching, larvae of ''Tor spp.'' have a semi-quiescent phase where they aggregate on the benthos with their tails facing outwards.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name="ZSI" /> After their yolk is spent, the fry start moving actively and feed on zooplankton such as ''Artemia'' and ''Moina''.<ref name="FAOTor" /> These fish are slow-growing and long-lived.<ref name="FAOTor" />
==Taxonomy== [[File:TorRemadeviiLarge.png|thumb|Despite being well known to the angling community for over one-and-a-half centuries, the south Indian humpback mahseer did not have a valid scientific name until 2007, when it was named ''Tor remadeviae'', though it was only in 2018 that this name was conclusively linked to these fish.<ref name=Remad/>]] The type genus of Torinae, ''Tor'', apparently originates from ''tora'', a word which – in its various altered, corrupted, or otherwise amended forms – may be considered "generic appellations" for large, Gangetic cyprinids.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Scharpf |first1=Christopher |title=Family CYPRINIDAE: Subfamily TORINAE Karaman 1971 (Large Barbs) |url=https://etyfish.org/torinae/ |publisher=The ETYFish Project |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> Historically, the name ''Barbus tor'' (''sensu'' Day, 1878)<ref>Day, F. 1878. Field notes of Sir Francis Day. William Clowes and Sons, London.</ref> was used to describe all "large-scaled barbels" in India.<ref name="FAOTor" />
Torinae contains the following genera:<ref name = "Cof family">{{Cof family|family=Torinae|access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref> {{Div col|colwidth=16em}} * ''Acapoeta'' Cockerell, 1910 * ''Arabibarbus'' Borkenhagen, 2014 * ''{{extinct}}Atlantor'' Borkenhagen & Freyhof, 2023 * ''Carasobarbus'' Karaman, 1971 * ''Hypselobarbus'' Bleeker, 1860 * ''Labeobarbus'' Rüppell, 1835 * ''Lepidopygopsis'' B. S. Raj 1941 * ''Mesopotamichthys'' M. S. Karaman, 1971 * ''Naziritor'' Mirza & Javed, 1985 * ''Neolissochilus'' Rainboth, 1985 * ''Osteochilichthys'' Hora, 1942 * ''Pterocapoeta'' Günther, 1902 * ''Sanagia'' Holly, 1926 * ''Tor'' Gray, 1834 {{Div col end}}
Due to phenotypic plasticity (e;g morphological differences between populations in different water bodies) and/or an unclear initial description, species identification may be difficult to perform.<ref name="FAOTor"/><ref name="Instability">{{cite journal |last1=Yousaf |first1=M. |last2=Hasan |first2=Z. |last3=Zaidi |first3=F. |last4=Rasheed |first4=S. B. |title=An overview of the taxonomic instability of endangered Golden and Zhobi mahseer in Pakistan |journal=Brazilian Journal of Biology |date=24 February 2021 |volume=83 |article-number=e243975 |doi=10.1590/1519-6984.243975 |pmid=34378659 |issn=1678-4375 |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/bjb/a/bPCDnfDFSpqgz5RwMhRzSFD/?format=pdf&lang=en |access-date=18 March 2026}}</ref><ref name=Pinder2019/> Taxonomic revisions were done in an attempt to resolve this issue,<ref name="Micros"/> and is likely still needed.<ref name="Pinder" /> For example, ''Neolissochilus benasi'' has been consistently found in a basal position to the rest of ''Neolissochilus'' and ''Tor'', having diverged earlier from both clades,<ref name="Phylogeny of Neolissochilus and stu">{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Chenyao |last2=He |first2=Jinghong |last3=Huang |first3=Honghao |last4=Wang |first4=Handong |last5=Chu |first5=Zhangjie |last6=Zhao |first6=Bo |last7=Guo |first7=Shuirong |title=Phylogeny of Neolissochilus and studies on intergeneric kinship geography of Cyprinidae |journal=Hydrobiologia |date=5 July 2024 |volume=851 |issue=19 |pages=4739–4759 |doi=10.1007/s10750-024-05628-w |bibcode=2024HyBio.851.4739Z }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Labrechai Mog |last2=Mukhim |first2=Dran Khlur Baiaineh |last3=Sarma |first3=Kangkan |last4=Warbah |first4=Deisakee Pyrbot |last5=Sarma |first5=Dandadhar |last6=Jena |first6=Joykrushna |last7=Mohindra |first7=Vindhya |title=Mitogenome of Neolissochilus pnar, the largest cavernicolous species of Mahseer |journal=Scientific Reports |date=2025 |volume=15 |issue=8893 |article-number=8893 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-80864-7 |pmid=40087296 |pmc=11909221 |bibcode=2025NatSR..15.8893C |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80864-7.pdf |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> thus ''"N." benasi'' may be moved to a new genus in the future.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Lan-Ping |last2=Yang |first2=Jun-Xing |last3=Chen |first3=Xiao-Yong |title=Molecular phylogeny and systematics of the Barbinae (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) in China inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences |journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology |date=October 2016 |volume=69 |pages=250–259 |doi=10.1016/j.bse.2016.07.012 |bibcode=2016BioSE..68..250Z }}</ref>
The following cladogram is based on a maximum likelihood phylogram based on a set of mitochondrial markers recovered by a 2017 study:<ref name="MEA">{{cite journal |title=Molecular phylogeny of the tribe Torini Karaman, 1971 (Actinopterygii: Cypriniformes) from the Middle East and North Africa |journal=Zootaxa |date=23 February 2017 |volume=4236 |issue=2 |pages=291–301 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4236.2.4 |issn=1175-5326}}</ref> {{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Mesopotamichthys sharpeyi'' |label2=''Arabibarbus'' |2={{clade |1=''Arabibarbus hadhrami'' |2=''Arabibarbus grypus'' }} }} |label2=''Carasobarbus'' |2={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=11 |label1=Eastern group |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Carasobarbus canis'' |2={{clade |1=''Carasobarbus exulatus'' |2={{clade |1=''Carasobarbus chantrei'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Carasobarbus luteus'' I |2=''Carasobarbus apoensis'' }} |2=''Carasobarbus luteus'' II }} }} }} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Carasobarbus sublimus'' |2=''Carasobarbus kosswigi'' I }} |2=''Carasobarbus kosswigi'' II }} }} |label2=Western group |2={{clade |1=''Carasobarbus harterti'' |2=''Carasobarbus fritschii'' }} }} }} |label2=''Labeobarbus''|sublabel2=African hexaploids |2={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=12 |1=''Labeobarbus beso'' |2={{clade |1=''Labeobarbus caudovittatus'' |2={{clade |1=''Labeobarbus ethiopicus'' |2=''Labeobarbus intermedius'' }} }} }} }} |2=''Pterocapoeta maroccana'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Tor'' |bar1=yellow |2=''Neolissochilus'' |bar2=yellow}} }} |2=''Hypselobarbus'' |bar2=yellow |grouplabel2=Asian tetraploids}} |2=''Barbus'', ''Pethia'', ''Enteromius'', ''Cyprinus'', ''Carassius'', ''Barbonymus'', ''Gymnocypris'' }} |2=''Labeo'' }} |2=''Alburnus alburnus'' }}
The following cladogram is based on a 2024 study of cyprinid mitogenomes and its resultant maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree:<ref name="Phylogeny of Neolissochilus and stu"/> {{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1=''Tor'' |1={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=24 |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Tor khudree'' |2=''Tor malabaricus'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Tor tambra'' |2=''Tor tambroides'' }} |3=''Tor barakae'' }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Tor putitora'' |2=''Tor mosal mahanadicus'' }} |2=''Tor tor'' }} }} |2={{clade |1=''Tor sinensis'' |2=''Tor douronensis'' }} }} |label2=''Neolissochilus'' |2={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=23 |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus hendersoni'' |2=''Neolissochilus soroides'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus heterostomus'' |2=''Neolissochilus stracheyi'' }} }} |2=''Neolissochilus qiaojiensis'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus hexagonolepis'' |2=''Neolissochilus hexastichus'' }} }} }} |2=''Neolissochilus benasi'' }} |label2=''Labeobarbus'' |2={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=22 |1=''Labeobarbus intermedius'' |2=''Labeobarbus sp.'' Lucien }} }} |label2=''Hypselobarbus'' |2={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=21 |1={{clade |1=''Hypselobarbus pulchellus'' |2=''Hypselobarbus jerdoni'' }} |2=''Hypselobarbus thomassi'' }} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Acrossocheilus'' spp. |2=''Onychostoma'' spp. }} |2=''Onychostoma'' spp. (incl. ''Acrossocheilus yunnanensis'') }} |2=''Spinibarbus'' spp. }} |2={{clade |1=''Cyprinus'' spp. |2=''Procypris'' spp. }} }} }} |2=''Labeo'' spp. }}
The following cladogram is based on a Bayesian phylogenetic tree from a 2025 study analyzing 13 mitochondrial PCGs and two ribosomal RNA genes:<ref>{{cite journal |title=Mitochondrial genome sequence of the Dark Mahseer (Naziritor chelynoides) supports its phylogenetic position within the subfamily Torinae and population structure across the Ganges River basin |journal=Biologia |date=11 August 2025 |volume=80 |pages=3009–3022 |doi=10.1007/s11756-025-02014-2}}</ref> {{clade |1={{clade |label1=Probarbinae |1=''Catlocarpio siamensis'' |label2=Garrini |2=''Garra orientalis'' }} |label2='''Torinae''' |2={{clade |1=''Naziritor chelynoides'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Lepidopygopsis typus'' |label2=''Hypselobarbus'' spp. |2={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=31 |1=''Hypselobarbus thomassi'' |2={{clade |1=''Hypselobarbus jerdoni'' |2=''Hypselobarbus pulchellus'' }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus benasi'' |2={{clade |1=''Labeobarbus intermedius'' |2={{clade |label1=''Neolissochilus'' spp. |1={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=32 |1={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus hexagonolepis'' |2={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus hexastichus'' |2=''Neolissochilus pnar'' }} }} |2={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus qiaojiensis'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus hendersoni'' |2=''Neolissochilus soroides'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Neolissochilus stracheyi'' |2=''Neolissochilus heterostomus'' }} }} }} }} |label2=''Tor'' spp. |2={{clade hidden|mode=left|id=33 |1=''Tor douronensis'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Tor putitora'' |2=''Tor mosal'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Tor sinensis'' |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Tor tambra'' |2=''Tor tambroides'' }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Tor khudree'' |2=''Tor malabaricus'' }} |2={{clade |1=''Tor barakae'' |2=''Tor tor'' }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} The Asian genera are more basal than the African genera, and are tetraploids (2n≈100). According to studies of mitochondrial DNA and RAG1, the more derived hexaploid genera (2n≈150) are thought to have arisen due to a hybridization event in prehistory, where ancestral tetraploid torines reproduced with males of ''Cyprinion'' or similar species (which are diploid; 2n≈50), with the resultant offspring colonizing West Asia and Africa.<ref name = Yang2015/><ref name="MEA"/>
==Relation to humans== [[File:SA Largemouth yellowfish record-22,2 Kg.png|thumb|{{convert|22.2|kg|abbr=on}} ''Labeobarbus kimberleyensis''; South African open record]] Torines are currently of interest for both recreational fishing, being highly valued as game fish,<ref name=Pinder/> and for aquaculture, where they are reared as food, but also to improve the wild stocks.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name="Mighty" /> It is noted that mahseer inhabiting jungles may sometimes be poisonous; after consuming certain fruit (such as those of "''Tarnktogenos kerzzii''" (=''Hydnocarpus kurzii'')) their flesh is said to induce a delirious effect.<ref name="ZSI" /> A variety of methods are used when fishing torine fish, including poison.<ref name="FAOTor" /> Mahseers have a high market price, with cultured fish often pricing around $30-50 dollars per kg,<ref>DOF . Annual Fisheries Statistics, 2016. Volume 1. Department of Fisheries Malaysia; Putrajaya, Malaysia: 2016. p. 53.</ref> and wild-caught fish costing up to $250 per kg;<ref>Kamarudin M.S., Ramezani-Fard E., Ishak S.D., De Cruz C.R., Bami M.L., Harris M.H.I., Misieng J.D. International Conference of Aquaculture Indonesia. Universitas Padjajaran; Bandung, Indonesia: 2014. Feeding and nutrition of endangered mahseers: A review. Keynote Paper.</ref> mahseers are one of the most expensive freshwater fish products, and are thus cultured in Malaysia and Indonesia.<ref name="Micros" />
Experimental aquaculture has resulted in a number of mahseer hybrids:<ref name="FAOTor" /> an unknown species of ''Tor'' was crossed with ''Labeo rohita'' in an effort to develop a fast-growing yet generalist-feeding offspring.<ref>Maharashtra Times. 1971. News article - 'Hybrid Mahseer', Bombay, June 25, 1971.</ref> Other hybrids include ''Tor tor'' × ''T. khudree'', with offspring intermediate in morphology,<ref>Ogale, S.N. & C.V. Kulkarni. 1987. Breeding of pond-raised hybrids of Mahseer fish, Tor khudree (Sykes) and T. tor (Ham.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 84:332-335.</ref> ''T. putitora'' × "''T. mussullah''", which may be bred through hypophysation or when the parents are provided a high protein diet, feed additives, and flowing water,<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ogale |first1=S.N. |title=Mahseer breeding and conservation and possibilities of commercial culture. The Indian experience. |website=Food and Agriculture Organization |url=https://www.fao.org/4/y3994e/y3994e0p.htm |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> and ''T. tambroides'' × ''Barbonymus gonionotus'', also through induced spawning.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Azfar-Ismail |first1=Muhammad |last2=Kamarudin |first2=Mohd Salleh |last3=Syukri |first3=Fadhil |last4=Latif |first4=Kamil |title=Larval development of a new hybrid Malaysian mahseer (Barbonymus gonionotus ♀ × Tor tambroides ♂) |journal=Aquaculture Reports |date=November 2020 |volume=18 |article-number=100416 |doi=10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100416 |bibcode=2020AqRep..1800416A }}</ref>
Juvenile and mahseer eggs from India have reportedly been transported to the Laotian Mekong and Papua New Guinea for stocking purposes; the eggs are apparently air-transportable after 24 hours of hardening, and when packed within layers of moist cotton.<ref name="FAOTor" />
===Pre-modern era=== Mahseers were revered by the isolated tribal societies of India,<ref name=Pinder2019/> being "afforded a saintly status as God's Fishes".<ref>Gupta N, Kanagavel A, Dandekar P, Dahanukar N, Sivakumar K, Mathur VB, Raghavan R (2016) God's fishes: religion, culture and freshwater fish conservation in India. Oryx 50:244–249</ref>
Archaeologists working at sites from the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BCE) collected pottery decorated with fish motifs as well as fish bones left in middens. Hora interpretated these motifs as various species common today in the Indus Basin, including mahseer.<ref>SL Hora; Fish paintings of the third millennium BC from Nal (Baluchistan) and their zoogeographical significance – 1956 – Manager of Publications, Civil Lines{{Verify source|date=March 2026}}</ref> During his study of the fish bones, the ethnoarchaeologist Dr William R. Belcher discovered that while fish comprised a substantial portion of this civilization's diet, largely being the bones of Indian carp and catfish,<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Fish exploitation of the Baluchistan and Indus Valley traditions: an ethnoarchaeological approach to the study of fish remains |date=January 1998 |access-date=2026-03-19 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/36125858}}</ref> bones of mahseer were extremely rare if present at all; it has been suggested that this is evidence of the mahseer's high cultural value for these peoples.<ref name=Pinder2019>{{cite journal |last1=Pinder |first1=Adrian C. |last2=Britton |first2=J. Robert |last3=Harrison |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Nautiyal |first4=Prakash |last5=Bower |first5=Shannon D. |last6=Cooke |first6=Steven J. |last7=Lockett |first7=Steve |last8=Everard |first8=Mark |last9=Katwate |first9=Unmesh |last10=Ranjeet |first10=K. |last11=Walton |first11=Sam |last12=Danylchuk |first12=Andy J. |last13=Dahanukar |first13=Neelesh |last14=Raghavan |first14=Rajeev |title=Mahseer (Tor spp.) fishes of the world: status, challenges and opportunities for conservation |journal=Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries |date=2 May 2019 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=417–452 |doi=10.1007/s11160-019-09566-y |bibcode=2019RFBF...29..417P }}</ref>
Scale armour fashioned from mahseer scales are known from both Sarawak and Pune. The people of Nagaland used mahseer pharyngeal teeth for decoration, and the nearby Bodo people fashioned their gill plates to create the ''muri'', an instrument similar to the oboe.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Night in the (Mahseer) Museum - The Value of Ancient Exhibits |date=4 January 2024 |url=https://www.mahseertrust.org/post/a-night-in-the-mahseer-museum-the-value-of-ancient-exhibits |publisher=Mahseer Trust |access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref>
References to masculine "mahseer-like" figures are found throughout Hindu religious scriptures, symbols, motifs, sculptures, and in ancient literature.<ref name=Pinder2019/><ref>Nautiyal P (2014) Review of the art and science of Indian Mahseer (Game fish) from nineteenth to twentieth century: road to extinction or conservation? Proc Natl Acad Sci India Sect B Biol Sci 84:215–236</ref>
During the later period of the Chalukya dynasty, under the Western Chalukya Empire, King Someshvara III writes of fishing within the rivers and seas of his kingdom, which encompass areas now known to be inhabited by ''Tor remadeviae'', ''Tor malabaricus'', and ''Tor khudree''; he explicitly names the "mahashila", "large river fish(es) of the scaly type",<ref name=Sadhale2005 /> and details the equipment, bait, and angling techniques for a wide variety of fish types, including mahseer; this account "provides robust evidence that the art of recreational angling was practiced in ancient India since the early twelfth century".<ref name="Pinder2019" />
===British India=== 175px|thumb|Advertisement for Mahseer fishing tackle 1897 Francis Buchanan-Hamilton was the first to scientifically describe species from this group in 1822, including what would become the type species of the subfamily; ''Cyprinus tor''.<ref name="OG">{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Francis |title=An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches |date=1822 |pages=303–304|publisher=A. Constable and company; [etc., etc.] |location=Edinburgh |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.6897}}</ref> H.S. Thomas gives a description of south Indian followers of Hinduism equating mahseers with Matsya, one of the god Vishnu's avatars who is responsible for saving Manu from the flood.<ref name=Rod/> This tale is common in many of the classic Hindu texts, with the first reference being in the Shatapatha Brahmana, part of the Vedas body of works dated from 1500 to 400 BCE.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
Mahseers were first mentioned as an angling challenge by the ''Oriental Sporting Magazine'' in 1833, quickly becoming a favorite quarry of British anglers living in India.<ref>Cordington, K. De. B. 1939. ''Notes on Indian Mahseer''. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 46: 336–334</ref> Many of those stationed in India enjoyed angling for mahseer, which they compared to the thrill of catching a salmon 'back home'. Indeed, H.S. Thomas, author of one of the first books on angling in the colonies said "the mahseer shows more sport for its size than a salmon".<ref name=Rod>{{cite book |title=The Rod in India |date=1873 |publisher=C. Stolz |location=Mangalore |url=https://archive.org/details/rodinindia00thomgoog/page/n9 |access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> They also produced guidebooks and penned letters to sporting journals such as ''The Field'' and ''Fishing Gazette''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
The Mysore Palace houses a number of taxidermied trophy mahseer.<ref>{{cite web |title=THE MAHSEER |url=https://wasiindia.com/the-mahseer/ |publisher=Wildlife Association of South India |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref>{{Additional citation needed|date=March 2026}} [[File:Kurwai State CoA.png|thumb|left|Kurwai State coat of arms with a Mahseer as supporter.]] The mahseer was an important symbol in the heraldry of certain Muslim-ruled former princely states of the Subcontinent such as Baoni, Bhopal, Kurwai and Rampur. Dost Mohammad Khan's son Yar Mohammad received from Nizam-ul-Mulk the insignia of the ''Maha Muratib'' (the dignity of the Fish).<ref name="William_Hough_1845">{{cite book | title = A brief history of the Bhopal principality in Central India | url = https://archive.org/details/abriefhistorybh01houggoog | author = Hough, William | publisher = Baptist Mission Press | location = Calcutta | year = 1845 | oclc = 16902742 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/abriefhistorybh01houggoog/page/n50 1]–4 }}</ref> The insignia became part of the Bhopal State's coat of arms.
The Mahseer fish as an emblem of the highest honour in royalty is allegedly of Persian origin and was adopted by the courts of Oudh and the Paigah nobles of Hyderabad State, being later passed down to other states of the area.<ref>Saad Bin Jung, ''Subhan and I: My Adventures with the Angling Legend of India''. Roli Books, New Delhi 2012 {{Verify source|date=March 2026}}</ref>
Translocations of mahseer within India have occurred since at least the 1850s;<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/186193 |title = The journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|publisher = Bombay Natural History Society|year = 1951| volume=50 }}</ref> these were intended to improve angling locales or in an attempt to augment declining stocks. Translocations occurred in the Lakes of Kumaon hills, Bhimtal, Nainital, Naukuchiatal, and Sattal Lake, which were stocked with mahseer by Sir H. Ramsey in 1858 from stocks brought from the rivers Gaula and Sharda. According to Walker in his 'Angling in the Kumaon Lakes', the Bhimtal stocking was less successful, until a second batch of fish were introduced in 1878.<ref name=Walker/>
Dr Raj, Fisheries Development Officer in United Provinces, in his 1945 report on the decline of mahseer stocks in the lakes says: "From all reports these isolated lakes had hardly any fish in them before the introduction of mahseer." <ref>{{cite web |url=https://insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/PINSA/Vol11_1945_3_Art16.pdf |title=The decline of the Mahser fisheries of the Kumaon lakes and a possible remedy |author=B. Sundara Raj |date=1945 |via=Indian National Science Academy}}{{Dead link|date=March 2026}}</ref> This is clearly a misunderstanding of the history of mahseer in the lakes, as Walker earlier says: {{blockquote|text=When I first angled in Nainital Lake, in 1863 and 1864, there were comparatively few large mahsir in it; there were shoals of the lake fish (''Barbus Chilinoides'') and many small trout (''Barilius Bola''). A morning's catch would include a couple of small mahsir, eight or nine 'lake-fish' and two or three trout. Gradually the mahsir have reduced the numbers of the other fish until it is a rare circumstance to catch a 'lake-fish' with the fly, and I have not for many years seen a single trout, although I heard of one being caught last year by a troller.|author=Walker, W.|title=Angling in the Kumaun Lakes: With a Map of the Kumaun Lake Country (1888)<ref name=Walker>{{cite book|author=Walker, W.|title=Angling in the Kumaun Lakes: With a Map of the Kumaun Lake Country|isbn=978-1-01-902594-9 |year=1888|publisher=Creative Media Partners, LLC }}{{Page needed|date=April 2024}}</ref>}} The inference must be that the introductions of mahseer into the lakes caused the unexpected decline of several native fish stocks, either due to competition, or by direct predation and that the earlier fish stocks were notable.
===Conservation=== [[File:Labeobarbus reinii.jpg|thumb|The giant Atlas barbel was recognized as belonging to its own distinct genus ''Atlantor'' two decades after its last sighting;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borkenhagen |first1=KAI |last2=Freyhof |first2=Jörg |title=Atlantor, a new generic name for Barbus reinii Günther, 1874 from Morocco(Teleostei: Cyprinidae) |journal=Zootaxa |date=26 July 2023 |volume=5319 |issue=4 |pages=429–434 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.5319.3.9 |pmid=37518220 |url=http://publication.plazi.org/id/1928B631FFECFFF27F5095417179FFAE }}</ref> the species is now deemed extinct.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Freyhof, J. |author2=Ford, M. |year=2022 |name-list-style=& |title=Labeobarbus reinii |article-number=e.T60765A137272327 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T60765A137272327.en |access-date=23 July 2022}}</ref>]] Many species of Torinae are poorly understood ecologically; around half of ''Tor'' species are considered data deficient.<ref name="Forget">{{cite web |title=Don't Forget the Fishes |date=23 February 2021 |url=https://www.mahseertrust.org/post/don-t-forget-the-fishes |publisher=Mahseer Trust |access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref><ref name="Micros"/> The 21st century has seen the advent of electronic tagging to determine the movement of mahseer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tracking Mahseer |url=https://fishconserve.org/our-work/mahseer-research-and-conservation-program/tracking-mahseer-2/ |publisher=FishConserve |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref>
Hydrological engineering, such as the construction of dams, is thought to be a major cause in the population decline of migratory Torinae,<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref name=Pinder2019/><ref>{{cite web |title=Hunt for Tor tor |date=28 April 2023 |url=https://www.mahseertrust.org/post/hunt-for-tor-tor |publisher=Mahseer Trust |access-date=19 March 2026}}</ref> along with other causes of habitat destruction such as destructive fishing practices, pollution, and sand mining.<ref name="Forget"/><ref name="Flock"/> Activities on land, such as deforestation, uncontrolled logging, and agriculture,<ref name="Micros"/> whose runoff reduces water quality,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kong |first1=Xiangzhen |last2=Ghaffar |first2=Salman |last3=Determann |first3=Maria |last4=Friese |first4=Kurt |last5=Jomaa |first5=Seifeddine |last6=Mi |first6=Chenxi |last7=Shatwell |first7=Tom |last8=Rinke |first8=Karsten |last9=Rode |first9=Michael |title=Reservoir water quality deterioration due to deforestation emphasizes the indirect effects of global change |journal=Water Research |date=1 August 2022 |volume=221 |article-number=118721 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2022.118721 |pmid=35717709 |bibcode=2022WatRe.22118721K }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-09/documents/ag_runoff_fact_sheet.pdf |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> is also a threat; exposure to pesticides has been proven to hinder growth and feeding.<ref>Kunwar, P. S., K. Parajuli, S. Badu, et al. 2021. "Mixed Toxicity of Chlorpyrifos and Dichlorvos Show Antagonistic Effects in the Endangered Fish Species Golden Mahseer (Tor putitora)." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology 240: 108923. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108923. DOI Link]</ref> Targeting the spawning grounds during spawning season may be especially impactful to the population.<ref name="Flock">{{cite journal |last1=Gebremedhin |first1=Shewit |last2=Bruneel |first2=Stijn |last3=Getahun |first3=Abebe |last4=Anteneh |first4=Wassie |last5=Goethals |first5=Peter |title=The Endemic Species Flock of Labeobarbus spp. in L. Tana (Ethiopia) Threatened by Extinction: Implications for Conservation Management |journal=Water |date=4 December 2019 |volume=11 |issue=12 |page=2560 |doi=10.3390/w11122560 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Water..11.2560G }}</ref>
Though not verified in mahseer, other migratory fish experience disruptions in their migratory patterns after hatchery stocks were introduced to the population, which may "prove to be the end for natural spawning behavior".<ref name="Forget"/>
Hatcheries often rely on induced spawning,<ref name="Mighty">{{cite journal |last5=Parvaiz Ahmad Ganie |last4=Mukul Arya |last3=Ravindra Posti |last1=Sarma |first1=Dr. Debajit |last2=Dinesh Mohan |title=The mighty mahseers of the genera Tor, Neolissochilus and Naziritor: A review on resource distribution, biology, ecotourism and conservation |journal=Indian Journal of Fisheries |date=December 2022 |volume=69 |issue=4 |doi=10.21077/ijf.2022.69.4.125074-20 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367609799 |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> such as through the application of ovaprim,<ref name="FAOTor">{{cite book |last1=Desai |first1=V. R. |title=SYNOPSIS OF BIOLOGICAL DATA ON THE TOR MAHSEER Tor tor (Hamilton, 1822) |date=2003 |publisher=FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS |location=Rome |isbn=92-5-104933-5 |url=https://www.fao.org/4/y4642e/y4642e.pdf |access-date=18 March 2026}}</ref> but successful spawning has been achieved through "photo-thermal manipulation" (by exposing adult mahseer to adjustable artificial light levels;<ref>Akhtar, M. S., Rajesh, M., Ciji, A., Sharma, P., Kamalam, B. S., Patiyal, R. S. and Sarma, D. 2018. Photo-thermal manipulations induce captive maturation and spawning in endangered golden mahseer (Tor putitora): A silver-lining in the strangled conservation efforts of decades. Aquaculture, 497: 336-347. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.08.003 DOI Link].</ref> see also artificial light supplementation). Artificial waterways mimicking natural lake-and-river systems have also been successful in achieving spawning behaviors which produced viable eggs.<ref name="Emulating">{{cite journal |last1=Abdissa |first1=Belay |last2=Getahun |first2=Abebe |last3=Dejen |first3=Eshete |title=Emulating the natural spawning conditions of Labeobarbus brevicephalus (PISCES: Cyprinidae) from Lake Tana, Ethiopia |journal=Aquaculture Reports |date=April 2022 |volume=23 |article-number=101044 |doi=10.1016/j.aqrep.2022.101044 |bibcode=2022AqRep..2301044A }}</ref> Hatchery broodstocks often have high homozygosity, which indicates high levels of inbreeding; methods of mitigation may include selecting for parent fish from different stocks or populations.<ref name="Micros">{{cite journal |last1=Chew |first1=Poh Chiang |last2=Christianus |first2=Annie |last3=Zudaidy |first3=Jaapar M. |last4=Ina-Salwany |first4=Md Yasin |last5=Chong |first5=Chou Min |last6=Tan |first6=Soon Guan |title=Microsatellite Characterization of Malaysian Mahseer (Tor spp.) for Improvement of Broodstock Management and Utilization |journal=Animals (Basel) |date=8 September 2021 |volume=11 |issue=9 |page=2633 |doi=10.3390/ani11092633 |doi-access=free|pmid=34573599 |pmc=8471032 }}</ref> Alternatively, a ranching system may hold promise: larvae are reared to advanced fingerling stage within artificial channels adjacent to the main river before being released into the wild. This method has shown success with Pacific salmon.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ranching mahseer (Tor tor and Tor putitora) in the running waters of Nepal. (by T.K. Shrestha) |url=https://www.fao.org/4/y3994e/y3994e0w.htm |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref>
In India, many states have adopted mahseer as their State Fish.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=First Record of Two Mahseer Fish Species from Southern Odisha: A Success Story from Central University of Odisha |date=2024-11-29 |publisher=CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF ODISHA, KORAPUT |url=https://cuo.ac.in/Events-images/445.pdf |access-date=22 March 2026}}</ref> Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand all have the golden mahseer, Nagaland has the chocolate mahseer (''Neolissochilus hexagonolepis''), Odisha has the 'Mahanadi mahseer' (''Tor mosal mahanadicus''),<ref>{{cite web|title=State Fishes of India|url=http://nfdb.gov.in/PDF/Fish%20&%20Fisheries%20of%20India/2.State%20Fishes%20of%20India.pdf|publisher=National Fisheries Development Board, Government of India|access-date=25 December 2020}}{{Dead link|date=March 2026}}</ref> and Karnataka is considering changing its State Fish from Carnatic carp to the Critically Endangered ''Tor remadeviae''.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.deccanherald.com/state/mahseer-may-get-state-fish-tag-744615.html| title = Mahseer may get 'state fish' tag {{!}} Deccan Herald| date = 3 July 2019}}</ref>
Mahseers are culturally protected in India while in the vicinity of certain sites, such as temples and bathing ghats, where they are protected from fishing and become "almost tame" due to abundant offerings of feed by visitors.<ref name="FAOTor" /><ref>David, A. 1959. Observations on spawning grounds of the Gangetic major carps with note on carp seed resources in India. Indian J. Fish., 6(2):327-41.</ref> These "temple sanctuaries" or "temple pools", which are sometimes centuries-old, often support dense accumulations of mahseer outside of the monsoon season, which may precipitate risks of mass mortality if these areas become polluted or poisoned,<ref name=Pinder/><ref name=Pinder2019/> such as with the 1996 poisoning of the fish near Shishileshwara temple, Shishila.<ref>{{cite news |title=The sacred fish tales of Shishila |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/magazine/2013/Oct/06/the-sacred-fish-tales-of-shishila-523411.html |access-date=26 March 2026 |agency=The New Indian Express |date=5 October 2013}}</ref> An instance of mass mortality (known as a fish kill) occurred in early February 2026, which affected the sacred mahseer of the {{ill|Balong Kramat Cigugur|lt=Balong Kramat Cigugur|id|Balong Kramat Cigugur}} tourist attraction in Kuningan Regency, West Java.<ref name="Detik">{{cite news |title=Ikan Dewa Kuningan Mati Mendadak dan Mitos yang Hidup di Baliknya |url=https://www.detik.com/jabar/berita/d-8339098/ikan-dewa-kuningan-mati-mendadak-dan-mitos-yang-hidup-di-baliknya |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=Detik Jawa Barat |date=4 February 2026}}</ref> It is thought that this fish kill was caused by the mahseers' declining body condition due to poor water quality, or lowered temperatures following rainfall.<ref name="Liputan6">{{cite news |title=923 Ikan Dewa Kuningan Mati Mendadak, Pakar Soroti Kualitas Air |url=https://www.liputan6.com/health/read/6278761/923-ikan-dewa-kuningan-mati-mendadak-pakar-soroti-kualitas-air |access-date=22 March 2026 |publisher=Liputan6 |date=15 February 2026}}</ref>
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Additional sources== * Nautiyal, Prakash, ed. 1994. ''Mahseer: The Game Fish.'' Natural History, Status and Conservation Practices in India and Nepal. Rachna. * Ambak, M.A., Ashraf, A.H. and Budin, S. 2007. Conservation of the Malaysian Mahseer in Nenggiri Basin through Community Action. In: Mahseer, The Biology, Culture and Conservation. Malaysian Fisheries Society Occasional Publication No.14, Kuala Lumpur 2007:217–228 *National Agricultural Technology Project, 2004. Germplasm inventory, evaluation and gene banking of freshwater fishes. World Bank funded Project MM, No: 27/28/98/NATP/MM-III, 18–32p. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow India. * {{cite journal|author=Mohindra, V.|author2=Khare, Praveen|author3=Lal, K. K.|author4=Punia, P.|author5=Singh, R. K.|author6=Barman, A. S.|author7=Lakra, W. S.|name-list-style=amp|year=2007|title=Molecular discrimination of five Mahseer species from Indian peninsula using RAPD analysis|journal=Acta Zoologica Sinica|volume=53|issue=4|pages=725–732|url=http://www.allmedjournals.com/cnmed/Molecular-discrimination-of-five-Mahseer-species-from-Indian-peninsula-using-RAP.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426005627/http://www.allmedjournals.com/cnmed/Molecular-discrimination-of-five-Mahseer-species-from-Indian-peninsula-using-RAP.html|archive-date=2012-04-26}}
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Category:Torinae Category:Cyprinidae Category:Actinopterygii subfamilies Category:Culture of India
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