Theatre of China

{{Short description|none}} {{redirect|Chinese theatre}}

[[File:35699-Chengdu (49068415847).jpg|thumb|Performers in a production in Chengdu|300x300px]] '''Theatre of China''' has a long and complex history. Traditional Chinese theatre, generally in the form of Chinese opera, is musical in nature. Chinese theatre can trace its origin back a few millennia to ancient China, but the Chinese opera started to develop in the 12th century. Western forms like the spoken drama, western-style opera, and ballet did not arrive in China until the 20th century.{{sfn|Fu|2012|pages=1–6}}

==History== {{more|Chinese shamanism|History of Chinese dance|Timeline of Chinese music}} Theatre in China dates back to as early as the Shang dynasty (16th century BC?–{{circa}} 1046 BC). Oracle bone records reference rain dances performed by shamans,<ref>{{harvnb|Siu and Lovrick|loc=p. 4.}}</ref> while the ''Book of Documents'' mentions shamanistic dancing and singing.<ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=p. 8.}}</ref> For the Zhou dynasty ({{circa}} 1046 BC – 256 BC), evidence from the ''Chu Ci'' suggests that in the 4th or 3rd century BC State of Chu, shamans performed with music and costumes.<ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=pp. 8–9.}}</ref> Some scholars have identified poems from the ''Classic of Poetry'' as possible lyrics of songs accompanying court dances from the early or mid-Zhou dynasty.<ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=p. 9.}}</ref>

The Zhou royal court as well as the various ancient states employed professional entertainers which included not only dancers and musicians but also actors. The earliest court actors were likely clowns who pantomimed, danced, sang, and performed comedy.<ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=pp. 10–11.}}</ref> One of the most famous actors from this period was You Meng or Jester Meng (優孟), a giant who served King Zhuang of Chu (reigned 613–591 BC). After meeting the impoverished son of Sunshu Ao, the late prime minister of Chu, he is said to have spent a year imitating Sunshu Ao's speech and mannerism. Finally he performed his role at a banquet and successfully appealed to King Zhuang who then granted land to Sunshu Ao's son.<ref>{{harvnb|Siu and Lovrick|loc=p. 5.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=p. 11.}}</ref>

''Records of the Grand Historian'' by Sima Qian contains a passage about Confucius (551–479 BC) explaining the Great Warrior Dance or Dawu Dance ({{zh|c=大武舞|p=Dàwǔ Wǔ}}), which told the story of King Wu of Zhou's overthrow of the Shang dynasty in {{circa}} 1046 BC, and how he founded the Zhou dynasty with the help of Duke of Zhou and Duke of Shao. The Great Warrior Dance not only depicted a full story, but was also filled with symbolism, as Confucius explained:<ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=pp. 9–10.}}</ref>

{{quote|When they dance in two rows and lunge in all directions with their weapons, they are spreading the awe of his military might throughout the Central States. When they divide up and advance in twos, it indicates that the enterprise has now been successfully accomplished. When they stand for a long time in their dancing positions, they are waiting for the arrival of the rulers of the various states.}}

[[File:Dahuting tomb banquet scene with jugglers, Eastern Han Dynasty, mural.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Part of a second-century tomb mural from Dahuting which depicts entertainers at an aristocratic banquet.]] During the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), a wrestling show called Horn-Butting Show ({{zh|c=角觝戲|p=Jiǎodǐxì}}) flourished and became one of the so-called "Hundred Shows" (百戲) under Emperor Wu (reigned 141–87 BC). While most probably this was also a spectator sport, both textual and archaeological evidence suggests that performers were dressed in fixed roles and performed according to a plot. One such story the wrestlers re-enacted was the battle between a tiger and a magician named "Lord Huang from the East Sea" (東海黃公).<ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=pp. 11–12.}}</ref> Han-period murals discovered from an aristocratic tomb in Dahuting, Xinmi, Henan, offer strong proof that entertainers performed at banquets in the homes of higher-ranking ministers during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Dolby|loc=p. 12.}}</ref>

===Six Dynasties, Tang dynasty, and Five Dynasties=== An early form of Chinese drama is the ''Canjun Opera'' (參軍戲, or Adjutant Play) which originated from the Later Zhao dynasty (319–351).<ref name="dictionary">{{harvnb|Ye|loc=p. 3.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hk.chiculture.net/0519/html/d03/0519d03.html |title=唐代參軍戲 |work=中國文化研究院 }}</ref><ref name="Chengduweb">{{cite web |url=http://www.chengdu.cn:81/5chuanju.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224045340/http://www.chengdu.cn:81/5chuanju.asp |archive-date=February 24, 2007 |title=Sichuan Opera }}</ref> In its early form, it was a simple comic drama involving only two performers, where a corrupt officer, ''Canjun'' or the adjutant, was ridiculed by a jester named Grey Hawk (蒼鶻).<ref name="dictionary"/> The characters in ''Canjun Opera'' are thought to be the forerunners of the fixed role categories of later Chinese opera, particularly of its comic chou (丑) characters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.xip.fi/atd/china/the-tang-dynasty-618-907.html |title=The Tang Dynasty (618–907) |work=Asian Traditional Theatre and Dance }}</ref>

Various song and dance dramas developed during the Six Dynasties period. During the Northern Qi dynasty, a masked dance called the Big Face (大面, which can mean "mask", alternatively ''daimian'' 代面, and it was also called ''The Prince of Lanling'', 蘭陵王), was created in honour of Gao Changgong who went into battle wearing a mask.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgs4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1 |title=Music from the Tang Court: Volume 5 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 1985|editor= Laurence Picken |pages=1–12 |isbn=978-0521347761 }}</ref><ref name=Faye2 /> Another was called ''Botou'' (撥頭, also 缽頭), a masked dance drama from the Western Regions that tells the story of a grieving son who sought a tiger that killed his father.<ref>{{harvnb|Ye|loc=p. 336.}}</ref> In ''The Dancing Singing Woman'' (踏謡娘), which relates the story of a wife battered by her drunken husband, the song and dance drama was initially performed by a man dressed as a woman.<ref name=Faye2>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CiQegTh99-wC&pg=PA28 |title= Chinese Theories of Theater and Performance from Confucius to the Present |pages=28–29 |editor= Faye Chunfang Fei |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2002 |isbn= 978-0472089239 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.ccnt.com.cn/?catog=theater&file=030205 |title=Theatre |work=China Culture Information Net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225130854/http://english.ccnt.com.cn/?catog=theater&file=030205 |archive-date=December 25, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The stories told in of these song-and-dance dramas are simple, but they are thought to be the earliest pieces of musical theatre in China, and the precursors to the more sophisticated later forms of Chinese opera.<ref name=Faye2 /><ref name=theatre>{{cite web |url=http://www.xip.fi/atd/china/the-early-history-of-chinese-theatre.html |title=The Early History of Chinese Theatre |work=Asian Traditional Theatre and Dance }}</ref>

The Later Tang (923–937) founding emperor Li Cunxu (885–926) — who was of Shatuo extraction — was so passionate about theatre that he enjoyed acting himself. During his reign, he appointed three actors to prefect-ship and in the process alienated his army. In 926, after just 3 years on the throne, he was killed in a mutiny led by a former actor named Guo Congqian.

===Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties=== {{further|History of the Song dynasty|Nanxi opera|Zaju}} thumb|Mural from a Song dynasty tomb in Henan, depicting a dancer and accompanying musicians. In the Song dynasty, popular plays involving drama and music began to be developed, and by the 12th century, the term xìqǔ (戲曲) to mean Chinese opera began to be used this new form of theatrical entertainment. The development of theatre during the Song dynasty may also have been influenced by a Tang Buddhist tradition ''bianwen'' (變文), which mixed speech with song and used by monks to communicate Buddhist idea to the illiterate masses, but became popular entertainment during the Song dynasty. The narrative ballad and story-telling forms influenced Song dramas. Buddhist stories such as ''Mulian Rescues His Mother'' became themes in plays, and the one on Mulian was the first Chinese drama of great length.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fxWKB9jijgC&pg=PA17|title=Chinese Theater: From Its Origins to the Present Day|date=1988 |editor=Colin Mackerras|isbn=9787310049905|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> ''The Romance of the Western Chamber Zhu Gongdiao'' (西廂記諸宮調) by Dong Jieyuan (董解元) (later adapted into ''Romance of the Western Chamber'' by Wang Shifu) was created from ''bianwen''.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA12 12&ndash;13]}}

In Southern Song, a form of play called ''nanxi'' or ''Xiwen'' (戲文) developed in Wenzhou from local folk customs and musical forms. This has a set length and a full narrative, and the actors performed with speech and songs. ''Nanxi'' spread widely in the Southern Song, and theatrical entertainment flourished in its capital Lin'an (present day Hangzhou). Among the earliest surviving scripts is Southern Song work, ''The No. 1 Scholar Zhang Xie '' (張協狀元).{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA16 16&ndash;18]}} Specialised roles such as ''Dan'' (旦, dàn, female), ''Sheng'' (生, male), ''Jing'' (净,) and ''Chou'' (丑, clown) appeared in the Song era, and scripts referred to the roles such as the ''Dan'' or ''Sheng'' rather than the characters' names.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA22 20–23]}} thumb|left|Song dynasty ''zaju'', showing two women playing male roles, a popular convention during the Song dynasty A form of theatre known as ''zaju'' began to be developed in the Song and Jin dynasties. Song and Jin ''zaju'' was a small-scale comic form of theatre, and was distinct from Yuan ''zaju'' with its own independent development. Music is incidental to Song Jin ''zaju'' with incomplete narratives.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA23 23]}} [[File:Theatre actors, Yuan Dynasty.jpg|thumb|A mural depicting the Yuan ''zaju'' stage c. 1324, found in the Guangsheng Temple of Shanxi province.]] ''Zaju'' became the dominant form of theatre during the Yuan dynasty in major cities such as Kaifeng, Luoyang and Lin'an. Yuan dynasty ''zaju'' was also known as Northern tune (北曲) to distinguish it from the Southern form ''nanxi''. ''Zaju'' in the Yuan dynasty became a more sophisticated form that has a four- or five-act structure with a prologue. Each act is a musical piece based on a different ''gongdiao''. It was performed by courtesans for the amusement of court or local government officials. ''Zaju'' plays were focused on the principal male (''Sheng'') and female (''Dan'') characters, with the singing courtesans playing the main male or female characters, but some are played exclusively by male actors. Over time subcategories of male and female roles (such as lead and supporting roles, young, old or comic roles) also emerged.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA25 24–25]}}

Among the best-known dramatists of the period were Guan Hanqing (many of his works survive, including ''The Injustice to Dou E''), Wang Shifu (who wrote ''Romance of the Western Chamber''), Ma Zhiyuan (whose representative work is ''Autumn in Han Palace'', 漢宮秋), Ji Junxiang (best known for ''The Orphan of Zhao''), and Bai Pu. Verses from Yuan ''zaju'' are considered one of the important forms of Chinese literature, yuanqu (元曲).{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA22 22–33]}}

===Ming dynasty=== {{main article|Chuanqi (theatre)|Kunqu}} The ''nanxi'' of the Song and Yuan dynasties was considered a low art form due to its unsophisticated literary style, and its plays were often written by anonymous authors. The first ''nanxi'' work with a known author is ''Tale of the Pipa'' by Gao Ming, written in the late Yuan period. ''Tale of the Pipa'' elevated the status of ''nanxi'', and was highly regarded by the first Ming Emperor Hongwu. It became a model for Ming dynasty drama.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CiQegTh99-wC&pg=PA41 |title= Chinese Theories of Theater and Performance from Confucius to the Present |page=41 |editor= Faye Chunfang Fei |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2002 |isbn= 978-0472089239 }}</ref> ''Nanxi'' and other regional forms, such as such as Haiyan, Yuyao, an Yiyang tunes developed in Zhejiang, gradually replaced the northern ''zaju'', and by the middle of the Ming dynasty, ''nanxi'' had developed into a more complex dramatic form known as ''chuanqi'', which further developed into Kunqu Opera.<ref name=sun>{{cite journal |title=The Division between 'Nanxi' and 'Chuanqi|author=Sun, Mei|journal=American Journal of Chinese Studies| volume= 5 |number= 2|date= 1998|pages= 248–56| jstor=44288587}}</ref>

[[File:Pekinguniversitykunqu5.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|A scene from the most famous of kunqu operas, ''The Peony Pavilion'']] The Ming dynasty play writers were mostly educated and hold relatively high social status,<ref name="ReferenceA">王园园, “明代戏曲中女性德行意识” (Female Virtue Consciousness in the Opera of Ming Dynasty), 闽西职业技术学院学报(Journal of Minxi Vocational and Technical College) 2018, 20(04), 80-84 (April 2018).</ref> and ''chuanqi'' works were created mainly by scholars. Wei Liangfu created Kunshan tunes modified from tunes of Haiyan from near Hangzhou and Yiyang of Jiangxi, and he combined the ''nanxi'' rhythms which often used flute, and the northern ''zaju'' where plucked string instruments are preferred. The first Kunqu opera, ''Washing Silken Gauze'' (浣紗記, ''Huan Sha Ji'') was created by Liang Chenyu who used Kunshan tunes.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA48 48&ndash;50]}} Kunqu was regarded as an elegant part of the culture; it was promoted by scholars, and therefore became highly influential.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA66 66]}}

In the Ming dynasty, southern ''yiyang'' tunes fused with Kunqu and spread widely. ''Yiyang'' tunes lacked formal rules, was more uninhibited and exciting, therefore more appealing to the local classes and easily fused with local musical styles and produced many high-pitched tunes in numerous local operas. Another important development was the emergence of Shaanxi Opera in the Northwest with a two-phrase structure and clapper-based instrumentation, introducing a new form of musical style called ''banqiang'' (板腔). Its spread was facilitated by a Shaanxi rebel Li Zicheng who ended the Ming dynasty, later influencing the development of Peking Opera during the Qing dynasty.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA68 68–73]}}

During the Ming period (1368-1644), Chinese theatre may be divided into three categories by audience: imperial court, social elite, and the general public.<ref name="Shen, Grant 2019, p. 290">Shen, Grant. "Acting in the Private Theatre of the Ming Dynasty," in HIEA 124 Life in Ming China, edited by Sarah Schneewind, p. 289-311 (Imprints, 2019, p. 290.</ref> The Ming imperial court enjoyed opera, and Ming emperors generally kept their music entertainments within the palace.<ref>Lam, Joseph. ''Culture, Courtiers, and Competition''. p. 290</ref> Ming theatre, however, had less freedom than the previous dynasty, Yuan.<ref>Tian Yuan Tan, “The Sovereign and the Theatre,” in ''Long Live the Emperor'', edited by Sarah Schneewind, p. 149-69 (The United States of America: Society for Ming Studies), p. 150</ref> In the Yuan and early Song period, some plays may include a role of the emperor,<ref name="Tian Yuan Tan p. 149-69">Tian Yuan Tan, “The Sovereign and the Theatre,” in ''Long Live the Emperor'', edited by Sarah Schneewind, p. 149-69 (The United States of America: Society for Ming Studies), p.151</ref> however, Ming Emperor Taizu prohibited actors from impersonating any imperial members, high officials, or well-respected figures,<ref name="Tian Yuan Tan p. 149-69"/> although such restrictions were not always observed by opera troupes who performed for commoners in public theatre.<ref>Tian Yuan Tan, "The Sovereign and the Theatre," in ''Long Live the Emperor'', edited by Sarah Schneewind, p. 149-69 (The United States of America: Society for Ming Studies), p. 154-62</ref>thumb|Chinese theatre production pre-1912, and probably in Shandong province

Private theatre troupes featured prominently during Ming China, and government officials, rich merchants, and eunuchs may manage private theatre troupes to entertainment guests in stages built in their private residences, or a sign of status.<ref>{{harvnb|Shen|loc= pp. 28–29.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=pp. 129, 132.}}</ref> A female courtesan in late Ming named Ma Xianglan was the only woman known to have owned a private theatre troupe.<ref>Mi Zhao, “Ma Xianglan and Wang Zhideng Onstage and Offstage,” Asian Theatre Journal 34 #1 (Spring 2017).</ref> Developing a private theatre troupe represented a huge investment; the owners first pick potential actors from poor families or slave households and from performing schools, with more emphasis on their looks.<ref>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=pp. 36-40.}}</ref> and the owners would invest in further training for these people.<ref>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=p. 38.}}</ref><ref name=xu>{{cite journal|title=The Music Teacher: The Professionalization of Singing and the Development of Erotic Vocal Style During Late Ming China|last=Xu|first=Peng|pages=259–297|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|year=2015|volume=75|number=2|doi=10.1353/jas.2015.0016|s2cid=193410120}}</ref> The troupe leaders may hire retired actors to teach the actors, and some were trained actors themselves.<ref name=shen4951>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=pp. 49–51.}}</ref> The actors underwent strict training in singing, dancing, and role-playing techniques, which may take as long as eight years.<ref name="Shen, Grant 2019, p. 290"/><ref>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=p. 45.}}</ref> While the performers were highly skilled, they were also regarded to be of low status in Ming society, as it was common practice for them to provide sexual services, both heterosexual and homosexual.<ref name=shen5963>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=pp. 59, 63.}}</ref> Some actresses become their owners' wives or concubines<ref name=shen5963/> The common career span for actors were ten years. When actors passed their teenage years, they had the freedom to retire.<ref name=shen67>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=p. 67.}}</ref>

Professional public troupes did not thrive until Ming elite class started to collapse.<ref name="Liu Xuan刘轩 2017">Liu Xuan刘轩,《牡丹亭·写真》昆剧舞台演出史考略 (On A History of the Performance of Kunqu Opera Portrait in The Peony Pavilion), 中华戏曲(Chinese Traditional Opera) 2017, (02), 197-213 (February 2017)</ref> Due to the Ming's Confucian influence of gender separation, public theatres were dominated by males.<ref>Leung Li, Siu. ''Cross Dressing in Chinese Opera''. p. 57</ref> Confucian influences extended to the plays; Ming plays often conveyed Confucian teachings, especially in private theatre troupes.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> For instance, as women desired more equality towards late Ming, Wang Tingne wrote a play called Shi Hou Ji (狮吼记) that emphasized male authority over women.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

The standard types of Ming actors includes Cai, Hui, and Zhi.<ref name="Liu Xuan刘轩 2017"/> Cai is extraordinary talent, and Hui is the wisdom that enables them to utilize their skills with flexibility. The most important one is Zhi, the ability to combine practical and abstract beauty on stage.<ref name="Liu Xuan刘轩 2017"/> As for techniques, the actors needed to excel in singing, dancing, and role-playing. These actors developed outstanding singing and dancing techniques to serve the ultimate goal of creating a character.<ref>{{harvnb|Shen|loc=p. 99.}}</ref>

===Qing dynasty=== thumb|upright=0.8|A performance of ''The Drunken Concubine'' (貴妃醉酒) in Peking Opera During the Qing dynasty, Peking opera developed from a mixing of different opera styles and became the dominant form. In 1790, various local opera troupes performed in Beijing in celebration of the 55th year of Qianlong Emperor's reign. The Huizhou opera troupes, which performed operas with diverse tune patterns including Kunqu, Clapper Opera and the Erhuang melody prove to be the most popular. Hanju Opera that came from the Yangtze River and Hanshui area was also popular, and the mixing of Huizhou and Hanju produced the Peking Opera.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA74 75–75]}} Peking opera inherited many stories form Kunqu opera, but other styles of opera, such as the Clapper opera, which were popular with the common people had greater influence on its development. Teahouses which sprang up in Beijing staged Peking operas. Kunqu, referred to as Yabu (雅部, "elegant drama"), declined in popularity as it came under competition from a variety of operas including Peking Opera known collectively as Huabu (花部, "flowery drama"). A range of other regional operas also emerged, such as Shanxi opera, Henan opera, Hebei opera, Shandong Laizhou clapper opera, Cantonese opera and Fujian opera.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA74 75–75]}}

In various regions, local forms of opera flourished, and became popular in major cities by the end of the Qing dynasty and early Republican era. Some of these may developed from folk song-and-dance performances that evolved from "The Dancing Singing Woman" (踏謡娘) style of theatre, such as Flower-Drum (花鼓) Opera, Flower-Lantern (花燈) Opera, Tea-Picking (採茶) Opera and Yangge Opera. For example, the Huangxiao Flower-Drum opera of Hubei evolved into Chuju (楚劇) in Wuhan.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA80 79–81]}} Wuxi Opera, Shanghai Opera, and Shaoxing Opera on the other hand developed from a form of opera popular south of the Yangtze River called Tanhuang, while Pingju Opera formed from Lianhualao and Yangge in Hebei.

===20th century=== By the early 20th century, non-singing theatrical forms began to appear under the influence of Western dramas and stage plays.{{sfn|Fu|2012 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_A3t61VgNXkC&pg=PA3 3&ndash;4]}} Shanghai, where Western drama was first staged by Western expatriate communities in China in 1850, was the birthplace of modern Chinese stage plays. Students of St. John's College were known to have performed the first modern Chinese play ''A Shameful Story About Officialdom'' (官场丑事, ''Guan Chang Chou Shi''') in 1899, and in 1900, students of Nanyang College staged three plays based on contemporary events, such as one based on the Six Gentlemen (六君子) and the Boxer Rebellion. Student plays proliferated, with students playing an important role in the development of spoken theater (''huaju''), and notable dramatists such as Cao Yu, Hong Shen, and Gao Xingjian began honed their craft on campus.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tk7WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT80|title=中国舞台上的塞缪尔·贝克特:跨文化戏剧演出研究:1964~2011|author= 施清婧 |date= 2015 |isbn=9787310049905|publisher=南开大学出版社 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Among the most important plays produced in this period was ''Thunderstorm'' by Cao Yu.

In the Republican era, Cantonese opera entered a golden age, with numerous new plays being written. Peking Opera also became popular in Shanghai, where new dramas in the form serialized dramas emerged. The best-known actor of Peking opera was Mei Lanfang, whose performances spread the fame of Peking opera worldwide.

[[File:Revolutionary_opera.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|''The Red Detachment of Women'']] In the People's Republic of China era, the government set up a special department for the improvement of drama. The first national opera festival was organized where numerous operas from around country as well as operas identified as "model plays" were performed. Opera was modified, and Model opera with political message was created. The first Model Opera was ''Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy''. By the Cultural Revolution, Model opera had monopolized the theatre. However, after the Cultural Revolution, traditional forms were revived and with fewer restrictions, and new plays influenced by Western theatre also began to be staged.

==Modern Chinese theatre==

[[File:Lijiang Yunnan China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg|thumb|Scene from a public performance in the Jade Dragon Snow Mountain Open Air Theatre|upright=1.2]]

Modern Chinese theatre and drama has changed quite a lot compared to the past. The influences of the modern world affected the form of music/ theatre/ drama the Chinese were having. The rapid development of the country affected theater plays. The current Chinese theater has been developed to a new form: people do not watch plays from theater, they watch it at homes or on their TV. In addition to music theater, the modern world inspired new forms of drama, including what became known as the spoken drama ({{zh|s=话剧|t=話劇|p=Huàjù}}) of the transatlantic stage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0011.xml|title = Modern Chinese Drama}}</ref>

== ''Hsiu'', sleeve movement == Sleeve movements were an important feature of dancing technique in ancient China and were considered essential to add the grace of the performer. There are many references to the beauty of a dancer's sleeves to be found in old Chinese poems.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Scott|first=A.C.|title=The Classical Theatre Of China|publisher=Simson Shand LTD|year=1957|location=London|pages=96}}</ref><blockquote>"What festival is this, with lamps filling in the hall, And golden hair pins dancing by night alongside of flowery lutes? A fragrance breeze flutters the sleeve and a red haze arises, While jade wrists flit round and round in mazy flight."</blockquote>

== Shadow play == During the dynasty of Empress Ping, shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed by the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda. Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic color was also very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather (usually taken from the belly of a peacock). They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went so far as to store the heads in one box and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the seventh century before becoming a tool of the government.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

==Xiangsheng== Xiangsheng is a style of traditional Chinese comedic performance in the form of a monologue or dialogue. Chinese performers usually clap with the audience at the end of a performance; the return applause is a sign of appreciation to the audience.<ref>{{cite book |title=China, Japan, Korea Culture and Customs |author1=Brown, Ju |author2=Brown, John |publisher=BookSurge |location=North Charleston |year=2006 |page=55 |isbn=1-4196-4893-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3r-3YH3t45cC&pg=PA55}}</ref>

==See also== *List of theatres in China

==References== {{Reflist}}

===Bibliography=== * {{cite book|chapter=Early Chinese Plays and Theater|last=Dolby|first=William|title=Chinese Theatre: From Its Origins to the Present Day|url=https://archive.org/details/chinesetheater00coli|url-access=registration|editor-last=Mackerras|editor-first=Colin|editor-link=Colin Mackerras|editor2-last=Wichmann|editor2-first=Elizabeth|isbn=0-8248-0813-4|year=1983|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|ref={{harvid|Dolby}}}} * {{Cite book|title=Chinese Opera: Images and Stories|last1=Siu|first1=Wang-Ngai|last2=Lovrick|first2=Peter|publisher=UBC Press|year=1997|isbn=0-7748-0592-7|ref={{harvid|Siu and Lovrick}}}} * {{cite book|title=Elite Theatre in Ming China, 1368–1644|last=Shen|first=Grant Guangren|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0-415-34326-7|ref={{harvid|Shen}}}} * {{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Chinese Theater|last=Ye|first=Tan|year=2008|publisher=The Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5514-4|ref={{harvid|Ye}}}} * Fong, Kuang-Yu and Kaplin, Stephen. "Theatre on a Tabletop: Puppetry for Small Spaces". Charlottesville, New Plays, Inc. 2003. * Obraszow, Sergei. ''Theater in China''. Berlin, Henschelverlag, 1963. * Mackerras, Colin. ''The Chinese Theatre in Modern Times''. From 1840 to the Present Day. London, Thames & Hudson, 1975. * Zhao, Henry Y. H. ''Towards a Modern Zen Theatre: Gao Xingjian and Chinese Theatre Experimentalism''. University of London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 2000. * Chen, Xiaomei. ''Acting the Right Part''. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2002. * Riley, Jo. ''Chinese T''.''heatre and the Actor in Performance''. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-521-57090-5}} *{{cite book|title=Chinese Theatre |first= Jin |last=Fu |date= 2012 |isbn=9780521186667|publisher=Cambridge University Press |author-link=Fu Jin}}

== External links == {{commons category|Theatre of China}}

{{Asia topic|Theatre of}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Theatre Of China}} China Category:Opera in China Category:Chinese performing arts *