Metaphysics of Morals

{{Short description|1797 work on morals and politics by Immanuel Kant}} {{Infobox book | name = Metaphysics of Morals | title_orig = Die Metaphysik der Sitten | translator = [[Mary J. Gregor]] | image = File:The Metaphysics of Morals (German edition).jpg | caption = Cover of the first edition | author = [[Immanuel Kant]] | country = Germany | language = German | series = | subject = [[Ethics]], [[Political philosophy]] | publisher = F. Nicolovius | published = 1797 | media_type = Print | pages = | isbn = | oclc = | preceded_by = | followed_by = }} {{Immanuel Kant |width=22.0em}} {{republicanism sidebar}} The '''''Metaphysics of Morals''''' ({{langx|de|Die Metaphysik der Sitten}}) is a 1797 work of [[political philosophy|political]] and [[moral philosophy]] by [[Immanuel Kant]]. It is also Kant's last major work in moral philosophy. The work is divided into two sections: the '''''Doctrine of Right''''' dealing with political [[Right|rights]], and the '''''Doctrine of Virtue''''' dealing with ethical [[Virtue|virtues]].

In this work, Kant develops the political and ethical philosophy for which the ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals | Groundwork]]'' and the ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' provide the foundation.

The ''Doctrine of Right'' was first published separately around January 1797, and the ''Doctrine of Virtue'' in August of that year. Kant made a second edition with slight revisions in 1798, which include adding an appendix responding to a review of the ''Doctrine of Right'' by [[Friedrich Bouterwek]].<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "Translator's note on the text of The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, pp. 355.</ref>

== General Structure of the Work == The work is divided into two main parts, the ''Rechtslehre'' and the ''Tugendlehre''. [[Mary J. Gregor]]'s translation (1991) explains these German terms as, respectively, the ''Doctrine of Right'',<ref>''Rechtslehre'' has also been translated as the ''Science of Right'' (Hastie) or the ''Metaphysical Elements of Justice'' (Ladd).</ref> which deals with the rights that people have, and the ''Doctrine of Virtue'', which deals with the virtues they ought to acquire. The ''Doctrine of Right'' also deals with required actions concerning the external relationships between people and the ''Doctrine of Virtue'' also deals with the internal requirements that characterize moral action and duty.

== Summary == The ''Doctrine of Right'' is grounded in [[republicanism|republican]] interpretation of origins of political [[community]] as [[Civil_society#Early modern history|civil society]] and establishment of [[positive law]]. Published separately in 1797, the ''Doctrine of Right'' is one of the last examples of [[classical republicanism]] in political philosophy.<ref>[[Manfred Riedel]], ''Between Tradition and Revolution: The Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy'', Cambridge 1984.</ref> It contains the most mature of Kant's statements on the peace project and a system of law to ensure individual and public rights. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Byrd |first1= B. Sharon|last2=Hruschka |first2=Joachim |date= 2010|title=Kant’s Doctrine of Right: A Commentary |language=English |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=1 |isbn=9780521196642}}</ref> It expounds fundamental and coercively enforceable principles of external conduct between people, foremost among them being the universal principle of right which states: {{Blockquote|text=Any action is ''right'' if it can coexist with everyone's freedom in accordance with a universal law, or if on its maxim the freedom of choice of each can coexist with everyone's freedom in accordance with a universal law.<ref>Gregor, Mary J. (1996) "The metaphysics of morals". In ''Practical Philosophy''. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, p. 387.</ref><ref>Kant, MS 6:230.</ref>}}

Thus, according to Kant, the task of right is to bring the exercise of individual freedom into harmony with ''the freedom of everyone according to a universal law''. The ''Doctrine of Right'' also discusses property rights, punitive justice, as well as state and cosmopolitan rights.

The ''Doctrine of Virtue'' further develops Kant's ethical theory, which he had already laid the foundation in the ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (1785) and the ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]''. It develops Kant’s conception of virtue and expositions of particular ethical duties we have as rational human beings. Kant particularly emphasizes treating humanity as an end in itself. The duties are analytically treated by Kant, who distinguishes duties towards ourselves from duties towards others. The duties are further classified as perfect duties and imperfect duties. Kant thinks imperfect duties allow a ''latitudo'', i.e., the possibility of choosing maxims. The perfect duties instead do not allow any ''latitudo''. Kant uses this distinction in discussing some of the duties that were shown as examples in the ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals | Groundwork]]'' in more detail (viz., not lying, not committing suicide, cultivating one's talents, and being beneficent toward others). He also discusses particular duties that were not mentioned in the ''Groundwork'' such as the duties of gratitude<ref>Kant, MS 6:454-456.</ref> and not being servile (falsely humble).<ref>Kant, MS 6:434-437.</ref>

Thus, Kant distinguishes "Virtue" and "Right": the "Doctrine of Right" contains rights as perfect duties towards others only.

==Influence== In the English-speaking world, the ''Metaphysics of Morals'' (1797) is not as well known as Kant's earlier works, the ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' (1785) and the ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]] (1788)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gregor |first1=Mary |title=Laws of Freedom |date=1963 |publisher=Oxford: Basil Blackwell |isbn=9780631077008 |page=xi}}</ref>,'' but it has experienced a renaissance through the pioneering work of [[Mary J. Gregor]].<ref>See in particular her 1963 book, ''Laws of Freedom''.</ref>

==English translations== Translations of the entire book: * {{cite book |author = Kant, Immanuel |title = The Metaphysics of Morals |translator= [[Mary J. Gregor]] |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 1991 |ISBN = 0-521-30372-9 |url-access= registration |url=https://archive.org/details/metaphysicsofmor0000kant |via = [[Internet Archive]]}}. * Kant, Immanuel. ''The Metaphysics of Morals.'' Translated by [[Mary J. Gregor]]. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1996. {{ISBN|0-521-56673-8}}. * Kant, Immanuel. ''The Metaphysics of Morals.'' In ''Practical Philosophy''. Edited by [[Mary J. Gregor]]. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1996. * Translated by Anonymous (John Richardson), "Metaphysic of Morals divided into Metaphysical Elements of Law and of Ethics." 2 vols. (London [Hamburg]: William Richardson, 1799).

Translations of Part I: * Kant, Immanuel. ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=359&Itemid=27 The Philosophy of Law: An Exposition of the Fundamental Principles of Jurisprudence as the Science of Right].'' Translated by W. Hastie. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1887; reprinted by Augustus M. Kelly Publishers, Clifton, NJ, 1974. [introduction and all of part I] * Kant, Immanuel. ''The Metaphysical Elements of Justice; Part I of the Metaphysics of Morals.'' 1st ed. Translated by John Ladd. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965. [introduction and most of part I] * Kant, Immanuel. ''The Metaphysics of Morals''. In ''Kant: Political Writings''. 2nd enl. ed. Edited by Hans Reiss. Translated by H. B. Nisbet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. [selections from part I] * Kant, Immanuel. ''The Metaphysical Elements of Justice; Part I of the Metaphysics of Morals.'' 2nd ed. Translated by John Ladd. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1999. [introduction and all of part I] * Kant, Immanuel. ''Metaphysics of Morals, Doctrine of Rights, Section 43-section 62.'' In ''Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and History''. Edited by Pauline Kleingeld. Translated by David L. Colclasure. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006. [selections from part I, concerning public right]

Translations of Part II: * Kant, Immanuel, ''The Doctrine of Virtue''. Translated by Mary J. Gregor. New York: Harper & Row Torchbooks, 1964; reprinted by the University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971. * Translated by James Wesley Ellington, in Ethical Philosophy. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983 [1964]. [Part II] * Translated by John William Semple, "The Metaphysic of Ethics." Edinburgh: Thomas Clark, 1836; Reprint editions include 1871, ed. Henry Calderwood (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark). [Introduction and portions of part II]

==See also== {{Portal|Books|Philosophy|Psychology}} *[[1797 in literature]] *[[Anthropology]] *[[Ethics]] *[[Immanuel Kant bibliography]] **''[[The Critique of Practical Reason]]'' **''[[The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' **''[[Religion Within the Boundaries of Mere Reason]]'' *[[Kantianism]] *[[Philosophy of life]]

==References== {{Reflist|2}}

==External links== {{wikisource|The Philosophy of Law}} * ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=359&Itemid=27 The Philosophy of Law: An Exposition of the Fundamental Principles of Jurisprudence as the Science of Right]'', full text of the introduction and part I of the ''Metaphysics of Morals''. * [http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/uid=1714/tocnode?id=g9781405106795_chunk_g978140510679523_ss1-32 An explanation] of the division between the two parts, and what Kant means by virtue. * [http://www.korpora.org/Kant/aa06/203.html Die Metaphysik der Sitten], full German text of the ''Metaphysics of Morals'' (from [http://www.korpora.org/ Korpora]). * [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/srp/arts/MM.html Book Review of Mary Gregor's 1991 translation] of the ''Metaphysics of Morals'', by Steven Palmquist. *[http://hdl.handle.net/1802/7764 Kant and the Moral Necessity of Civil Society], full text of political theory work by Dr. Jacqueline Augustine.

[[Category:1797 non-fiction books]] [[Category:Books by Immanuel Kant]] [[Category:Enlightenment philosophy]] [[Category:Ethics books]] [[Category:German non-fiction books]]