{{Short description|Archaeological site in Tlaxcala, Mexico}}
{{Infobox ancient site | name = Tepeticpac | image = JeroglificodeTepeticpac.jpg | caption = Hieroglyph of Tepeticpac. | map_type = | map_alt = | map_caption = | map_size = | relief = | coordinates = | location = Santiago Tepeticpac, Totolac, Tlaxcala, Mexico | region = Puebla–Tlaxcala Valley | type = Archaeological site | part_of = | length = | width = | area = | height = | builder = | material = | built = | abandoned = | cultures = ''Tollan Tlaxkallan'' | user = | ownership = | management = National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) | public_access = Open | website = | notes = }}
'''Tepeticpac''' is an archaeological site located in the village of Santiago Tepeticpac, in the municipality of Totolac, Tlaxcala, in Mexico. It sits atop the hills of Cuauhtzi, El Fuerte, and Tlaxistlan, at over {{convert|2450|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level, and covers approximately 98 hectares within the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=López Corral|first=Aurelio|title=Tepeticpac: la arqueología del primer señorío de Tlaxcallan|url=https://revistas.inah.gob.mx/index.php/teccalli/article/view/18208|access-date=May 21, 2026|year=2022|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia|location=Tlaxcala, Mexico|pages=20–27|last2=Santacruz Cano|first2=Ramón}}</ref> It was part of the ancient ''huey altépetl'' ({{Lang|es|señorío}}) of Tlaxcallan, along with Ocotelolco, Tizatlan, and Quiahuiztlan. This polity was made up of several interconnected settlements in the central region of the Mexican Plateau.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ancient-mesoamerica/article/abs/noble-houses-and-palaces-reconsidering-the-existence-of-palaces-in-late-postclassic-ad-125013001519-tepeticpac-tlaxcallan/2D909A693A4B771A6795002BC2548BE6|title=Noble houses and palaces: reconsidering the existence of palaces in Late Postclassic (A.D. 1250/1300–1519) Tepeticpac, Tlaxcallan|last=Salmerón|first=M. Amparo Robles|last2=Corral|first2=Aurelio López|date=August 2024|journal=Ancient Mesoamerica|volume=35|issue=2|pages=319–342|access-date=May 21, 2026|language=en|issn=0956-5361|doi=10.1017/S0956536123000123|last3=Salazar|first3=M. Teresa Salomón}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/cultura/2014/tlaxcala-vestigios-tepeticpac-1028218.html|title=Hallan vestigios de grandes murallas en Tlaxcala|trans-title=Vestiges of great walls found in Tlaxcala|access-date=May 21, 2026|website=El Universal|language=es}}</ref>
Two main phases of occupation have been identified through archaeological research: an Epiclassic phase from 600 to 900 AD, followed by a period of abandonment, and a Late Postclassic phase from approximately 1200 to 1519 AD.<ref name=":0" /> Between 20 and 25 types of polychrome wares have been documented through ceramic studies, with at least 169 terraces, six plazas, and ten temple structures identified through topographic surveys and distributed across five distinct sectors.<ref name=":1" />
As one of the four founding ''altepemeh'' of the Tlaxcallan Confederation, Tepeticpac served religious and defensive purposes. Some of the remains found include perimeter walls, watchtowers up to seven meters tall, and complex terracing systems adapted to the local topography.<ref name=":1" /> Ceramic iconography and altars suggest that Tezcatlipoca was the principal deity, alongside cults to Camaxtli, reflecting the sociopolitical organization of its ruling elite.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.milenio.com/cultura/redescubren-tepeticpac-centro-de-la-cultura-tlaxcalteca|title=Redescubren Tepeticpac, centro de la cultura tlaxcalteca|trans-title=Tepeticpac, centre of Tlaxcaltecan culture, rediscovered|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Medel|first=Leticia Sánchez|date=November 23, 2014|website=Grupo Milenio|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lajornadadeoriente.com.mx/puebla/entre-maleza-descubren-sitio-prehispanico-que-dio-origen-a-tlaxcala|title=Entre maleza, descubren sitio prehispánico que dio origen a Tlaxcala|trans-title=Amid undergrowth, pre-Hispanic site that gave rise to Tlaxcala discovered|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Carrizosa|first=Paula|date=August 6, 2014|website=La Jornada de Oriente|publisher=Sierra Nevada Comunicaciones SA de CV}}</ref>
Since 2009, the National Institute of Anthropology and History ({{Lang|es|Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia}}, INAH) has carried out excavations, mapping, and structural consolidation works.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|title=Inauguran la ampliación de obra realizada en el camino de acceso al sitio arqueológico de Tepeticpac, en Tlaxcala|trans-title=Expansion of access road to the Tepeticpac archaeological site in Tlaxcala inaugurated|url=https://inah.gob.mx/boletines/inauguran-la-ampliacion-de-obra-realizada-en-el-camino-de-acceso-al-sitio-arqueologico-de-tepeticpac-en-tlaxcala|access-date=May 21, 2026|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250123044813/https://inah.gob.mx/boletines/inauguran-la-ampliacion-de-obra-realizada-en-el-camino-de-acceso-al-sitio-arqueologico-de-tepeticpac-en-tlaxcala|archive-date=January 23, 2025|language=es}}</ref> Between 2024 and 2025, over 17 million pesos were invested in widening the access road and installing signage. A site museum is planned to open in 2025, which will display various recovered archaeological materials, including the remains of a gomphothere.<ref name=":2" />
==Etymology and symbolism== The name Tepeticpac comes from the Nahuatl language and means "at the top of the hill," "above the mountain," or "the summit of the sierra."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/tepeticpac|title=tepeticpac|access-date=May 21, 2026|website=Nahuatl Dictionary}}</ref> It is formed from the root "''tepetl''" (meaning "hill" or "mountain") and the locative suffix "''-icpac''" (meaning "on top of" or "above").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gdn.iib.unam.mx/diccionario/tepeticpac|title=tepeticpac|access-date=May 21, 2026|website=Gran Diccionario Náhuatl}}</ref> This toponym reinforced the {{Lang|es|señorío}}'s identity as an elevated power—a place of authority and refuge overlooking the valley.<ref name=":3" />
As a way of complementing the name of the place, Tepeticpac's warriors were identified on the battlefield by the ''tlamamalli'' (military standard) ''Quaxolot.''<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://lienzotlaxcala.wordpress.com/estandartes-tlaxcaltecas/|title=Estandartes tlaxcaltecas|trans-title=Tlaxcaltecan military standards|access-date=May 21, 2026|date=October 28, 2020|website=Reconstrucción histórica digital del Lienzo de Tlaxcala|language=es}}</ref> Historical chronicles describe the figure as a wolf (''Xolotl'') with a golden head covered in green feathers and yellow ones hanging from its body.<ref name=":4" /> This emblem, depicted in codices such as the ''Lienzo de Tlaxcala'', was a symbol of the {{Lang|es|señorío}}'s martial identity. The wolf, a predator, projected an image of military might and distinguished Tlaxcala's forces from other political entities such as Tizatlán's heron (''Aztatzontli'') and Ocotelolco's quetzal (''Quetzaltototl'').<ref name=":4" />
==History==
===Pre-Hispanic period=== ====Foundation==== The origins of Tepeticpac are linked to the arrival of a group of Teochichimec migrants referred to in sources as ''Cexcaltecas'' or ''Poyauhtecas''.<ref name=":5" /> According to mythic tradition, these migrants were part of the seven tribes that emerged from Chicomoztoc, or "the place of the seven caves."<ref name=":5" /> Led by their patron deity, the hunting god Camaxtli,<ref name=":5" /> these groups undertook a migration that brought them to the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Guerrero Galván|first=Luis René|title=Descubrimiento, conquista e institucionalización: de las expediciones al Yucatán a la consolidación de la Nueva España (I). Reflexiones a quinientos años del encuentro de dos mundos|url=https://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/15/7025/12.pdf|access-date=May 21, 2026|year=2022|publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México|last2=Guerrero Galván|first2=Alonso|volume=11|location=Mexico City|chapter=Parte IV: Los señoríos sujetos}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://revistas.inah.gob.mx/index.php/arqueologia/article/view/22508|title=Santiago Tepeticpac, Tlaxcala: importancia arqueológica|trans-title=Santiago Tepeticpac, Tlaxcala: archaeological significance|last=Bravo|first=Francisco Beristain|date=2004|journal=Arqueología|issue=32|pages=28–47|access-date=May 21, 2026|language=es|issn=0187-6074}}</ref>
Upon their arrival, the valley was dominated by the Olmeca-Xicallancas,<ref name=":5" /> a sedentary and consolidated group that some sources identify with the Popolucas.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|url=https://revistas.inah.gob.mx/index.php/teccalli/article/view/18188|title=Los popoloca en Cacaxtla: una reinterpretación de los olmeca xicalanca|trans-title=The Popolocas at Cacaxtla: a reinterpretation of the Olmec-Xicalanca|last=Hernández|first=Jorge Guevara|date=2014|journal=Teccalli|issue=4|pages=15–28|access-date=May 21, 2026|language=es}}</ref> The encounter between the two peoples was violent. Pictographic sources, such as the ''Lienzo de Tepeticpac'', narrate this conquest visually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iifilologicas.unam.mx/wikfil/index.php/Tepeticpac,_Lienzo_de|title=Tepeticpac, Lienzo de|trans-title=Lienzo de Tepeticpac|access-date=May 21, 2026|publisher=Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas, UNAM}}</ref> In its battle scenes, the Teochichimec warriors are shown with their characteristic weaponry: the bow (''tlahuitolli'') and arrow (''mitl''), arms that gave them a tactical advantage over local warriors, who fought with the obsidian club (''macuahuitl'') and the shield (''chimalli'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://memoricamexico.gob.mx/swb/memorica/Cedula?oId=vT875X4B0NWDaIKryBlN|title=Lienzo de Tepeticpac (atribuido)|trans-title=Lienzo de Tepeticpac (attributed)|access-date=May 21, 2026|website=Memorica México|language=es|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250210225729/https://memoricamexico.gob.mx/swb/memorica/Cedula?oId=vT875X4B0NWDaIKryBlN|archive-date=February 10, 2025}}</ref> This conflict culminated in the expulsion of the Olmeca-Xicallancas and the establishment of Teochichimec dominance in the region.<ref name=":7" />
The Teochichimec conquerors were led by Culhuatecuhtli Quanex, who is recognized in the chronicles as the founder of Tepeticpac and the first ruler of the new political entity.<ref name=":6" /> Culhuatecuhtli Quanex chose the hilltops of Tepeticpac as the site for its capital, a natural fortress from which to exercise control and defend the territory.<ref name=":6" /> As supreme lord, Culhuatecuhtli Quanex was responsible for governance and the administration of justice.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Álvarez|first=José Rogelio|title=E. de M.|publisher=Enciclopedia de México, Tomo XIII.|location=Mexico|page=7717}}</ref> In an act of political expansion and consolidation, Culhuatecuhtli Quanex ceded part of the conquered territory to his brother, Teyohualminqui, who founded the second of the great {{Lang|es|señoríos}}, Ocotelolco, in the lowlands of the valley.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S2448-62212023000100019&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es|title=Identidad guerrera tlaxcalteca del Posclásico tardío|trans-title=Tlaxcaltecan warrior identity of the Late Postclassic|last=López Corral|first=Aurelio|last2=Alcantara|first2=Keitlyn|date=June 2023|journal=Anales de Antropología|volume=57|issue=1|pages=19–31|access-date=May 21, 2026|language=es|issn=2448-6221|last3=Santacruz Cano|first3=Ramón|last4=López Corral|first4=Aurelio|last5=Alcantara|first5=Keitlyn|last6=Santacruz Cano|first6=Ramón}}</ref>
The precise chronology of these founding events is a matter of debate among historians, as the colonial sources present conflicting dates.
{| class="wikitable" |+Proposed dates for the foundation of Tepeticpac !Proposed date !Source/Proponent !Context/Notes !Ref. |- |{{circa|1260–1280 AD}} |Diego Muñoz Camargo |States that the arrival took place in the year 5 Técpatl (5 Flint), 300 years before his ''History of Tlaxcala'' was written. |<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/la-republica-de-tlaxcallan|title=La República de Tlaxcallan|trans-title=The Republic of Tlaxcallan|access-date=May 21, 2026|date=February 1, 2017|website=Arqueología Mexicana|language=es}}</ref> |- |{{circa|1310 AD}} |Gámez (citing sources) |When the Teochichimecas are said to have driven out the Popolucas (Olmeca-Xicallancas). |<ref name=":7" /> |- |1331 AD |Zapata y Mendoza |Specially mentions the year 9 Técpatl as the date of the Teochichimeca people's arrival. |<ref name=":9" /> |- |1348–1371 AD |Daniel Alatorre Reyes (UNAM) |Proposed period for the foundation of the four {{Lang|es|señoríos}}. |<ref name=":6" /> |}
This process of ethnogenesis through conflict and strategic adaptation is a case study in the formation of Mesoamerican states. The Teochichimecs employed a combination of military technology (the bow and arrow) and a strategy of geographic positioning (the hilltop fortress) to establish a new polity.<ref name=":8" /> The subsequent founding of Ocotelolco by Quanex's brother was a strategy of fission and expansion.<ref name=":8" /> This model allowed the original group to colonize and control the surrounding valley, granting domains to key leaders to prevent internal power struggles while maintaining a unified front against external threats.<ref name=":8" /> The fortress of Tepeticpac provided the security necessary for this colonización project to develop, laying the foundations of the Tlaxcallan confederation.<ref name=":1" />
====Political and military organization ==== Tepeticpac's primary function was as a military stronghold. Its strategic hilltop location, flanked by deep ravines, was reinforced by a network of defensive elements, including walls, ditches, narrow passageways, and dry stone structures.<ref name=":5" /> These features made Tepeticpac the final refuge for Tlaxcaltecan lords in the event of an invasion.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Coloquio sobre la Historia de Tlaxcala|publisher=Ediciones del Gobierno del Estado|location=Tlaxcala, Mexico|page=97}}</ref>
Tepeticpac was one of the four ''altepemeh'' that operated as a collective government, a form of organization that has been anachronistically described as a "republic."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oem.com.mx/elsoldetlaxcala/cultura/sin-reyes-ni-emperadores-tlaxcala-fue-una-republica-antes-que-otros-pueblos-mesoamericanos-24337110|title=Sin reyes ni emperadores, Tlaxcala fue una república antes que otros pueblos mesoamericanos|trans-title=Without kings or emperors, Tlaxcala was a republic before other Mesoamerican peoples|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=González|first=Karla|date=June 20, 2025|website=El Sol de Tlaxcala|publisher=Organización Editorial Mexicana|language=es}}</ref> This system was distinguished by the absence of an absolute monarch, such as the ''huey tlatoani'' of their Mexica rivals. Instead, the most important decisions, especially those relating to war and foreign policy, were taken by a council or senate composed of the lords (''teteuctin'') of the four head lands.<ref name=":5" /> Although they acted in confederate fashion, each ''altépetl'' maintained a high degree of autonomy in its internal affairs, such as the administration of justice and the collection of tribute.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> Tepeticpac, as the founding {{Lang|es|señorío}}, held symbolic pre-eminence and was the custodian of the nation's oldest historical heritage.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://letraslibres.com/revista/la-capilla-de-tepeticpac-en-el-vendaval-de-la-historia/|title=La capilla de Tepetícpac en el vendaval de la historia|trans-title=The chapel of Tepeticpac in the storm of history|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Baracs|first=Andrea Martínez|date=May 1, 2021|website=Letras Libres|language=es}}</ref>
=== Conquest Era ===
==== Tlehuexolotzin: Lord of Tepeticpac in 1519 ==== When the Europeans first arrived, the ''altépetl'' of Tepeticpac was ruled by the ''tlatoani'' Tlehuexolotzin, who had come to power around 1510.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Borejsza|first=Aleksander|title=TLAXCALA EN LA ÉPOCA PREHISPÁNICA|year=2016|publisher=Arqueología Mexicana|page=139|volume=XXIV}}</ref> As one of the four principal lords of the Tlaxcaltecan senate, his voice was crucial in the debates that arose as Cortés's forces advanced. According to sources, Tlehuexolotzin participated in deliberations with Maxixcatl of Ocotelolco, Xicoténcatl the Elder of Tizatlán, and Citlalpopocatzin of Quiahuiztlán to decide on a course of action.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mexicapodcast.com/people/indigenous-people/|title=Indigenous People|access-date=May 21, 2026|website=Mexica: A History Podcast|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|url=https://confabulario.eluniversal.com.mx/princesas-tlaxcaltecas-su-palabra-y-su-guerra/|title=Princesas tlaxcaltecas, su palabra y su guerra|trans-title=Tlaxcaltecan princesses, their word and their war|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Universal|first=El|language=es}}</ref>
After the alliance was formed, Tlehuexolotzin committed his warriors to support the Spanish military campaigns, as did the other lords. Though details of his involvement are scarce, it is known that his {{Lang|es|señorío}} contributed a contingent to the Tlaxcaltecan forces, who became the Spanish's most important allies in the conquest of the Aztec Empire.<ref name=":11" />
The colonial record presents inconsistencies regarding the Christian name of Tlehuexolotzin, reflecting the era's often contradictory historical narratives. Assigning Christian names to Tlaxcaltecan lords was a symbolic act, and variations in the sources may indicate disputes over prestige among the lineages of the different headlands during the viceregal period. The following comparative table illustrates these discrepancies:
{| class="wikitable" |+Lords and military standards of the four Tlaxcaltecan {{Lang|es|señoríos}} !Altépetl !Lord (Nahuatl name) !Military standard (''Tlamamalli'') !Christian name(s) and discrepancies in the sources !Ref. |- |Tepeticpac |Tlehuexolotzin |''Quaxolotl'' (Wolf with golden head and feathers) |'''Vicente'''. Other sources omit him or suggest his successor was called Gonzalo.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://ru.historicas.unam.mx/handle/20.500.12525/226|title=148. Pila de agua bendita más antigua de América, Convento de San Francisco, Tlaxcala (Méx.)|trans-title=148. Oldest holy water font in the Americas, Convent of San Francisco, Tlaxcala (Mex.)|date=2019|journal=Fondo Antonio Alzate (Sociedad Científica Antonio Alzate) bajo resguardo de la Biblioteca "Rafael García Granados" del Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas.|access-date=May 21, 2026|others=Caja 25. Digital version in JPEG from the Repositorio Institucional Históricas-UNAM, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México|location=Mexico City|publication-date=1900}}</ref> |<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=https://mediateca.inah.gob.mx/repositorio/node/5395|title=Los cuatro señoríos tlaxcaltecas|trans-title=The four Tlaxcaltecan señoríos|access-date=May 21, 2026|date=February 18, 2022|website=Mediateca INAH|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250629191216/https://mediateca.inah.gob.mx/repositorio/node/5395|archive-date=June 29, 2025}}</ref> |- |Tizatlán |Huehue Xicoténcatl |''Aztatzontli'' (White heron with golden and green feathers) |'''Vicente'''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Mena|first=Ramon|title=En la tierra de los Cuatro Senadores de Tlaxcala|url=https://www.mna.inah.gob.mx/docs/anales/313.pdf|access-date=May 21, 2026|date=November 1911|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250806190038/https://www.mna.inah.gob.mx/docs/anales/313.pdf|archive-date=August 6, 2025}}</ref> or '''Lorenzo''' (according to Bernal Díaz). |<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://oem.com.mx/elsoldetlaxcala/tendencias/conoces-los-nombres-cristianos-de-los-senorios-tlaxcaltecas-16377126|title=¿Conoces los nombres cristianos de los señoríos tlaxcaltecas?|trans-title=Do you know the Christian names of the Tlaxcaltecan señoríos?|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Vargas|first=Mónica|date=March 28, 2023|website=El Sol de Tlaxcala|publisher=Organización Editorial Mexicana|language=es}}</ref> |- |Ocotelolco |Maxixcatzin |''Quetzaltototl'' (Quetzal bird with golden beak and feet) |Lorenzo |<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":12" /> |- |Quiahuiztlán |Citlalpopocatzin |''Quetzalpatzactli'' (Wing of green feathers with gold) |Bartolomé |<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":13" /> |}
====Early Christianization and cultural change==== The baptism of the Four Lords was a foundational act of the new colonial order. It was a symbolic event that solidified the military and spiritual alliance with Spain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.noticonquista.unam.mx/amoxtli/1740/1733|title=El bautismo de los cuatro señores de Tlaxcala: cristianización de un pasado, legitimación de un presente|trans-title=The baptism of the four lords of Tlaxcala: Christianisation of a past, legitimation of a present|access-date=May 21, 2026|website=Noticonquista|publisher=UNAM|language=es}}</ref> Historical documents from Tlaxcala, such as the ''Lienzo de Tlaxcala'', depict this episode as a way to remind the Spanish Crown of their early and voluntary conversion to Christianity. This was a key argument in defense of their privileges.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.noticonquista.unam.mx/historica/1041/1742|title=Españoles incitan a los tlaxcaltecas al cristianismo: el bautizo de los cuatro señores de Tlaxcala|trans-title=Spaniards urge the Tlaxcaltecans to Christianity: the baptism of the four lords of Tlaxcala|access-date=May 21, 2026|website=Noticonquista|publisher=UNAM|language=es}}</ref>
The new faith took shape in Tepeticpac with the construction of one of the region's first Christian chapels, which was erected at the summit of Cerro El Fuerte, the symbolic center of the {{Lang|es|señorío}}. However, the fate of this chapel illustrates the tensions of the evangelization process.<ref name=":10" /> A powerful storm destroyed it in 1552. The following year, in 1553, it was completely demolished and never rebuilt.<ref name=":10" />
This abandonment must be considered within the context of the political and religious climate of the time.<ref name=":10" /> The chapel was destroyed a few years after a period of religious persecution around 1545, during which several Tlaxcaltecan nobles were tried and executed for idolatry.<ref name=":10" /> Among them was Don Francisco Tecpanécatl, a lord of Tepeticpac.<ref name=":10" /> This event, which the indigenous chronicler Zapata y Mendoza described as a time of terror that drove mass conversions out of fear, affected the prestige of Tepeticpac.<ref name=":10" />
The non-reconstruction of the Chapel of Tepeticpac has been seen by the scholars as a symptom of its political decline in the new colonial configuration.<ref name=":10" /> The event reflected a confluence of factors, including the loss of prestige of the Tepeticpac lineage due to persecution, the diminishing of its strategic importance in a pacified landscape, and the Spanish colonial project of centralizing power,<ref name=":10" /> which entailed the construction of a new capital city, Tlaxcala, complete with a central plaza, cathedral, and government buildings. This shifted the political and economic center of gravity away from ancient pre-Hispanic head towns, rendering the mountain chapel-fortress obsolete.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Historia y Geografía de Tlaxcala|year=2011|publisher=Nuevo México|last=Ramírez Rancaño|first=Mario}}</ref>
===Post-colonial era=== Once the conquest was consolidated, the roles of Tepeticpac and Tlaxcala changed. Their military tradition, developed during their resistance to the Mexica and their alliance with the Spanish, was redirected by the Crown to advance its interests in expanding New Spain's northern frontier.<ref name=":8" />
One of the most significant episodes in post-conquest Tlaxcaltecan history took place in 1591: the migration of 400 families to colonize and pacify the Gran Chichimeca region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oem.com.mx/elsoldetlaxcala/cultura/lista-la-conmemoracion-de-los-433-anos-de-la-salida-de-las-400-familias-tlaxcaltecas-para-colonizar-el-norte-de-mexico-13521851|title=Lista la conmemoración de los 433 años de la salida de las 400 familias tlaxcaltecas para colonizar el norte de México|trans-title=Commemoration of the 433rd anniversary of the departure of the 400 Tlaxcaltecan families to colonise northern Mexico ready|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=González|first=Karla|date=June 5, 2024|website=El Sol de Tlaxcala|publisher=Organización Editorial Mexicana|language=es}}</ref> This agreement, negotiated with Viceroy Luis de Velasco II, served two purposes: establishing sedentary settlements to set an example for local nomadic groups and creating a loyal colonial barrier to protect the silver routes connecting the northern mines with the viceregal center.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S2145-132X2016000200003&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es|title=El traslado de familias de indios tlaxcaltecas hacia la región norte de la Nueva Galicia (Virreinato de Nueva España). Una política de colonización y pacificación del Imperio español de finales del siglo XVI|trans-title=The transfer of Tlaxcaltecan Indian families to the northern region of Nueva Galicia (Viceroyalty of New Spain). A colonisation and pacification policy of the Spanish Empire in the late sixteenth century|last=Rojas Galván|first=José|date=July 2016|journal=HiSTOReLo. Revista de Historia Regional y Local|volume=8|issue=16|pages=55–88|access-date=May 21, 2026|language=es|issn=2145-132X|doi=10.15446/historelo.v8n16.55143}}</ref>
In exchange for their services, the Tlaxcaltecan colonists were granted privileges that were codified in formal capitulations.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://letraslibres.com/revista/los-conquistadores-tlaxcaltecas/|title=Los conquistadores tlaxcaltecas|trans-title=The Tlaxcaltecan conquerors|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Baracs|first=Andrea Martínez|date=October 1, 2021|website=Letras Libres|language=es}}</ref> These included perpetual {{Lang|es|hidalguía}} (minor noble status) for themselves and their descendants; exemption from tribute and personal service; the grant of freehold land; and the right to bear arms and ride horses—prerogatives normally reserved for Spaniards.<ref name=":14" />
Each of the four great {{Lang|es|señoríos}} of Tlaxcala provided a group of people for this colonization effort. The {{Lang|es|señorío}} of Tepeticpac organized a caravan of 228 people, under the command of captains Francisco Vázquez and Joaquín Paredes. This group departed from Tlaxcala on June 9, 1591.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|title=Tlaxcala en el siglo XVI|url=https://books.google.com.mx/books/about/Tlaxcala_en_el_siglo_XVI.html?id=OAk7OwAACAAJ&redir_esc=y|publisher=Gobierno del Estado de Tlaxcala|date=1991|access-date=May 21, 2026|isbn=978-968-16-3688-3|language=es|first=Charles|last=Gibson}}</ref> Their specific destination was the mining region of San Miguel Mexquitic in the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia. This territory that today corresponds to the modern-day state of San Luis Potosí.<ref name=":15" />
In this new land, the colonists from Tepeticpac and the other head towns replicated their social structures and agricultural knowledge, while also founding new settlements.<ref name=":16">{{Cite book|title=Cuenta por sus nombres de indios de Tlaxcala que vinieron a poblar entre los chichimecas, -1591|trans-title=Account by name of the Tlaxcaltecan Indians who came to settle among the Chichimecs, 1591|url=http://cdigital.dgb.uanl.mx/la/1080018019_C/1080018019_T1/1080018019_24.pdf|access-date=May 21, 2026|year=1591|publisher=Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005124120/http://cdigital.dgb.uanl.mx/la/1080018019_C/1080018019_T1/1080018019_24.pdf|archive-date=5 Oct 2022}}</ref> In San Luis Potosí, the Tlaxcaltecan families established the village of La Asunción Tlaxcalilla.<ref name=":16" /> Over time, this settlement was absorbed into the growing city of San Luis Potosí, becoming the present-day Barrio de Tlaxcala, a community that still preserves its Tlaxcaltecan identity and heritage.<ref name=":16" />
Tepeticpac's participation in this diaspora represented a strategic shift in its history.<ref name=":14" /> Having lost its primary defensive function in a pacified highland, the region's human capital and military tradition were repurposed by the empire. The families who marched north were soldier-settlers—agents of acculturation and defenders of a new frontier.<ref name=":14" /> Through this process, they transitioned from defending their ''altépetl'' to becoming co-conquerors and founders of New Spain, exporting their culture and legacy across the continent.<ref name=":16" />
==Archaeological site==
===Description and topography=== The Tepeticpac archaeological site is located approximately five kilometers north of the modern city of Tlaxcala. It spreads across a series of difficult-to-access hills: Cuauhtzi, Tenextepetl, Coyotepetl, and El Fuerte.<ref name=":5" /> Its altitude ranges from {{Convert|7,710|ft|m|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|8,330|ft|m|abbr=on}} above sea level, towering over the surrounding valley.<ref name=":8" />
The site's architecture reflects its military function.<ref name=":5" /> It is known for its extensive defensive structures, including walls, ditches, restricted corridors, and dry stone ''albarradas''.<ref name=":5" /> The most notable defensive feature is the so-called ''Gran Zanja'', a ditch more than 350 meters long designed to block access to the center of the settlement from the north.<ref name=":5" />
The urban layout adapted to the rugged terrain through the construction of numerous artificial terraces.<ref name=":5" /> The architectural style is characterized by large, open plazas flanked by low platforms and buildings, rather than the large-scale pyramids that dominated the ceremonial centers of rivals such as Tenochtitlan and Cholula.<ref name=":5" /> Archaeologists have posited that the absence of a central, monumental structure reflects Tlaxcallan's collective form of government, which did not exalt a single ruler.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" />
===Research and conservation=== Since 2010, the Tepeticpac Archaeological Project ({{Lang|es|Proyecto Arqueológico Tepeticpac}}, PAT) has carried out continuous scientific research under the direction of the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH).<ref name=":5" /> The PAT's objectives are to reconstruct the sociopolitical structure of the {{Lang|es|señorío}}, understand its development over time, and analyze its role in the Puebla-Tlaxcala region.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" />
In recent years, the site has received investment and attention from federal and state authorities. The most recent developments, beginning in 2024, include:
* Protective Perimeter: An official "protective polygon" was established to delimit and safeguard a 98-hectare area of the archaeological core.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web|url=https://oem.com.mx/elsoldetlaxcala/local/en-2025-iniciara-la-construccion-del-museo-de-sitio-en-la-zona-arqueologica-de-tepeticpac-13564897|title=En 2025 iniciará la construcción del museo de sitio en la zona arqueológica de Tepeticpac|trans-title=Construction of the site museum at the Tepeticpac archaeological zone to begin in 2025|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Muñetón|first=Karla|date=July 30, 2024|website=El Sol de Tlaxcala|publisher=Organización Editorial Mexicana|language=es}}</ref> * Infrastructure Improvements: In July 2024, the INAH and the government of the state of Tlaxcala inaugurated the widening and paving of the access road to the site in order to improve accessibility.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=https://www.inah.gob.mx/boletines/inauguran-la-ampliacion-de-obra-realizada-en-el-camino-de-acceso-al-sitio-arqueologico-de-tepeticpac-en-tlaxcala|title=Inauguran la ampliación de obra realizada en el camino de acceso al sitio arqueológico de Tepeticpac, en Tlaxcala|trans-title=Expansion of the access road to the Tepeticpac archaeological site in Tlaxcala inaugurated|access-date=May 21, 2026|date=July 26, 2024|website=Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sintesis.com.mx/tlaxcala/2024/07/26/inauguran-ampliacion-camino/|title=Inauguran la ampliación del camino de acceso a la zona arqueológica de Tepeticpac|trans-title=Expansion of the access road to the Tepeticpac archaeological zone inaugurated|access-date=May 21, 2026|last=Gómez|first=Abril|date=July 26, 2024|website=Síntesis Tlaxcala|language=es}}</ref> * New Site Museum: Construction of the new museum was officially announced in 2024,<ref name=":17" /> with work starting in early 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inicia construcción del Museo Regional de Tepeticpac, en Totolac - El Sol de Tlaxcala |trans-title=Construction Begins on the Tepeticpac Regional Museum in Totolac - El Sol de Tlaxcala |url=https://oem.com.mx/elsoldetlaxcala/local/inicia-construccion-del-museo-regional-de-tepeticpac-en-totolac-28965395 |access-date=2026-05-26 |website=OEM |language=es}}</ref> The museum will display excavation finds, including the remains of a gomphothere discovered in 2014, as well as artefacts illustrating the site's history. The aim is to promote the heritage of Tepeticpac and establish the site as a cultural and educational destination.<ref name=":18" />
==References== {{Reflist|20em}}
== Further reading ==
* Muñoz Camargo, Diego (1892) [http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/44657226344423515031913/index.htm Historia de Tlaxcala], published and annotated by Alfredo Chavero, Mexico.
==External links== {{commonscat|Tlaxcallan culture}} {{Tlaxcallan}}
Category:Altepetl Category:Archaeological sites in Tlaxcala Category:Mesoamerican sites Category:Tourist attractions in Tlaxcala Category:Former Native American polities