{{Short description|Biblical narrative in the gospels}} {{distinguish|The Last Temptation of Christ (disambiguation){{!}}The Last Temptation of Christ}} [[File:Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg|thumb|Jesus and the Devil depicted in ''The Temptation of Christ'', by [[Ary Scheffer]], 1854]] {{Gospel Jesus}} The '''temptation of Christ''' is a biblical narrative detailed in the [[gospels]] of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|4:1–11|NRSV}}, NRSV</ref> [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:12–13|NRSV}}, NRSV</ref> and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|4:1–13|NRSV}}, NRSV</ref> After being [[Baptism of Jesus|baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]], [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] was tempted by the devil after 40 days and nights of fasting in the [[Judaean Desert]]. At the time, [[Devil in Christianity|Satan]] came to Jesus and tried to tempt him. With Jesus refusing each temptation, Satan then departed and Jesus returned to [[Galilee]] to begin his ministry.
The writer of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] also refers to Jesus having been tempted "in every way that we are, except without sin".<ref>{{bibleverse|Hebrews|2:18|CEB}}, {{bibleverse-nb |Hebrews|4:15|CEB}}, [[Common English Bible]].</ref> [[Mark 1#Jesus' baptism and temptation|Mark's account]] is very brief, merely noting the event. Matthew and Luke describe the temptations by recounting the details of the conversations between Jesus and Satan. The temptation of Christ is not explicitly mentioned in the [[Gospel of John]] but in this gospel Jesus does refer to the Devil, "the prince of this world", having no power over him.<ref>{{bibleverse |John|14:30|CSB}}</ref> In [[liturgical calendar|church calendars]] of many [[Christian denominations]], Jesus' forty day period of fasting in the Judaean Desert is remembered during the season of [[Lent]], during which many Christians fast, pray and give alms to the poor.<ref name="BrownDelgatto2004">{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Therese |last2=Delgatto |first2=Laurie |title=Catechetical Sessions on Liturgy and the Sacraments |date=2004 |publisher=Saint Mary's Press |isbn=978-0-88489-829-0 |page=33 |language=English |quote=Lent is a solemn, reflective season of the liturgical year that is the preparation for the mysteries of Easter. It begins on Ash Wednesday, and lasts forty days, until Easter (the forty days do not include the Sundays during Lent). The forty days of Lent recall the forty days that Jesus spent in the desert before beginning his public ministry. During Lent Christians are called to renew themselves through fasting, prayer and almsgiving (giving money and service to those in need).}}</ref>
== Literary genre== ===Discussion of status as a parable=== Discussion of the literary genre includes whether what is represented is a history, a parable, a myth, or compound of various genres. This relates to the reality of the encounter.<ref>[[Andrew Martin Fairbairn|Fairbairn, Andrew Martin]]. "The Temptation of Christ", ''Studies in the life of Christ'' 1876 V. "How is the Temptation of Christ to be understood? …was its reality actual, a veritable face-to-face, with personalities no less real that they represented universal interests, and, by their conflict, determined universal issues?"</ref> Sometimes the temptation narrative is taken as a parable, reading that Jesus in his ministry told this narrative to audiences relating his inner experience in the form of a parable.<ref>Evans, William. ''Epochs in the life of Christ'' 1916 "Sometimes the temptation narrative is looked upon as being parabolic… that Jesus was simply stating His inner experience in the form of a parable."</ref> Or it is autobiographical,<ref>[[Henry Cadbury|Cadbury, Henry]] ''Jesus: what manner of man'' 1947 "…the temptation narrative is often selected as autobiographical."</ref> regarding what sort of Messiah Jesus intended to be.<ref>Mercer, Samuel Alfred Browne and Lewis, Leicester C., ''Anglican Theological Review'', Vol. 12, 1930 "…looked upon himself as Messiah; hence the problem of the temptation narrative is "what sort of Messiah did he think himself to be?"</ref> Writers including [[William Barclay (theologian)|William Barclay]] have pointed to the fact that there is "no mountain high enough in all the world to see the whole world" as indication of the non-literal nature of the event, and that the narrative portrays what was going on inside Jesus' mind.<ref>Barclay, ''Discovering Jesus'' p. 22.</ref> [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] explained, "In regard to the words, 'He showed Him all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of them,' we are not to understand that He saw the very kingdoms, with the cities and inhabitants, their gold and silver: but that the devil pointed out the quarters in which each kingdom or city lay, and set forth to Him in words their glory and estate."<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.newadvent.org/summa/4041.htm#article2 | first = Thomas | last = Aquinas | title = Question 41. Christ's temptation | work = Summa Theologica | orig-year = Fathers of the English Dominican Province |publisher= New advent |date= 1920 |access-date= 2018-04-18}}</ref>
The debate on the literality of the temptations goes back at least to the 18th-century discussion of [[George Benson (theologian)|George Benson]] and [[Hugh Farmer]].<ref>Farmer, Hugh. ''An inquiry into the nature and design of Christ's temptation in the wilderness'', p. 133.</ref>
The Catholic understanding is that the temptation of Christ was a literal and physical event. "Despite the difficulties urged, …against the historical character of the three temptations of Jesus, as recorded by St. Matthew and St. Luke, it is plain that these sacred writers intended to describe an actual and visible approach of Satan, to chronicle an actual shifting of places, etc., and that the traditional view, which maintains the objective nature of Christ's temptations, is the only one meeting all the requirements of the Gospel narrative."<ref name= Gigot>{{Citation | url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14504b.htm | last = Gigot | first = Francis | contribution = Temptation of Christ | title = The Catholic Encyclopedia | volume = 14 | place = New York | publisher = Robert Appleton | date = 19 October 2015}}.</ref>
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: {{Blockquote | The Gospels speak of a time of solitude for Jesus in the desert immediately after his baptism by John. Driven by the Spirit into the desert, Jesus remains there for forty days without eating; he lives among wild beasts, and angels minister to him. At the end of this time Satan tempts him three times, seeking to compromise his filial attitude toward God. Jesus rebuffs these attacks, which recapitulate the temptations of Adam in Paradise and of Israel in the desert, and the devil leaves him "until an opportune time…"<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/what-we-believe/catechism/catechism-of-the-catholic-church/epub/ |title= Catechism of the Catholic Church | at = §538 |publisher= USCCB | access-date= 2018-04-18}}</ref> The temptation in the desert shows Jesus, the humble Messiah, who triumphs over Satan by his total adherence to the plan of salvation willed by the Father.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P66.HTM |title= Catechism of the Catholic Church | at = §566 |publisher= Vatican |access-date= 2018-04-18}}</ref>}}
===Use of Old Testament references=== The account of Matthew uses language from the Old Testament. The imagery would be familiar to Matthew's contemporary readers. In the [[Septuagint]] Greek version of [[Zechariah 3]] the name ''Iesous'' and term ''diabolos'' are identical to the Greek terms of [[Matthew 4]].<ref>Hagner, Donald A., "Matthew 1–13", ''Word Biblical Commentary'', Vol. 33a, 1993</ref> Matthew presents the three scriptural passages cited by Jesus ({{bibleverse ||Deut|8:3|31}}, {{bibleverse||Deut|6:13|31}}, and {{bibleverse||Deut|6:16|31}}) not in their order in the [[Book of Deuteronomy]], but in the sequence of the trials of Israel as they wandered in the desert, as recorded in the [[Book of Exodus]].<ref>Gibson, Jeffrey B., ''Temptations of Jesus in Early Christianity'' 2004, p. 95</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = USCCB | work = New Testament | edition = NAB | title = Matthew 4 | access-date = 2010-01-07 | url = http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/matthew/matthew4.htm | at = footnotes 1–5}}</ref> Luke's account is similar, though his inversion of the second and third temptations "represents a more natural geographic movement, from the wilderness to the temple".<ref>Collins, Raymond F., ''The Temptation of Jesus'', The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Doubleday, 1992</ref> Luke's closing statement that the devil "departed from him until an opportune time"<ref>{{bibleverse |Luke||4:13|47}}, English Standard Version</ref> may provide a narrative link to the immediately following attempt at Nazareth to throw Jesus down from a high place,<ref>Nolland, John. "Luke 1:1–9:20", ''Word Biblical Commentary'', Vol. 35a, 1989</ref> or may anticipate a role for Satan in the Passion (cf. Luke 22:3).<ref>Conzelmann, Hans. ''The Theology of St. Luke'' (trans. G. Buswell), New York, 1960 p. 28</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = USCCB | edition = NAB | title = Luke 4 | access-date = 2010-01-07 | work = New Testament | url = http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/luke/luke4.htm#foot6 | at = footnotes 6}}</ref>
==Matthew and Luke narratives== [[File:Christ in the Wilderness - Ivan Kramskoy - Google Cultural Institute.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Christ in the Desert|Christ in the Wilderness]]'' by [[Ivan Kramskoy]], 1872]] Fasting traditionally presaged a great spiritual struggle.<ref>Hill, David. ''The Gospel of Matthew''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981</ref> Elijah and Moses in the Old Testament fasted 40 days and nights, and thus Jesus doing the same invites comparison to these events. In Judaism, "the practice of fasting connected the body and its physical needs with less tangible values, such as self-denial and repentance."<ref>{{Citation |title = Practicing Piety in Medieval Ashkenaz: Men, Women, and Everyday Religious Observance | pages = 51–102| publisher = JSTOR|jstor = j.ctt9qh4ds.5| last1 = Baumgarten| first1 = Elisheva| year = 2014}}</ref> At the time, 40 was less a specific number and more a general expression for any large figure.<ref name="Clarke, Howard W. 2003">Clarke, Howard W. ''The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel.'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.</ref> Fasting may not mean a complete abstinence from food; consequently, Jesus may have been surviving on the sparse food that could be obtained in the desert.<ref name="France, R.T. 1985">France, R.T. ''The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary.'' Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.</ref><ref name="Robert H 1982">Gundry, Robert H. ''Matthew: a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art.'' Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co, 1982.</ref> On the other hand, the synoptic gospel of Luke specifies that "He ate nothing" which, based on the plain reading of the text, suggests complete abstinence of food.
Mark does not provide details, but in Matthew and Luke "the tempter" ({{langx |el|ὁ πειράζων}}, ''ho peirazōn'')<ref>[[Matthew 4:3]]</ref> or "the devil" ({{langx|el|ὁ διάβολος}}, ''ho diabolos'') tempts Jesus to: * Make bread out of stones to relieve his own hunger * Jump from a pinnacle and rely on angels to break his fall. The narratives of both Luke and Matthew have Satan quote [[Psalm 91]]:11–12 to indicate that God had promised this assistance. * Worship the tempter in return for all the kingdoms of the world.
==The Temptations== ===Stones to bread=== The temptation of [[bread]] out of stones occurs in the same desert setting where Jesus had been fasting, with a spot on [[Mount Quarantania]] traditionally being considered the exact location. The desert was seen as outside the bounds of society and as the home of demons such as [[Azazel]] (Leviticus 16:10). [[Robert H. Gundry]] states that the desert is likely an allusion to the wilderness through which the [[Israelites]] wandered during the [[The Exodus|Exodus]], and more specifically to [[Moses]]. Jesus' struggle against hunger in the face of Satan points to his representative role of the Israelites, but he does not fail God in his urge for hunger.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Gospel of Luke|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC|publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub|year = 1997|isbn = 978-0-80282315-1|first = Joel B. |last = Green}}</ref> This temptation may have been Jesus' last, aiming towards his hunger.<ref name="Fleming 130–137">{{Cite journal|title = The Threefold Temptation of Christ: Matt. 4:1–11|jstor = 3141888 |journal = The Biblical World |date = 1908-08-01|pages = 130–37 |volume = 32|issue = 2|first = J. Dick|last = Fleming|doi = 10.1086/474085 |s2cid = 143352390 |url = https://zenodo.org/record/2443984 }}</ref>
In response to Satan's suggestion, Jesus replies, "It is written: ''Man does not live on bread alone, but on every word that proceeds from the mouth of God''" (a reference to Deuteronomy 8:3).<ref>{{cite web | work = Old testament |url= https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy+8%3A3&version=NIV |title= Deuteronomy | at = 8:3 | edition = NIV | quote = He humbled you, causing you to hunger |publisher= Bible Gateway | access-date= 2018-04-18}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse ||Matthew|4:4|NAB}}, New American Bible</ref> Only in Matthew's gospel is this entire sentence written.
===Pinnacle of the temple=== This is the second temptation mentioned in Matthew and the third temptation listed in Luke.
Most Christians consider that ''holy city'' refers undoubtedly to [[Jerusalem]] and the ''temple'' to which the ''pinnacle'' belongs is thus identified as the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. [[Gospel of Matthew]] refers to "the temple" 17 times without ever adding "in Jerusalem". That Luke's version of the story clearly identifies the location as Jerusalem may be due to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]]' unfamiliarity with Judaism.<ref>Joseph A. Fitzmyer ''The Gospel According to Luke I–IX: Introduction, Translation, and Notes'' The Anchor Bible, Vol. 28, Doubleday 1982.</ref>
[[File:Temptations_of_Christ_(Melisende_Psalter,_1131-43).jpeg|thumb|right|Temptations of Christ ([[Melisende Psalter]], 1131-1143, folio f.4r)]] What is meant by the word traditionally translated as ''pinnacle'' is not entirely clear since the Greek diminutive form ''pterugion'' ("little wing") is not extant in other architectural contexts.<ref>[[LSJ]] entry [http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2391157 pterugion] {{webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091202133428/http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry= |date=2009-12-02}} See also Joachim Jeremias, “Die ,Zinne‘ des Tempels (Mt. 4,5; Lk. 4,9),” ''Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina'' 59.3/4 (1936): 195–208 (for an English translation of this article, click [https://wholestones.org/the-pinnacle-of-the-temple-matt-45-luke-49/ here]).</ref> Though the form ''pterux'' ("large wing") is used for the point of a building by Pollianus,<ref>Pollianus Epigrammaticus 7.121, 2C AD in Anthologia Graeca.</ref> Schweizer feels that ''little tower'' or ''parapet'' would be more accurate, and the [[New Jerusalem Bible]] does use the translation "parapet". The only surviving Jewish parallel to the temptation uses the standard word ''šbyt'' "roof" not "wing": "Our Rabbis related that in the hour when the Messiah shall be revealed he shall come and stand on the roof (šbyt) of the temple." ([[Pesikta Rabbati|Peshiqta Rabbati]] 62 c–d)<ref>Rivka Ulmer, A Synoptic Edition of Pesiqta Rabbati Based upon All Extant. Manuscripts and the Editio Princeps. South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism 155, 1995</ref> The term is preserved as "wing" in Syriac translations of the Greek.<ref>[[Shlomo Pines]] – "The Jewish Christians of the Early Centuries of Christianity According to a New Source" – ''Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities'', Vol. II, No. 13 1966 – Footnote 196 If the last solution were allowed, it would perhaps mean that, as far as this word is concerned, the quotation from the Gospel given in our text was translated from an Aramaic (i.e., most probably but not certainly a Syriac) rendering of the Gospel, which was not translated from the Greek." ...The Peshitta, which seems mindful of the etymology of the Greek Term, renders this by the word kenpa whose first meaning is wing. However, an older Syriac translation (The Four Gospels in Syriac Transcribed from the [[Sinaitic Palimpsest]] [edited by R.L. Bensley, J. Rendel Harris & F.C. Burkitt], Cambridge 1894) has – while using in Matthew iv : 5 (p. 7) the same word as the Peshitta – in Luke iv:9 (p. 145) the translation qarna, a word whose first meaning is horn, but which also means ‘angle’. There is accordingly a possibility of a second solution, namely, that the Arabic q.r.ya should be read (the emendation would be a very slight one), qurna, which signifies ‘projecting angle’."</ref>
Gundry lists three sites at the Jerusalem temple that would fit this description:<ref name="Robert H 1982"/> *On the top of the temple's main tower, above the sanctuary proper, some 180 feet above ground, the location that artists and others using the traditional translation generally set the story. *Atop the [[lintel]] of the main gateway into the temple, the most prominent position where the pair could easily have been seen.<ref>Robert H. Gundry A Survey of the New Testament: 1994 4th Edition 2009 "... But Jesus resists these temptations, and the third temptation as well, by citing Scripture. ... the temple courts dropping off into the Kidron Valley, to the lintel atop the temple gate, or to the roof of the temple proper."</ref> *A tower on the southeast corner of the outer wall that looks down into the [[Kidron Valley]]. In later Christian tradition this is the tower from which [[James the Just|James the brother of Jesus]] was said by [[Hegesippus (chronicler)|Hegesippus]] to have been thrown by way of execution.<ref> {{cite book|last1=of Caesarea|first1=Eusebius|title=Church History Book II Chapter 23. The Martyrdom of James, who was called the Brother of the Lord.|publisher=www.newadvent.org|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm|access-date=9 September 2015|quote=the Scribes and Pharisees placed James upon the pinnacle of the temple, and threw down the just man, and they began to stone him, for he was not killed by the fall. And one of them, who was a fuller, took the club with which he beat out clothes and struck the just man on the head.}}</ref>
"If thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down from hence: For it is written, 'He shall give his angels charge over thee, to keep thee: And in their hands they shall bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone.'" ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 4:9–11<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|4:9–11|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)</ref>) citing {{bibleverse|Psalms|91:12|KJV}}.
Once more, Jesus maintained his integrity and responded by quoting scripture, saying, "It is said, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God.'" (Matthew 4:7<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|4:7|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)</ref>) quoting Deuteronomy 6:16.<ref>{{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|6:16|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)</ref><ref name=Akin>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncregister.com/blog/9-things-you-need-to-know-about-the-mysterious-temptation-of-jesus|title=9 things you need to know about the mysterious temptation of Jesus|website=NCR|date=15 February 2013 }}</ref>
===Mountain=== {{main|Mount of Temptation}} For the third and final temptation in Matthew (presented as the second temptation of the three in Luke) the devil takes Jesus to a high place, which Matthew explicitly identifies as a very high mountain, where all the kingdoms of the world can be seen. The spot pointed out by tradition as the summit from which Satan offered to Jesus dominion over all earthly kingdoms is the "Quarantania", a limestone peak on the road from Jerusalem to Jericho.<ref name=Gigot/>
Instead of a literal reading, George Slatyer Barrett viewed the third temptation as inclining to a doubt of Christ's mission, or at least the methodology. Barrett sees this as a temptation to accept the adulation of the crowds, assume leadership of the nation to overthrow Roman rule, take the crown of his own nation, and from there initiate the kingdom of God on earth. The kingdoms Jesus would inherit through Satan are obtained through love of power and political oppression. Barrett characterizes this "the old but ever new temptation to do evil that good may come; to justify the illegitimacy of the means by the greatness of the end."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/temptationchris00barrgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/temptationchris00barrgoog/page/n63 48] |quote=temptation of christ. |title=Barrett, George, Slatyer. ''The Temptation of Christ'', Macniven & Wallace, Edinburgh |publisher=Macniven & Wallace |access-date=2018-04-18|last1=Barrett |first1=George Slatyer |year=1883 }}</ref>
The mountain is not literal if the temptations only occur in the mind's eye of Jesus and the Gospel accounts record this mind's eye view, as related in parable form, to the disciples at some point during the ministry.<ref>Watkins, P. ''The Devil, the Great Deceiver,'' Birmingham 1971</ref>
Satan says, "All these things I will give you if you fall down and do an act of worship to me." Jesus replies "[[Get behind me, Satan|Get away, Satan!]] It is written: 'You shall worship the Lord your God and only Him shall you serve.'"<ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|4:10}}, New American Bible</ref> (referencing Deuteronomy 6:13 and 10:20). Readers would likely recognize this as reminiscent of the temptation to false worship that the Israelites encountered in the desert in the incident of the Golden Calf mentioned in Exodus 32:4.<ref name=Akin/>
===Ministered to by angels=== [[File:Brooklyn Museum - Jesus Ministered to by Angels (Jésus assisté par les anges) - James Tissot - overall.jpg|thumb|''Jesus Ministered to by Angels (Jésus assisté par les anges)'', [[James Tissot]], [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
At this, Satan departs and Jesus is tended by angels. While both Mark and Matthew mention the angels, Luke does not, and Matthew seems once again here to be making parallels with [[Elijah]],<ref>1 Kings 19:4–9</ref> who was fed by [[raven]]s. The word ''ministered'' or ''served'' is often interpreted as the [[angels]] feeding [[Jesus]], and traditionally artists have depicted the scene as Jesus being presented with a feast, a detailed description of it even appearing in ''[[Paradise Regained]]''. This ending to the temptation narrative may be a common literary device of using a feast scene to emphasize a happy ending,<ref name="Clarke, Howard W. 2003"/> or it may be proof that Jesus never lost his faith in God during the temptations.<ref name="Jones, Alexander 1965">Jones, Alexander. ''The Gospel According to St. Matthew.'' London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1965.</ref>
==Gospel of Mark== The Mark ({{bibleverse-nb|Mark|1:12–13|KJV}}) account is very brief. Most of the Mark account is found also in the Matthew and Luke versions, with the exception of the statement that Jesus was "with the wild animals." Despite the lack of actual text shared among the three texts, the language and interpretations Mark uses draw comparison among the three Gospels. The Greek verb Mark uses in the text is synonymous with driving out demons, and the wilderness at times represents a place of struggle.<ref>{{cite book|jstor = j.ctt9m0t6h.8|title = Prologue to Mark's Gospel (1:1–15)|pages = 23–34|last1 = Jacobsen|first1 = David Schnasa|year = 2014|isbn = 9780800699239|publisher = Augsburg Fortress, Publishers| doi=10.2307/j.ctt9m0t6h.8 }}</ref> The two verses in Mark used to describe Jesus' Temptation quickly progress him into his career as a preacher.
[[Thomas Aquinas]] argued that Jesus allowed himself to be tempted as both an example and a warning. He cites [[Sirach]] 2: "Son, when thou comest to the service of God, stand in justice and in fear, and prepare thy soul for temptation." Following this, he cites [[Hebrews 4:15]]: "We have not a high-priest, who cannot have compassion on our infirmities, but one tempted in all things like as we are, without sin."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americamagazine.org/content/ignatian-educator/why-did-christ-allow-himself-be-tempted|title=Why Did Christ Allow Himself to be Tempted?|date=February 23, 2015|website=America Magazine}}</ref>
==Gospel of John== The temptation of Christ is not found in the Gospel of John. However, some readers have identified parallels inside John which indicate that the author of John may have been familiar with the Temptation narratives in some form.<ref>Whittaker H.A., ''Studies in the Gospels'', Biblia, 1996 p. 319</ref> * Stones into Bread: John 6:26, 31 to make bread in the wilderness. * Jump from the temple: John 2:18 to perform a Messianic sign in the temple. * Kingdoms of the World: John 6:15 to take the kingdom by force.
==Historicity== [[E. P. Sanders]] notes that it is difficult to assess whether the fast of 40 days was by the [[historical Jesus]] or a creation of the early Church; there is a parallel with the 40 years of wandering by the Israelites in the desert of [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Sanders |first=EP |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus |publisher=Penguin |year=1996 |isbn=0140144994 |page=117}}</ref> Many scholars believe the quotations shared by Matthew and Luke originate in the hypothetical [[Q source]], though many others increasingly reject the hypothesis in favor of Luke’s use of Matthew or vice versa.<ref>See David Flusser, “Die Versuchung Jesu und ihr jüdischer Hintergrund”, ''Judaica: Beiträge zum Verstehen des Judentums'' 45 (1989): 110–128 (for an English translation of this article, click [https://wholestones.org/jesus-temptation-and-its-jewish-background/ here]).</ref><ref name="TSP202222">{{Cite book |last=Joseph |first=Simon |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference |publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers |year=2023 |isbn=9789042950344 |pages=50–51}}</ref><ref name="TSP20222">{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference |publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers |year=2023 |isbn=9789042950344 |pages=5}}</ref>
Sanders writes that it is likely Jesus was alone for meditation at times, felt temptations, and fasted prior to his ministry, with even the ‘forty days’ being possible. However, he finds the conversation with Satan, the scene at the top of the Temple, and the vision of the kingdoms to be mythological elaborations of the historical event.<ref name=":0" /> [[Dale Allison]] was long convinced that Matthew and Luke’s temptation stories were fictional stories based on [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]], but has recently expressed second thoughts. If the historical Jesus held a Mosaic typology, as Allison argues, then the temptation narratives might rather be mythic elaborations on an actual retreat into the wilderness by Jesus to reenact the fast of [[Moses]], similar to the baptismal narratives.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Allison |first=Dale |title=Interpreting Jesus |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2025 |isbn=978-0802879196 |pages=668}}</ref> Regardless, aspects of the stories such as Jesus successfully fighting the devil, his association with the [[Holy Spirit]], his knowledge of the [[Hebrew Bible]], his miraculous powers, and depiction of messianic identity are consistent with what is otherwise known of the historical Jesus.<ref name=":1" /> [[Craig A. Evans|Craig Evans]] argues in favor of the temptation narratives’ historicity given its coherence with the motif of battle with Satan found in the gospels.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig |title=Key Events in the Life of the Historical Jesus |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2010 |isbn=978-0802866134 |pages=167-68}}</ref>
==Catholic interpretations== [[File:Simon Bening - The Temptation of Christ.jpg|thumb|''The Temptation of Christ'', by [[Simon Bening]]]] Taken in the sense of denoting enticement to evil, temptation cannot be referred directly to God or to Christ. For instance in Gen. 12.1, "God tempted Abraham", and in John 6.6, "This [Jesus] said tempting [Philip]", the expressions must be taken in the sense of testing, or trying. According to St. James, the source of man's temptations is his proneness to evil which is the result of the fall of Adam, and which remains in human nature after baptismal regeneration, and even though the soul is in the state of sanctifying grace, mankind's concupiscence (or proneness to evil) becomes sinful only when freely yielded to; when resisted with God's help it is an occasion of merit. The chief cause of temptation is Satan, "the tempter", bent on man's eternal ruin.<ref name=Gigot />
In the Lord's Prayer, the clause "Lead us not into temptation" is a petition for God's help to enable people to overcome temptation. Prayer and watchfulness are the chief weapons against temptation. God does not allow man to be tempted beyond his strength. Like Adam, Christ (the second Adam) endured temptation only from without, inasmuch as his human nature was free from all concupiscence; but unlike Adam, Christ withstood the assaults of the Tempter on all points, thereby providing a perfect model of resistance to mankind's spiritual enemy, and a permanent source of victorious help.<ref name=Gigot/>
In the first three Gospels, the narrative of Christ's temptation is placed in immediate connection with his baptism and then with the beginning of his public ministry. The reason for this is clear. The Synoptists regarded the baptism of Christ as the external designation of Jesus from [the Father] for Christ's Messianic work under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. The first three Gospels agree concerning the time to which they assign the temptation of Christ, so they are at one in ascribing the same general place to its occurrence, viz. "the desert", whereby they [probably] mean the Wilderness of Judea, where Jesus would be, as St. Mark says: "with beasts".<ref name=Gigot/>
"The Biblical meaning of temptation is 'a trial in which man has a free choice of being faithful or unfaithful to God'. Satan encouraged Jesus to deviate from the plan of his father by misusing his authority and privileges. Jesus used the Holy Scripture to resist all such temptation. When we are tempted, the solution is to be sought in the Bible."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20181009092755/http://www.stthomasdiocese.org/article/sunday-reflection-jesus-overcomes-temptation-feb-11-2018 Mutholath, Abraham. "Jesus Overcomes Temptation"], St. Thomas SyroMalabar Catholic Diocese of Chicago, February 11, 2018.</ref>
In the temptations, according to [[Benedict XVI]], Satan seeks to draw Jesus from a messianism of self-sacrifice to a messianism of power: "in this period of "wilderness"... Jesus is exposed to danger and is assaulted by the temptation and seduction of the Evil One, who proposes a different messianic path to him, far from God's plan because it passes through power, success and domination rather than the total gift of himself on the Cross. This is the alternative: a messianism of power, of success, or a messianism of love, of the gift of self."<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2012/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20120222_en.html |title=General Audience |publisher= Vatican |date = 2012-02-22 |access-date= 2014-05-16}}</ref>
[[Justus Knecht]] gives a typical commentary on ''the different kinds of temptation of Christ'', writing, "In the first temptation Satan wished to induce the Saviour, instead of trusting in God and patiently enduring hunger, to create bread by His own power, against His Father's will. He sought, therefore, to make our Lord sin by sensuality and an unlawful desire for food, or in other words by gluttony. By the second temptation Satan tried to awaken a spiritual pride in Jesus, saying: "Throw yourself down; God will help you and see that no evil befalls you!" The cunning seducer wished thereby to change a humble and submissive confidence in God's mercy into a proud presumption. By the third temptation Satan wished to arouse in Jesus concupiscence of the eyes, i. e. a desire for riches, power and pleasure. He had seduced the first man by inciting him to these three evil passions. The words: "Why hath God commanded you that you should not eat of every tree of Paradise?" were an inducement to gluttony, or to the concupiscence of the flesh. The words: "Your eyes shall be opened" were a temptation to pride, while the words: "You shall be as Gods" were an inducement to the concupiscence of the eyes, and a desire for power and glory. Our first parents succumbed to these temptations, because they gave ear to the suggestions of Satan, held intercourse with him, and gazed at the forbidden fruit. But Jesus overcame the temptation and conquered Satan. "<ref>{{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture/XII. Jesus is baptized by John and tempted by the Devil|XII._Jesus_is_baptized_by_John_and_tempted_by_the_Devil]]|title=A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture|year=1910|publisher=B. Herder|first=Friedrich Justus|last=Knecht|author-link=Justus Knecht}}</ref>
==Art, literature, film and music== [[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 176.png|thumbnail|Woodcut by [[Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]], 1860]] {{More citations needed section|date=October 2019}} [[File:De verzoeking van Christus.jpg|thumb|right|The temptation of Christ by [[Tobias Verhaecht]]]] [[File:Temptations of Christ (San Marco).jpg|thumb|12th-century [[mosaic]] in [[St Mark's Basilica]], [[Venice]]]] The temptation of Christ has been a frequent subject in the [[art]] and [[literature]] of Christian cultures. A scene usually interpreted as the third temptation of Jesus is depicted in the [[Book of Kells]]. The third and last part of the [[Old English]] poem ''[[Christ and Satan]]'' concerns The Temptation of Christ,<ref>Orchard, A.P.M. “Christ and Satan”, ''Medieval England: An Encyclopedia'', ed. Paul E. Szarmach, M. Teresa Tavormina, Joel T. Rosenthal. New York: Garland Pub., 1998. p. 181</ref> and can be seen as a precursor to John Milton's ''[[Paradise Lost]]''. The Temptation of Christ is indeed the subject of Milton's sequel to ''Paradise Lost'', ''[[Paradise Regained]]''. [[J. M. W. Turner]] did an engraving of "The Temptation on the Mountain" for an 1835 edition of ''The Poetical Works of John Milton''. Satan and Jesus stand in silhouette on a cliff overlooking a broad landscape that transitions into the sea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://romantic-circles.org/gallery/temptation-mountain|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009183259/https://romantic-circles.org/gallery/temptation-mountain|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 9, 2019|title=The Temptation on the Mountain|website=romantic-circles.org}}</ref> The "...image depicts the temptation of Christ by Satan, specifically the moment where Satan offers Christ the kingdoms of the world. This vision of the temptation as extending to the open sea is eerily similar to the possibilities of conquest as commonly depicted in British and American art during the Romantic era."<ref>Hamilton, James. ''Turner: The Late Seascapes''. New Haven: Yale UP, 2003. p. 34</ref>
[[Quarantine (Crace novel)|''Quarantine'']] is a novel by Jim Crace with seven characters in the desert, fasting and praying, and includes Jesus as a peripheral cast member.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}
An illuminated scene in the ''Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry'', a 15th-century [[book of hours]], depicts Jesus standing atop a Gothic castle based upon the Duke's own castle at Mehun-sur-Yevre. Daniella Zsupan-Jerome sees this as a challenge to "...the Duke and meant to recall him to humility and conversion..."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loyolapress.com/catholic-resources/liturgical-year/lent/arts-and-faith-for-lent/cycle-c/arts-and-faith-week-1-of-lent-cycle-c/|title=Arts & Faith: Week 1 of Lent, Cycle C|website=Loyola Press|first1=Daniella|last1=Zsupan-Jerome}}</ref>
[[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]'s ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'', part of the novel, ''[[The Grand Inquisitor]]'', features an extended treatment of the temptation of Christ. Kathleen E. Gilligan draws parallels with [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' in which characters [[Gandalf]] and [[Galadriel]], both powerful figures each in their own right, are tempted to acquire the [[One Ring]] and become more powerful for the best of reasons but with likely disastrous results.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/534/temptation-and-the-ring-in-jrr-tolkiens-the-fellowship-of-the-ring|title=Temptation and the Ring in J.R.R. Tolkien's "The Fellowship of the Ring"|first=Kathleen E.|last=Gilligan|date=June 8, 2011|journal=Inquiries Journal|volume=3|issue=5|via=www.inquiriesjournal.com}}</ref>
[[Andrew Lloyd Webber]]'s ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]'' has brief references to Christ being tempted by mortal pleasures, and [[Stephen Schwartz]] devotes a scene to it in ''[[Godspell#Act Two|Godspell]]''. In [[W. Somerset Maugham]]'s ''[[The Razor's Edge]]'', the narrator uses the gospel of Matthew to introduce his own ending in which Jesus accepts death on the cross, "for greater love hath no man," while the devil laughs in glee, knowing that man will reject this redemption and commit evil in spite of, if not because of, this great sacrifice.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}
In the 1989 film ''[[Jesus of Montreal]]'', the actor playing Jesus is taken to the top of a skyscraper and offered lucrative contracts by a lawyer if he will serve him. The 2019 television miniseries ''[[Good Omens (TV series)|Good Omens]]'' credits the temptation of Christ to the demon Crowley, who claims to have shown Christ the kingdoms of the world as mere travel opportunities.
The temptation of Christ in the desert is shown in the following theatrical and television films: ''[[King of Kings (1961 film)|King of Kings]]'' (US 1961, [[Nicholas Ray]]), ''[[The Gospel According to Matthew (film)|The Gospel According to Matthew]]'' (Italy 1964, directed by [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]), ''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]'' (US 1965, [[George Stevens]]), [[Jesus (1979 film)|Jesus]] (US 1979, [[Peter Sykes (director)|Peter Sykes]] and [[John Krish]]), ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (film)|The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' (US 1988, [[Martin Scorsese]]), [[Jesus (1999 film)|Jesus]] (1999 TV film, [[Roger Young (director)|Roger Young]]), [[The Miracle Maker (2000 film)|The Miracle Maker]] (UK-US TV film, 2000), [[The Bible (miniseries)|The Bible]] (US 2013 TV miniseries, [[Roma Downey]] and [[Mark Burnett]]), ''[[Last Days in the Desert]]'' (US 2015, [[Rodrigo García (director)|Rodrigo Garcia]]), and ''40: The Temptation of Jesus Christ'' (US 2020, Douglas James Vail).
[[Dave Matthews]]' single "Save Me" from the album ''[[Some Devil]]'' recounts Christ's time in the desert from Satan's point of view.
==See also== * [[Chronology of Jesus]] * [[Life of Jesus in the New Testament]] * [[The world, the flesh, and the devil]] * [[War in Heaven]] * [[Mara (demon)]], similar theme in Buddhism
==References== {{Reflist}} {{catholic|wstitle=Temptation of Christ}}
==Further reading== * [[William F. Albright|Albright, W.F.]] and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." ''[[The Anchor Bible Series]].'' New York: Doubleday & Co, 1971. *[[Eduard Schweizer|Schweizer, Eduard]]. ''The Good News According to Matthew.'' Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975
{{Commons category|Temptation of Jesus Christ}}
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