{{short description|Type of aviation fuel}} {{About|aviation turbine fuel|the chain of European fuel stations|Jet (brand)|the Mac Miller song|Jet Fuel (song)}} {{Chembox | verifiedrevid = 442030870 | Name = | ImageFile = Aircraft being fueled by tanker.jpg | ImageSize = 250px | ImageAlt = An Airbus A310-304 of Czech Airlines (OK-WAA) being fueled at Prague Václav Havel Airport | ImageCaption = An Airbus A310-300 of Czech Airlines being fueled at Prague Václav Havel Airport | OtherNames = | SystematicName = | Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers | CASNo1 = 8008-20-6 | CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} | UNII = 1C89KKC04E | CASNo1_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo1_Comment = (kerosene, also called fuel oil no. 1) | CASNo2 = 64742-47-8 | CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} | CASNo2_Comment = (Aviation Kerosene) | ChemSpiderID = None }} | Section2 = {{Chembox Properties | Appearance = Straw-colored liquid | Density = 775-840 g/L | MeltingPtC = -47<!-- assumed to be C --> | BoilingPtC = 176 | Solubility = }} | Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards | MainHazards = | ExternalSDS = [https://web.archive.org/web/20241130175334/https://jepsonpetro.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Jet-A-A1-MSDS.pdf] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160409022632/http://www.exxonmobil.com/AviationGlobal/Files/WorldJetFuelSpecifications2005.pdf] | FlashPtC = 38 | AutoignitionPtC = 210 | NFPA-H = 2 | NFPA-F = 2 | NFPA-R = 0 }} | Section4 = | Section5 = | Section6 = }}
'''Jet fuel''' or '''aviation turbine fuel''' ('''ATF''', also abbreviated '''avtur''') is a type of aviation fuel designed for use in aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. It is colorless to straw-colored in appearance. The most commonly used fuels for commercial aviation are Jet A and Jet A-1, which are produced to a standardized international specification. The only other jet fuel commonly used in civilian turbine-engine powered aviation is Jet B, which is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance.
Jet fuel is a mixture of a variety of hydrocarbons. Because the exact composition of jet fuel varies widely based on petroleum source, it is impossible to define jet fuel as a ratio of specific hydrocarbons. Jet fuel is therefore defined as a performance specification rather than a chemical compound.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mindex-ltd.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/91-91-issue-7-AMD-3-2.pdf |title=Ministry of Defence Standard 91-91: Turbine Fuel, Kerosine Type, Jet A-1 |author=Defence Standards |page=1 |access-date=2019-01-27 |archive-date=2022-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307202110/http://mindex-ltd.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/91-91-issue-7-AMD-3-2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Furthermore, the range of molecular mass between hydrocarbons (or different carbon numbers) is defined by the requirements for the product, such as the freezing point or smoke point. Kerosene-type jet fuel (including Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8) has a carbon number distribution between about 8 and 16 (carbon atoms per molecule); wide-cut or naphtha-type jet fuel (including Jet B and JP-4), between about 5 and 15.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cgabusinessdesk.com/document/aviation_tech_review.pdf |title=Aviation Fuels Technical Review |author=Chevron Products Corporation |access-date=2014-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173111/https://www.cgabusinessdesk.com/document/aviation_tech_review.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Rand2010>Salvatore J. Rand (ed), ''Significance of Tests for Petroleum Products (8th Edition)'' ASTM International, 2010, {{ISBN|978-1-61583-673-4}} page 88</ref>
==History== Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually a high-octane gasoline known as avgas) has a high volatility to improve its carburetion characteristics and high autoignition temperature to prevent preignition in high compression aircraft engines. Turbine engines (as with diesel engines) can operate with a wide range of fuels because fuel is injected into the hot combustion chamber. Jet and gas turbine (turboprop, helicopter) aircraft engines typically use lower cost fuels with higher flash points, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle.
The first axial compressor jet engine in widespread production and combat service, the Junkers Jumo 004 used on the Messerschmitt Me 262A fighter and the Arado Ar 234B jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic "J2" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption.<ref>{{cite web | title = Summary of Debriefing of German pilot Hans Fey | publisher = Zenos' Warbird Video Drive-In | url = http://www.zenoswarbirdvideos.com/Images/Me262/ME262PILOTDEBRIEF.pdf }}</ref> Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures.
Pressure to move from Jet fuel to '''sustainable aviation fuel''', i.e. Aviation biofuel or Electrofuel, has existed since before the 2016 Paris Agreement.<ref name="wef23">{{Cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2023/11/what-is-sustainable-aviation-fuel/|title=What is sustainable aviation fuel and how is it made?}}</ref><ref name="abus1">{{cite news |url=https://www.airbus.com/en/innovation/energy-transition/sustainable-aviation-fuels |title=Sustainable aviation fuels | Airbus |date=3 September 2024 }}</ref>
==Standards== Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at the end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature freezing points reduce the availability of fuel. Higher flash point products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce.<ref name=Rand2010/> In the United States, ASTM International produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the U.S. Department of Defense produces standards for military use. The British Ministry of Defence establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels.<ref name=Rand2010/> For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and the CIS members, grades of jet fuels are covered by the State Standard (GOST) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available being TS-1.
== Types ==
=== Jet A/A-1 ===
[[File:Shell Refueller.JPG|thumb|Shell Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver International Airport. Note the signs indicating UN1863 hazardous material and JET A-1.]] [[File:Aircraft being fueled.jpg|thumb|A US Airways Boeing 757 being fueled at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport]] [[File:IBE-refueling-gua.jpg|thumb|An Iberia Airbus A340 being fueled at La Aurora International Airport]]
Jet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States<ref name="shelljet">{{Cite web|url=http://www.shell.com.au/products-services/solutions-for-businesses/aviation/products/fuels/jet-a1.html|title=World-wide Civil Jet Fuel Grades|website=www.shell.com.au|access-date=2013-03-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328230252/http://www.shell.com.au/products-services/solutions-for-businesses/aviation/products/fuels/jet-a1.html|archive-date=2013-03-28}}</ref> and a few Canadian airports such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver,<ref>{{CFS}}</ref> whereas Jet A-1 is the standard specification fuel used in most of the rest of the world,{{efn| The Chinese RP-3 jet fuel standard is very similar to Jet A-1 fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eee-j.com/download_upload_file.aspx?file_name=/uploadfile/file/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86/GB%206537-2006%203%E5%8F%B7%E5%96%B7%E6%B0%94%E7%87%83%E6%96%99.pdf|title=3号喷气燃料}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://std.samr.gov.cn/gb/search/gbDetailed?id=71F772D82B66D3A7E05397BE0A0AB82A|title=国家标准 - 全国标准信息公共服务平台|website=std.samr.gov.cn}}</ref>}} the main exceptions being Russia and the CIS members, where TS-1 fuel type is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a flash point higher than {{Convert|38|C}}, with an autoignition temperature of {{Convert|210|C}}.<ref name="exxonmobil.com">{{Cite web |title=World Jet Fuel Specifications with Avgas Supplement: 2005 Edition |author=ExxonMobil Aviation |url=http://www.exxonmobil.com/AviationGlobal/Files/WorldJetFuelSpecifications2005.pdf |date=April 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409022632/http://www.exxonmobil.com/AviationGlobal/Files/WorldJetFuelSpecifications2005.pdf|archive-date=2016-04-09}}</ref> Jet A-1 is also known as AVTUR (aviation turbine) fuel.<ref name="natologman">{{cite web |website=NATO Logistics Handbook |title=Chapter 15: Fuels, Oils, Lubricants and Petroleum Handling Equipment, Annex A, Aide Memoire on Fuels in NATO |url=http://www.gooptroop.info/gtroop/JetFuel/JP8.pdf |year=1997 |archiveurl=}}</ref>
Vehicles, pipelines, and storage tanks containing Jet A or Jet A-1 should be marked with black bands, and for vehicles and tanks should also be marked with "Jet A" or "Jet A-1" in white text on a black background.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS FOR DEDICATED AVIATION FUEL MANUFACTURING AND DISTRIBUTION FACILITIES, AIRPORT STORAGE AND MOBILE FUELLING EQUIPMENT |url=https://usfuelingsolutions.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/API-IP-Standard-1542.pdf |access-date=2025-10-25}}</ref>
=== Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 ===
The differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 are twofold. The primary difference is the lower freezing point of Jet A-1 fuel:<ref name="shelljet"/> * Jet A's is {{Convert|−40|C}} * Jet A-1's is {{convert|−47|C}}
The other difference is the mandatory addition of an antistatic additive to Jet A-1 fuel.
=== Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1 === Jet A-1 fuel must meet: * DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1), * ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1), and * IATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35.
Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A).<ref name="Csgnetwork.com"> {{cite web | title= Aviation Fuel — Jet Fuel Information | publisher= Csgnetwork.com | date= 2004-01-05 | url= http://www.csgnetwork.com/jetfuel.html | access-date= 2010-11-28 }} </ref>
{| class="wikitable" |- |+Typical physical properties for Jet A / Jet A-1<ref>{{cite web |title=Handbook of Products |publisher=Air BP |url=http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/aviation/air_bp/STAGING/local_assets/downloads_pdfs/a/air_bp_products_handbook_04004_1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608075828/http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/aviation/air_bp/STAGING/local_assets/downloads_pdfs/a/air_bp_products_handbook_04004_1.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-08 |pages=11–13 }} </ref> |- ! ||style="text-align:center;"| Jet A-1 ||style="text-align:center;"| Jet A |- !Flash point |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|38|C}} |- !Autoignition temperature |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|210|C}}<ref name="exxonmobil.com"/> |- !Freezing point |style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|−47|C}} |style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|−40|C}} |- !Max adiabatic burn temperature |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{Convert|2230|C|F}} <br />open air burn temperature: {{convert|1890 |F|order=flip}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/dat1/eCombus.pdf |title=FUEL DATA FOR COMBUSTION WITH AIR |date=2014 |publisher=Isidoro Martínez Prof. of Thermodynamics, Ciudad Universitaria |access-date=2014-05-09 |archive-date=2014-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501214532/http://webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/dat1/eCombus.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://papers.sae.org/2012-01-1199/ |chapter=Performance of JP-8 Unified Fuel in a Small Bore Indirect Injection Diesel Engine for APU Applications |date=January 2012 |publisher=SAE International |access-date=2014-05-09|doi=10.4271/2012-01-1199 |title=SAE Technical Paper Series |volume=1 |last1=Soloiu |first1=Valentin |last2=Covington |first2=April |last3=Lewis |first3=Jeff |last4=Duggan |first4=Marvin |last5=Lobue |first5=James |last6=Jansons |first6=Marcis |article-number=2012-01-1199 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviationsafetyadvisorygroup.org/projects-initiatives/resource-guide-to-aircraft-fire-fighting-rescue/ |title=Resource Guide To Aircraft Fire Fighting & Rescue |date=2014 |publisher=Aviation Safety Advisory Group of Arizona, Inc. |access-date=2014-05-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512215400/http://aviationsafetyadvisorygroup.org/projects-initiatives/resource-guide-to-aircraft-fire-fighting-rescue/ |archive-date=2014-05-12 }}</ref> |- !Density at {{Convert|15|C}} | {{Convert|0.804|kg/L|abbr=on}} | {{Convert|0.820|kg/L|abbr=on}} |- !Specific energy | {{Cvt|43.15|MJ/kg|kWh/kg}} | {{Cvt|43.02|MJ/kg|kWh/kg}} |- !Energy density | {{Cvt|34.7|MJ/L|kWh/L}}<ref>{{Citation |url=http://ftp.nirb.ca/01-SCREENINGS/COMPLETED%20SCREENINGS/2016/16XN003-GN-CGS-Tank%20Farm%20Expansion/01-APPLICATION/160204-16XN003-Petroleum%20Products%20Strored%20and%20Dispensed-IA2E.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116182103/http://ftp.nirb.ca/01-SCREENINGS/COMPLETED%20SCREENINGS/2016/16XN003-GN-CGS-Tank%20Farm%20Expansion/01-APPLICATION/160204-16XN003-Petroleum%20Products%20Strored%20and%20Dispensed-IA2E.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 January 2017 |access-date=15 January 2017 |title=Characteristics of Petroleum Products Stored and Dispensed |page=132 |publisher=Petroleum Products Division - GN }}</ref> <!-- 43.15 * .804 --> | {{Cvt|35.3|MJ/L|kWh/L}}<!-- 43.02 * .82 --> |}
=== Jet B ===
Jet B is a naphtha-kerosene fuel that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle.<ref name="Csgnetwork.com"/> For this reason, it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of {{Convert|-60|C}}, and a low flash point as well. It is primarily used in northern Canada and Alaska, where the extreme cold makes its low freezing point necessary, and which helps mitigate the danger of its lower flash point. Jet B is also known as AVTAG (aviation turbine gasoline<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Royal Air Force Manual |title=Air Publications No. 129 - Flying, Vol. 2 Aircraft operation, Part 2 - Airmanship and applied flying, Section 1 - Ground procedures, Chapter 2 - Refuelling |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom Air Ministry |date=August 1954 |url=https://scottbouch.com/rtfm/volume/ap/129/v2/al4/ap129-v2-p2-s1-c2.pdf}}</ref>).
===GOST standards=== The GOST standard 10227 specifies civilian fuels, among which are TS-1, T-1, T-1S, T2 and RT.<ref name=exm1/> Military fuels such as T-1pp,<ref name=ru1>{{cite patent |country=RU |number=2552442C1 |pridate=2014-03-26 }}</ref> T-8V (aka T-8B) and T-6 are specified by GOST 12308.<ref name=exm1/> Icing inhibitors are specified by GOST 8313.<ref name="exm1">{{cite news |date=2008 |title=World Jet Fuel Specifications with Avgas Supplement |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph240/chhoa1/docs/exxon-2008.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215193918/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2017/ph240/chhoa1/docs/exxon-2008.pdf |archive-date=2020-02-15 |access-date=2025-05-04}}</ref> Some researchers refer to T-6 as "ram rocket fuel";<ref name="iip1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iip.res.in/advance-crude-oil-research-centre/achievements/|title=Achievements – Advanced Crude Oil Research Centre|website=www.iip.res.in}}</ref> others have patented a method used to produce T-1pp from a mixture of T-6 and RT,<ref name=ru1/> the latter of which has been characterized as "unified Russian fuel for sub- and supersonic aircraft".<ref name="yano11">{{cite book |last1=Yanovskiy |first1=L.S. |title=AVIATION FUELS OF NEW GENERATION FROM BIOLOGICAL RAW MATERIALS |date=2011 |publisher=4TH EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR AEROSPACE SCIENCES |url=https://www.eucass.eu/component/docindexer/?task=download&id=4436 }}</ref>
==== TS-1 ====
TS-1 is a jet fuel made to Russian standard GOST 10227 for enhanced cold-weather performance. It has somewhat higher volatility than Jet A-1 (flash point is {{Convert|28|C}} minimum). It has a very low freezing point, below {{Convert|-50|C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aviation Jet Fuel |url=https://www.worldoiltraders.com/jet-a1/ |website=World Oil Traders |access-date=21 August 2019 |archive-date=21 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821204723/https://www.worldoiltraders.com/jet-a1/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==Additives== The DEF STAN 91-091 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including:<ref name="DEF_STAN_91-91">{{citation |url=http://www.dstan.mod.uk/standards/defstans/91/091/00000600.pdf |title=Turbine Fuel, Aviation Kerosine Type, Jet A-1 NATO Code: F-35 Joint Service Designation: AVTUR |edition= 25 August 2008 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100814170713/http%3A//www.dstan.mod.uk/standards/defstans/91/091/00000600.pdf |archive-date=2010-08-14 |id=Ministry of Defence Standard 91-91 |issue=6 |date= 8 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="ASTM_D1655">[http://www.astm.org/Standards/D1655.htm ''Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels''], ASTM D1655-09a (2010). ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States.</ref> * Antioxidants to prevent gumming, usually based on alkylated phenols, e.g., AO-30, AO-31, or AO-37; * Antistatic agents, to dissipate static electricity and prevent sparking; Stadis 450, with dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid (DINNSA) as a component, is an example * Corrosion inhibitors, e.g., DCI-4A used for civilian and military fuels, and DCI-6A used for military fuels; * Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) agents, e.g., 2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethanol (Di-EGME); FSII is often mixed at the point-of-sale so that users with heated fuel lines do not have to pay the extra expense. * Biocides are to remediate microbial (i.e., bacterial and fungal) growth present in aircraft fuel systems. Two biocides were previously approved for use by most aircraft and turbine engine original equipment manufacturers (OEMs); Kathon FP1.5 Microbiocide and Biobor JF.<ref name="Lombardo">{{citation |url=http://www.ainonline.com/ain-and-ainalerts/aviation-international-news/single-publication-story/browse/0/article/fuel-quality-evaluation-requires-pilot-vigilance-1963/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews |last= Lombardo |first=David A. |title=Fuel-quality evaluation requires pilot vigilance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430043732/http://www.ainonline.com/ain-and-ainalerts/aviation-international-news/single-publication-story/browse/0/article/fuel-quality-evaluation-requires-pilot-vigilance-1963/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews |archive-date=2011-04-30 |work=Aviation International News |date= July 2005}}</ref> Biobor JF is currently the only biocide available for aviation use. Kathon was discontinued by the manufacturer due to several airworthiness incidents. Kathon is now banned from use in aviation fuel.<ref>{{cite report |author=Jetstar Airways PTY LTD. |date=25 June 2020 |title=Aircraft Serious Incident Investigation Report |url=https://www.biobor.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Jetstar-investigation.pdf |publisher=Japan Transport Safety Board}}</ref> * Metal deactivator can be added to reduce the negative effects of trace metals on the thermal stability of the fuel. The one allowable additive is the chelating agent salpn (''N,N′''-bis(salicylidene)-1,2-propanediamine).
As the aviation industry's jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude, it has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosene, a high-value product, by varying process techniques.
New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the manufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to the number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and sometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may, for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species or improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear.
==Water in jet fuel== It is very important that jet fuel be free from water contamination. During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to the low temperatures in the upper atmosphere. This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C (32 °F). If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.fuel.2010.08.018 |last=Murray |first=B.J.|year=2011 |title=Supercooling of water droplets in jet aviation fuel |journal=Fuel |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=433–435 |bibcode=2011Fuel...90..433M |display-authors=etal}}</ref> This was the cause of the British Airways Flight 38 accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing.
There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this causes the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for the detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.shell.com/home/content/aviation/products/shell_water_detector/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219150959/http://www.shell.com/home/content/aviation/products/shell_water_detector/|title=The Shell Water Detector|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 19, 2012}}</ref>
==Military jet fuels== {{Redirect-multi|3|JP-1|JP-2|JP-3|other uses|JP1 (disambiguation)|and|JP2 (disambiguation)|the movie|Jurassic Park III}} thumb|A sailor inspects a sample of JP-5 jet fuel aboard an amphibious transport dock ship
Military organizations around the world use a different classification system of JP (for "Jet Propellant") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to JP-8, Jet B is similar to JP-4.<ref name="shell">{{cite web |url=http://www.shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/aviation/downloads/AeroShell-Book/aeroshell-book-2fuels.pdf |title=Shell Aviation Fuels |work=shell.com |publisher=Shell Oil Company |pages=4 |access-date=27 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219050306/http://www.shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/aviation/downloads/AeroShell-Book/aeroshell-book-2fuels.pdf |archive-date=19 December 2014 }}</ref> Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications.
{{anchor|JP-1}} ;JP-1 :was an early jet fuel<ref>[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/fuel/Tech21.htm Aviation Fuel] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420064213/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/fuel/Tech21.htm |date=2012-04-20 }} - US Centennial of Flight Commission, Retrieved 3 January 2012</ref> specified in 1944 by the United States government (AN-F-32). It was a pure kerosene fuel with high flash point (relative to aviation gasoline) and a freezing point of {{Convert|−60|C}}. The low freezing point requirement limited availability of the fuel and it was soon superseded by other "wide cut" jet fuels which were kerosene-naphtha or kerosene-gasoline blends. It was also known as '''avtur'''.
{{anchor|JP-2}} ;JP-2 :an obsolete type developed during World War II. JP-2 was intended to be easier to produce than JP-1 since it had a higher freezing point, but was never widely used.<ref name="Beyond 1994">Larry Reithmaier, ''Mach 1 and Beyond: The Illustrated Guide to High-Speed Flight'', (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1994), {{ISBN|0070520216}}, page 104</ref>
{{anchor|JP-3}} ;JP-3 :was an attempt to improve availability of the fuel compared to JP-1 by widening the cut and loosening tolerances on impurities to ensure ready supply. In his book ''Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants'', John D. Clark described the specification as, "remarkably liberal, with a wide cut (range of distillation temperatures) and with such permissive limits on olefins and aromatics that any refinery above the level of a Kentucky moonshine<nowiki/>r's pot still could convert at least half of any crude to jet fuel".<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=John D |author-link=John Drury Clark |date=1972 |title=Ignition! An Informal History of Liquid Rocket Propellants |location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |publisher=Rutgers University Press |page=33 |isbn=0-8135-0725-1 }}</ref> It was even more volatile than JP-2 and had high evaporation loss in service.<ref name="Beyond 1994"/>
{{anchor|JP-4}} ;JP-4 :was a 50-50 kerosene-gasoline blend. It had lower flash point than JP-1, but was preferred because of its greater availability. It was the primary United States Air Force jet fuel between 1951 and 1995. Its NATO code is '''F-40'''. JP-4 is also known as '''AVTAG/FSII''' (aviation turbine gasoline/fuel systems icing inhibitor) fuel.<ref name="natologman"></ref><ref name=shellmil>{{cite web |title=Military Jet Fuel Specifications |website=Shell Global |url=https://www.shell.com/business-customers/aviation/aviation-fuel/military-jet-fuel-grades.html |date=19 Nov 2025}}</ref>
{{anchor|JP-5}} ;JP-5 :is a yellow kerosene-based jet fuel developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard aircraft carriers, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, containing alkanes, naphthenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons that weighs {{convert|6.8|lb/U.S.gal|kg/L}} and has a high flash point (min. {{convert|60|C|sigfig=2|disp=or}}).<ref>[http://mcdetflw.tecom.usmc.mil/MTIC/VRC.SNCOIC/M970/CHAR.FUELS.SLP.doc Characteristics of Fuels] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126005424/http://mcdetflw.tecom.usmc.mil/MTIC/VRC.SNCOIC/M970/CHAR.FUELS.SLP.doc |date=2007-01-26 }} Marine Corps Schools Detachment — Ft. Leonard Wood</ref> Because some US naval air stations, Marine Corps air stations and Coast Guard air stations host both sea and land based naval aircraft, these installations will also typically fuel their shore-based aircraft with JP-5, thus precluding the need to maintain separate fuel facilities for JP-5 and non-JP-5 fuel. Similarly, China named their navy fuel RP-5.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://xueshu.baidu.com/usercenter/paper/show?paperid=1565003910f013e0a8c676b0836784ef | doi=10.3969/j.issn.1674-3407.2014.01.014 | title=Rp-3和Rp-5煤油对飞机动力装置和燃油系统试飞的影响 |trans-title=The Impact of RP-3 and RP-5 Kerosene on Flight Testing of Aircraft Power Plants and Fuel Systems | journal=工程与试验 | date=2014 | issue=1 | pages=49–51 }}</ref> Its freezing point is {{convert|−46|C}}, and it does not contain antistatic agents. JP-5 is also known as NCI-C54784. JP-5's NATO code is '''F-44'''. It is also called '''AVCAT''' (aviation carrier turbine) fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/23/008/00000200.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050517163529/http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/23/008/00000200.pdf|url-status=dead|title=UK MOD DEF STAN 23-8 ISSUE 2|archivedate=May 17, 2005}}</ref>
:The JP-4 and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 and meeting the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epc.shell.com/Docs/GPCDOC_Fuels_Local_TDS_Aviation_Fuels_TDS_-_F-44_-_Military_Aviation_Kerosine.pdf|title=Shell Fuels Technical Data Sheet - F-44|access-date=2012-05-11|archive-date=2013-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718215253/http://www.epc.shell.com/Docs/GPCDOC_Fuels_Local_TDS_Aviation_Fuels_TDS_-_F-44_-_Military_Aviation_Kerosine.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> are intended for use in aircraft turbine engines. These fuels require unique additives that are necessary for military aircraft and engine fuel systems.
{{anchor|JP-6}} ;JP-6 :was developed for the General Electric YJ93 afterburning turbojet engines used in the North American XB-70 Valkyrie for sustained flight at Mach 3. It was similar to JP-5 but with a lower freezing point and improved thermal oxidative stability. When the XB-70 program was cancelled, the JP-6 specification, MIL-J-25656, was also cancelled.<ref>[http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=4503664&contentId=57733 The History of Jet Fuel] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018042938/http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=4503664&contentId=57733 |date=October 18, 2012 }} Air BP</ref>
{{anchor|JP-7}} ;JP-7 :was developed for the Pratt & Whitney J58 afterburning turbojet engines used in the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird for sustained flight at Mach 3+. It had a high flash point required to prevent boiloff caused by aerodynamic heating. Its thermal stability was high enough to prevent coke and varnish deposits when used as a heat sink medium for aircraft air conditioning and hydraulic systems and engine accessories.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sr-71.org/blackbird/manual/1/1-4.php|title=SR-71 Online - SR-71 Flight Manual: Section 1, Page 1-4|website=www.sr-71.org}}</ref>
{{anchor |JP-8}} ;JP-8 :is a jet fuel, specified and used widely by the U.S. military. It is specified by MIL-DTL-83133 and British Defence Standard 91-87. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel. The United States military uses JP-8 as a "universal fuel" in both turbine-powered aircraft and diesel-powered ground vehicles. It was first introduced at NATO bases in 1978. Its NATO code is '''F-34.''' It is also known as AVTUR/FSII (aviation turbine/fuel systems icing inhibitor) fuel.<ref name=natologman></ref><ref name=shellmil></ref>
{{anchor |JP-9}} ;JP-9 :is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the Tomahawk cruise missile, containing the TH-dimer (tetrahydrodimethyldicyclopentadiene) produced by catalytic hydrogenation of methylpentadiene dimer.
{{anchor |JP-10}} ;JP-10 :is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the AGM-86 ALCM cruise missile.<ref name="CRC, Aviation Fuel Properties, JP-10" >{{Cite book | title=Aviation Fuel Properties | year=1983 | publisher=Coordinating Research Council | id=CRC Report Nº 530 | ref={{harvid|CRC|Aviation Fuel Properties}} | url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722080544/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf | url-status=live | archive-date=July 22, 2012 | page=3 }}</ref> It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order) endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene (a synthetic fuel), and adamantane. It is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of dicyclopentadiene. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of {{convert|-65|F}}.<ref name="CRC, Aviation Fuel Properties, JP-10" /> It is also used by the Tomahawk jet-powered subsonic cruise missile.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Coggeshall |first1=Katharine |title=Revolutionizing Tomahawk fuel |url=https://www.lanl.gov/discover/publications/national-security-science/2020-spring/tomahawk.php |website=Los Alamos National Laboratory |access-date=20 May 2020}}</ref>
{{anchor |JPTS}} ;JPTS :was a combination of LF-1 charcoal lighter fluid and an additive to improve thermal oxidative stability officially known as "Thermally Stable Jet Fuel". It was developed in 1956 for the Pratt & Whitney J57 engine which powered the Lockheed U-2 spy plane.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA186752|title=DTIC ADA186752: Military Jet Fuels, 1944-1987|date=November 1, 1987|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
{{anchor |Zip fuel}} ;Zip fuel :designates a series of experimental boron-containing "high energy fuels" intended for long range aircraft. The toxicity and undesirable residues of the fuel made it difficult to use. The development of the ballistic missile removed the principal application of zip fuel.
==Piston engine use== {{Confusing|section|date=July 2014}} Jet fuel is very similar to diesel fuel, and in some cases, may be used in diesel engines. The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of leaded avgas (fuel in spark-ignited internal combustion engine, which usually contains tetraethyllead (TEL), a toxic substance added to prevent engine knocking), and the lack of a replacement fuel with similar performance, has left aircraft designers and pilot organizations searching for alternative engines for use in small aircraft.<ref>[http://www.kansas.com/business/story/833098.html Planemakers challenged to find unleaded fuel option - The Wichita Eagle] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606121617/http://www.kansas.com/business/story/833098.html |date=June 6, 2009 }}</ref> As a result, only a few aircraft engine manufacturers, most notably Thielert and Austro Engine, have begun offering aircraft diesel engines which run on jet fuel, which may simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of general aviation aircraft. A diesel engine may be more fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as the Junkers Jumo 205 family had been used during the Second World War.
Jet fuel is often used in diesel-powered ground-support vehicles at airports. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, which increases wear in fuel injection equipment.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} An additive may be required to restore its lubricity. Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset the extra expense of its use in certain circumstances.
Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it has better lubricity and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and were called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. In the United States LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locomotive and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445.
JP-8, which is similar to Jet A-1, is used in NATO diesel vehicles as part of the single-fuel policy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 15: Fuels, Oils, Lubricants and Petroleum Handling Equipment: Military Fuels and the Single Fuel Concept |url=https://www.nato.int/docu/logi-en/1997/lo-1511.htm |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref>
==Synthetic jet fuel== {{main|Synthetic fuel}} Fischer–Tropsch (FT) Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) synthetic fuels are certified for use in United States and international aviation fleets at up to 50% in a blend with conventional jet fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.astm.org/Standards/D7566.htm|title=ASTM D7566 - 20a Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons|website=www.astm.org}}</ref> As of the end of 2017, four other pathways to SPK are certified, with their designations and maximum blend percentage in brackets: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA SPK, 50%); synthesized iso-paraffins from hydroprocessed fermented sugars (SIP, 10%); synthesized paraffinic kerosene plus aromatics (SPK/A, 50%); alcohol-to-jet SPK (ATJ-SPK, 30%). Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H.
Some synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and sometimes carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/36363.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508055932/http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/npbf/pdfs/36363.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Fuel Property, Emission Test, and Operability Results from a Fleet of Class 6 Vehicles Operating on Gas-To-Liquid Fuel and Catalyzed Diesel Particle Filters|archive-date=May 8, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1021/es201902e|pmid = 22043875|title = Comparison of PM Emissions from a Commercial Jet Engine Burning Conventional, Biomass, and Fischer–Tropsch Fuels|journal = Environmental Science & Technology|volume = 45|issue = 24|pages = 10744–10749|year = 2011|last1 = Lobo|first1 = Prem|last2 = Hagen|first2 = Donald E.|last3 = Whitefield|first3 = Philip D.|bibcode = 2011EnST...4510744L|url = https://figshare.com/articles/Comparison_of_PM_Emissions_from_a_Commercial_Jet_Engine_Burning_Conventional_Biomass_and_Fischer_Tropsch_Fuels/2571376|url-access = subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-aviation-lca|title=Argonne GREET Publication: Life Cycle Analysis of Alternative Aviation Fuels in GREET|website=greet.es.anl.gov|access-date=2018-01-05|archive-date=2022-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119191737/https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-aviation-lca|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a536842.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224194406/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a536842.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=February 24, 2017|title=Corporan, E et al. (2010). Alternative Fuels Tests on a C-17 Aircraft: Emissions Characteristics, DTIC Document}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110007202.pdf |title=Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) |last=Anderson |first=B. E. |display-authors=etal |date=February 2011 |publisher=NASA Langley Research Centre}}</ref> It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.synthetic-fuels.org/documents/Landing%20release%20Commercial%20Passenger%20Flight%20Shell.pdf|title=Best Synth Jet Fuel}}{{Dead link|date=October 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
Qatar Airways became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from London to Doha came from Shell's GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2009/10/qatar-gtl-20091012.html |title=Qatar Airways Becomes First to Operate Commercial Flight on GTL Jet Fuel Blend |publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2009-10-12}}</ref> The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from Lanseria International Airport to Cape Town International Airport on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by Sasol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sasol.com/sasol_internet/frontend/navigation.jsp?articleTypeID=2&articleId=28500003&navid=1&rootid=1 |title=Sasol takes to the skies with the world's first fully synthetic jet fuel |publisher=Sasol |date=2010-09-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515202422/http://www.sasol.com/sasol_internet/frontend/navigation.jsp?articleTypeID=2&articleId=28500003&navid=1&rootid=1 |archive-date=2011-05-15 }}</ref>
Chemist Heather Willauer is leading a team of researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory who are developing a process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate Oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) and Hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an oligomerization step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long-chain hydrocarbons, using zeolite as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nrl.navy.mil/media/news-releases/2012/fueling-the-fleet-navy-looks-to-the-seas |title=Fueling the Fleet, Navy Looks to the Seas |last=Parry |first=Daniel |date=September 24, 2012 |work=Naval Research Laboratory News |access-date=June 18, 2014 |archive-date=February 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203162405/https://www.nrl.navy.mil/media/news-releases/2012/fueling-the-fleet-navy-looks-to-the-seas |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/how-navy-might-spin-seawater-jet-fuel-1512712 |title=How The Navy Might Spin Seawater Into Jet Fuel |date=December 17, 2013 |first=Roxanne |last=Palmer |work=International Business Times}}</ref><ref name=Tozer2014>{{cite web |first=Jessica L. |last=Tozer |title=Energy Independence: Creating Fuel from Seawater |date=April 11, 2014 |url=https://science.dodlive.mil/2014/04/11/energy-independence-creating-fuel-from-sea-water/ |work=Armed with Science |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |access-date=November 4, 2019 |archive-date=November 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104154749/https://science.dodlive.mil/2014/04/11/energy-independence-creating-fuel-from-sea-water/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/innovation-works/guess-what-could-fuel-the-battleships-of-the-future-20131213 |title=Guess What Could Fuel the Battleships of the Future? |last=Koren |first=Marina |date=December 13, 2013 |journal=National Journal }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2014/04/navy-just-turned-seawater-jet-fuel/82300/ |title=The Navy Just Turned Seawater Into Jet Fuel |date=April 10, 2014 |last=Tucker |first=Patrick |journal=Defense One}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/apr/10/game-changer-us-navy-can-now-turn-seawater-jet-fue/ |title=U.S. Navy to turn seawater into jet fuel |date=April 10, 2014 |last=Ernst |first=Douglas |newspaper=The Washington Times}}</ref>
On February 8, 2021, the world's first scheduled passenger flight flew with some synthetic kerosene from a non-fossil fuel source. 500 liters of synthetic kerosene was mixed with regular jet fuel. Synthetic kerosene was produced by Shell and the flight was operated by KLM.<ref name="Shell">{{cite web |url=https://www.shell.com/business-customers/aviation/100years/flying-together/synthetic-kerosene.html |title=World First – Synthetic Kerosene Takes to the Air |accessdate=2022-03-31 }}</ref>
===USAF synthetic fuel trials=== On August 8, 2007, Air Force Secretary Michael Wynne certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of the test program. This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during the program to certify the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III and then the Rockwell B-1B Lancer to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered {{convert|281,000|USgal|L|abbr=on}} of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over {{convert|9,000|USgal|abbr=on}} to NASA for testing in various aircraft and engines.{{Update inline|date=October 2014}}
The USAF has certified the B-1B, B-52H, C-17, Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules, McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom (as QF-4 target drones), McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, and Northrop T-38 Talon to use the synthetic fuel blend.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sirak|first=Michael|title=B-2 Goes Synthetic | url=https://www.airandspaceforces.com/b-2goessynthetic/ | publisher=Air & Space Forces Magazine | access-date=2023-01-15 |date=2010-01-27}}</ref>
The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, F-16 and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dowdell |first=Richelle |title=Officials certify first aircraft for biofuel usage |publisher=The Official Website of the U.S. Air Force |date=February 10, 2011 |url=https://www.af.mil/News/story/?id=123242117%29 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212040734/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123242117) |url-status=live |archive-date=December 12, 2012 |access-date=March 7, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="one">{{cite news |last=Morales |first=Alex |author2=Louise Downing |title=Fat Replaces Oil for F-16s as Biofuels Head to War: Commodities |newspaper=BusinessWeek |date=October 18, 2011 |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-10-18/fat-replaces-oil-for-f-16s-as-biofuels-head-to-war-commodities.html |access-date=March 7, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226100206/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-10-18/fat-replaces-oil-for-f-16s-as-biofuels-head-to-war-commodities.html |archive-date=February 26, 2012 }}</ref> The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013.<ref name="one"/> The U.S. Army is considered one of the few customers of biofuels large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs.<ref name="one"/> The U.S. Navy has also flown a Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet dubbed the "Green Hornet" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend.<ref name="one"/> The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a $6.7 million project with Honeywell UOP to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by the United States and NATO militaries.<ref>{{cite news | title =UOP To Develop Technology to Produce Bio JP-8 for Military Jets | publisher =Green Car Congress | date =June 28, 2007 | url =http://www.greencarcongress.com/2007/06/uop-to-develop-.html | access-date =March 7, 2012 }}</ref>
In April 2011, four USAF F-15E Strike Eagles flew over the Philadelphia Phillies opening ceremony using a blend of traditional jet fuel and synthetic biofuels. This flyover made history as it was the first flyover to use biofuels in the Department of Defense.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Force jets perform first flyover using alternative fuel |url=https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/113759/air-force-jets-perform-first-flyover-using-alternative-fuel/ |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=Air Force |date=31 March 2011 |language=en-US}}</ref>
===Jet biofuels=== {{main|Aviation biofuel}} The air transport industry is responsible for 2–3 percent of man-made carbon dioxide emitted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-org.airbus.com/store/mm_repository/pdf/att00014178/media_object_file_BeginnersGuide_Biofuels.pdf |title=Beginner's Guide to Aviation Biofuels |date=May 2009 |publisher=Air Transport Action Group |access-date=2009-09-20 |archive-date=2020-03-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302164112/https://www-org.airbus.com/store/mm_repository/pdf/att00014178/media_object_file_BeginnersGuide_Biofuels.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. One possible solution which has received more media coverage than others would be blending synthetic fuel derived from algae with existing jet fuel:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/03/AR2008010303907.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |title=A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy |date=2008-01-06 |access-date=2010-05-06}}</ref>
* Green Flight International became the first airline to fly jet aircraft on 100% biofuel. The flight from Reno Stead Airport in Stead, Nevada was in an Aero L-29 Delfín piloted by Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenflightinternational.com/index.htm |title=Gfi Home |publisher=Greenflightinternational.com |access-date=2010-11-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110125173011/http://www.greenflightinternational.com/index.htm |archive-date=2011-01-25 }}</ref> * Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with Tecbio<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tecbio.com.br/ |title=Tecbio |publisher=Tecbio |access-date=2010-11-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123141009/http://www.tecbio.com.br/ |archive-date=2011-01-23 }}</ref> Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world. * Virgin Atlantic successfully tested a biofuel blend consisting of 20 percent babassu nuts and coconut and 80 percent conventional jet fuel, which was fed to a single engine on a 747 flight from London Heathrow to Amsterdam Schiphol.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/3/story.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=10494543 |title=Crop this: Virgin takes off with nut-fuel - 26 Feb 2008 - NZ Herald: New Zealand Business, Markets, Currency and Personal Finance News |publisher=The New Zealand Herald |date=2008-02-26 |access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref> * A consortium consisting of Boeing, NASA's Glenn Research Center, MTU Aero Engines (Germany), and the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory is working on development of jet fuel blends containing a substantial percentage of biofuel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/aboutus/environment/environmental_report/alternative-energy-solutions.html |title=2008 Environment Report |publisher=Boeing |access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref> * British Airways and Velocys have entered into a partnership in the UK to design a series of plants that convert household waste into jet fuel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.velocys.com/uk-waste-to-jet-partnership/ |title=Velocys press release, "Partnership formed, aimed at waste-to-jet-fuel plants in UK |date=September 18, 2017 |access-date=January 5, 2018 |archive-date=January 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180105233716/http://www.velocys.com/uk-waste-to-jet-partnership/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> *24 commercial and military biofuel flights have taken place using Honeywell “Green Jet Fuel,” including a Navy F/A-18 Hornet.<ref>{{cite news | last=Koch |first=Wendy |title=United flies first US passengers using fuel from algae |newspaper=USA Today |date =November 7, 2011 |url =http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2011/11/united-flies-first-us-passengers-with-biofuel-from-algae/1 |access-date =December 16, 2011 }}</ref> * In 2011, United Continental Holdings was the first United States airline to fly passengers on a commercial flight using a blend of sustainable, advanced biofuels and traditional petroleum-derived jet fuel. Solazyme developed the algae oil, which was refined utilizing Honeywell's UOP process technology, into jet fuel to power the commercial flight.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Airlines Flies First U.S. Commercial Advanced Biofuel Flight |url=http://ir.unitedcontinentalholdings.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=83680&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1627061&highlight |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130412030740/http://ir.unitedcontinentalholdings.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=83680&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1627061&highlight |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2013 |publisher=United Continental Holdings, Inc. |access-date=November 7, 2011 }}</ref>
Solazyme produced the world's first 100 percent algae-derived jet fuel, Solajet, for both commercial and military applications.<ref>{{cite news|last=Price |first=Toby |title=Solazyme completes first commercial flight on biofuel |url=http://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/article/solazyme-completes-first-commercial-flight-on-biofuel |access-date=13 February 2013 |newspaper=Renewable Energy Magazine |date=November 10, 2011}}</ref>
thumb|Jet fuel vs oil prices Oil prices increased about fivefold from 2003 to 2008, raising fears that world petroleum production is becoming unable to keep up with demand. The fact that there are few alternatives to petroleum for aviation fuel adds urgency to the search for alternatives. Twenty-five airlines were bankrupted or stopped operations in the first six months of 2008, largely due to fuel costs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Business/Story/A1Story20080708-75407.html |title=More airlines fold as fuel prices soar: IATA |publisher=News.asiaone.com |access-date=2010-11-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703095921/http://news.asiaone.com/News/Latest+News/Business/Story/A1Story20080708-75407.html |archive-date=2011-07-03 }}</ref>
In 2015 ASTM approved a modification to Specification D1655 Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels to permit up to 50 ppm (50 mg/kg) of FAME (fatty acid methyl ester) in jet fuel to allow higher cross-contamination from biofuel production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.astm.org/newsroom/revised-astm-standard-expands-limit-biofuel-contamination-jet-fuels|title=Revised ASTM Standard Expands Limit on Biofuel Contamination in Jet Fuels | www.astm.org|website=www.astm.org|access-date=2020-09-14|archive-date=2020-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308122854/https://www.astm.org/newsroom/revised-astm-standard-expands-limit-biofuel-contamination-jet-fuels|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==Worldwide consumption of jet fuel== Worldwide demand of jet fuel has been steadily increasing since 1980. Consumption more than tripled in 30 years from 1,837,000 barrels/day in 1980, to 5,220,000 in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?product=jet-fuel |access-date=19 November 2014 |title=Jet fuel consumption on Index Mundi}}</ref> Around 30% of the worldwide consumption of jet fuel is in the US (1,398,130 barrels/day in 2012).
== Taxation == {{See also|Aviation taxation and subsidies}}
Article 24 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation of 7 December 1944 stipulates that when flying from one contracting state to another, the fuel that is already on board aircraft may not be taxed by the state where the aircraft lands, nor by a state through whose airspace the aircraft has flown. This is to prevent double taxation. It is sometimes suggested that the Chicago Convention precludes the taxation of aviation fuel. However, this is not correct. The Chicago Convention does not preclude a fuel tax on domestic flights or on refuelling before international flights.<ref name="faber2018">{{Cite web |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2019_02_CE_Delft_Taxing_Aviation_Fuels_EU.pdf |title=Taxing aviation fuels in the EU |author=Jasper Faber and Aoife O'Leary |work=CE Delft |page=16 |publisher=Transport and Environment |date=November 2018 |access-date=20 June 2020 |quote=The Chicago Convention provides no obstacle to placing a tax on domestic or intra-EU aviation fuel. The Convention bans parties from imposing taxes on fuel already on board an aircraft when it lands in another country but it contains no prohibition on taxing the fuel sold to aircraft in a country. Further, the Chicago Convention is not applicable to domestic aviation. It is often suggested that the Chicago Convention exempts aviation fuel from taxation. However, the Chicago Convention only exempts fuels already on-board aircraft when landing, and retained on board when leaving, from taxation. Article 24 states: 'Fuel... on board an aircraft of a contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges.' Therefore, Article 24 does not prohibit the taxing of fuel taken on board in a particular country but rather prohibits the taxation of fuel that was already on board the aircraft when it landed, i.e. Member States cannot tax aviation fuel purchased in another country that arrives on board the aircraft. The purpose of this Article is to prevent double taxation. |archive-date=13 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113175951/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2019_02_CE_Delft_Taxing_Aviation_Fuels_EU.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|22}}
Article 15 of the Chicago Convention is also sometimes said to ban fuel taxes. Article 15 states: "No fees, dues or other charges shall be imposed by any contracting State in respect solely of the right of transit over or entry into or exit from its territory of any aircraft of a contracting State or persons or property thereon." However, ICAO distinguishes between charges and taxes, and Article 15 does not prohibit the levying of taxes without a service provided.<ref name="faber2018"/>{{rp|23}}
In the European Union, commercial aviation fuel is exempt from taxation, according to the 2003 Energy Taxation Directive.<ref name="Energy Taxation Directive">{{Cite web |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32003L0096 |title=Council Directive 2003/96/EC of 27 October 2003, restructuring the Community framework for the taxation of energy products and electricity |work=Official Journal of the European Union |publisher=Eur-Lex |date=27 October 2002 |access-date=20 June 2020 |quote=Member States shall exempt the following from taxation... energy products supplied for use as fuel for the purpose of air navigation other than in private pleasure-flying.}}</ref> EU member states may tax jet fuel via bilateral agreements, however no such agreements exist.<ref name="faber2018"/>
In the United States, most states tax jet fuel.<ref name="U.S. Energy Information Administration">{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/petroleum/marketing/monthly/xls/aviationtaxes.xls |title=State Aviation Fuel Rates - February 2021 |author=U.S. Energy Information Administration |access-date=March 18, 2021}}</ref>
== Health effects == General health hazards associated with exposure to jet fuel vary according to its components, exposure duration (acute vs. long-term), route of administration (dermal vs. respiratory vs. oral), and exposure phase (vapor vs. aerosol vs. raw fuel).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mattie|first1=David R.|last2=Sterner|first2=Teresa R.|date=2011-07-15|title=Past, present and emerging toxicity issues for jet fuel|journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology|volume=254|issue=2|pages=127–132|doi=10.1016/j.taap.2010.04.022|issn=1096-0333|pmid=21296101|bibcode=2011ToxAP.254..127M }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Glenn|last2=Still|first2=Kenneth|last3=Rossi III|first3=John|last4=Bekkedal|first4=Marni|last5=Bobb|first5=Andrew|last6=Arfsten|first6=Darryl|date=2003-01-01|title=Biological And Health Effects Of Exposure To Kerosene-Based Jet Fuels And Performance Additives|journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B|language=en|volume=6|issue=4|pages=357–451|doi=10.1080/10937400306473|pmid=12775519|bibcode=2003JTEHB...6..357R |s2cid=30595016|issn=1093-7404}}</ref> Kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels are complex mixtures which may contain up to 260+ aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds including toxicants such as benzene, n-hexane, toluene, xylenes, trimethylpentane, methoxyethanol, naphthalenes.<ref name=":0" /> While time-weighted average hydrocarbon fuel exposures can often be below recommended exposure limits, peak exposure can occur, and the health impact of occupational exposures is not fully understood. Evidence of the health effects of jet fuels comes from reports on both temporary or persisting biological from acute, subchronic, or chronic exposure of humans or animals to kerosene-based hydrocarbon fuels, or the constituent chemicals of these fuels, or to fuel combustion products. The effects studied include: cancer, skin conditions, respiratory disorders,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Robledo|first1=R. F.|last2=Barber|first2=D. S.|last3=Witten|first3=M. L.|date=1999|title=Modulation of bronchial epithelial cell barrier function by in vitro jet propulsion fuel 8 exposure|journal=Toxicological Sciences|volume=51|issue=1|pages=119–125|doi=10.1093/toxsci/51.1.119|issn=1096-6080|pmid=10496683|doi-access=free}}</ref> immune and hematological disorders,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harris|first1=D. T.|last2=Sakiestewa|first2=D.|last3=Titone|first3=D.|last4=Robledo|first4=R. F.|last5=Young|first5=R. S.|last6=Witten|first6=M.|date=2000|title=Jet fuel-induced immunotoxicity|journal=Toxicology and Industrial Health|volume=16|issue=7–8|pages=261–265|doi=10.1177/074823370001600702|issn=0748-2337|pmid=11693943|bibcode=2000ToxIH..16..261H |s2cid=42673565}}</ref> neurological effects,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knave|first1=B.|last2=Persson|first2=H. E.|last3=Goldberg|first3=J. M.|last4=Westerholm|first4=P.|date=1976|title=Long-term exposure to jet fuel: an investigation on occupationally exposed workers with special reference to the nervous system|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume=2|issue=3|pages=152–164|doi=10.5271/sjweh.2809|issn=0355-3140|pmid=973128|doi-access=free}}</ref> visual and hearing disorders,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Morata|first1=Thais C.|last2=Hungerford|first2=Michelle|last3=Konrad-Martin|first3=Dawn|date=2021-08-18|title=Potential Risks to Hearing Functions of Service Members From Exposure to Jet Fuels|journal=American Journal of Audiology|volume=30|issue=3S|language=en|pages=922–927|doi=10.1044/2021_AJA-20-00226|pmid=34407375|issn=1059-0889|doi-access=free|pmc=11934069}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kaufman|first1=Laura R.|last2=LeMasters|first2=Grace K.|last3=Olsen|first3=Donna M.|last4=Succop|first4=Paul|date=2005|title=Effects of concurrent noise and jet fuel exposure on hearing loss|journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine|volume=47|issue=3|pages=212–218|doi=10.1097/01.jom.0000155710.28289.0e|issn=1076-2752|pmid=15761316|s2cid=1195860}}</ref> renal and hepatic diseases, cardiovascular conditions, gastrointestinal disorders, genotoxic and metabolic effects.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bendtsen|first1=Katja M.|last2=Bengtsen|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Saber|first3=Anne T.|last4=Vogel|first4=Ulla|date=2021-02-06|title=A review of health effects associated with exposure to jet engine emissions in and around airports|journal=Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source|volume=20|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00690-y|issn=1476-069X|pmc=7866671|pmid=33549096 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021EnvHe..20...10B }}</ref>
==See also== *Index of aviation articles {{Portal bar|Aviation}}
==Notes== {{notelist}}
==References== {{reflist}}
==Further reading== *{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Jet Fuels |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Liquid Fuels |publisher=De Gruyter |last=Schmidt |first=Eckart W. |date=2022 |pages=3497–3592 |doi=10.1515/9783110750287-030 |isbn=978-3-11-075028-7}} ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121018042938/http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=4503664&contentId=57733 History of Jet Fuel] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120913140458/http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/FEDMIL/dtl5624u.pdf MIL-DTL-5624U] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130319104805/http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/FEDMIL/dtl83133h.pdf MIL-DTL-83133H] * [http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf Aviation Fuel Properties 1983]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722080544/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a132106.pdf |date=2012-07-22 }}
{{Aircraft gas turbine engine components}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Aviation fuels Category:Liquid fuels Category:Occupational safety and health Category:Petroleum products