{{Short description|Sandstone massif in Algeria's central Sahara Desert}} {{For|the album by Tinariwen|Tassili (album)}} {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site | image = Map of Tassili n'Ajjer and surroundings-en.jpg | image_upright = 1.2 | caption = Map of Tassili n'Ajjer and surroundings | location = [[Algeria]] | includes = Tassili National Park, La Vallée d'Iherir Ramsar Wetland | criteria = {{UNESCO WHS type|(i), (iii), (vii), (viii)}}(i), (iii), (vii), (viii) | ID = 179 | coordinates = {{coord|25|30|N|9|0|E|format=dms|type:mountain_region:DZ_dim:500000|display=inline,title}} | year = 1982 | area = {{convert|7,200,000|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}} | buffer_zone = | locmapin = Algeria | map_caption = | embedded = {{Infobox protected area | child = yes | name = | iucn_category = II | image = | image_caption = | mapframe = yes | mapframe-zoom = 6 | mapframe-wikidata = yes | location = [[Djanet Province]],[[Illizi Province]] [[Algeria]] | nearest_city = | coordinates = | area_km2 = | established = 1972 | disestablished = 2011 | visitation_num = | visitation_year = u | governing_body = }} {{Designation list | embed = yes | designation1 = Ramsar | designation1_offname = La Vallée d'Iherir | designation1_date = 2 February 2001 | designation1_number = 1057<ref>{{Cite web|title=La Vallée d'Iherir|website=[[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1057|access-date=25 April 2018|archive-date=28 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128023625/https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1057|url-status=live}}</ref>}} | WHS = Tassili n'Ajjer }}
'''Tassili n'Ajjer''' ([[Berber languages|Berber]]: ''Tassili n Ajjer'', {{langx|ar|طاسيلي ناجر|ṭāssīlī naʾjir}}; "Plateau of rivers") is a mountain range in the [[Sahara]] desert, located in south-eastern [[Algeria]]. It holds one of the most important groupings of [[cave painting|prehistoric cave art]] in the world<ref name="Unesco">{{cite web | last=Centre | first=UNESCO World Heritage | title=Tassili n'Ajjer | website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre | date=11 Oct 2017 | url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/179/ | access-date=26 December 2019 | archive-date=4 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404032753/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/179/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://africanrockart.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Coulson-article-A10-proof.pdf |title=Rock Art of the Tassili n Ajjer, Algeria |publisher=Africanrockart.org |access-date=February 7, 2017 |archive-date=September 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930123103/https://africanrockart.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Coulson-article-A10-proof.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and covers an area of more than {{convert|72,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=brit>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tassili-n-Ajjer |title=Tassili-n-Ajjer |publisher=britannica |access-date=February 7, 2017 |archive-date=May 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529043147/https://www.britannica.com/place/Tassili-n-Ajjer |url-status=live }}</ref>
The site has been designated a [[national park]] and a [[Biosphere Reserve]], and was inducted into the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] list in 1982.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.algeria.com/national-parks/tassili-n-ajjer/ |title=Tassili n'Ajjer National Park, Djanet |publisher=Algeria.com |access-date=February 7, 2017 |archive-date=February 8, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208032911/http://www.algeria.com/national-parks/tassili-n-ajjer/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The literal English translation of ''Tassili n'Ajjer'' is 'plateau of rivers'.<ref>{{cite book|title=Pan-African Congress on Prehistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m9W0AAAAIAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Kraus Reprint|page=68|language=fr|quote=Les eaux de pluie ont raviné les crêtes et ont progressivement entaillé les plateaux, creusant des canyons étroits et profonds aux parois à pic, dont la direction générale est Sud-Nord. C'est d'ailleurs ce qui lui a valu le nom de Tassili-n-Ajjer, nom qui vient des mots touaregs : Tasilé = plateau et gir = rivières, ce qui veut dire : le plateau des rivières. == rainwater gutted the ridges and progressively slashed the plateaus, digging narrow, deep canyons with steep walls, whose general direction is South-North. This is what earned it the name of Tassili-n-Ajjer, name that comes from the Tuareg words: Tasilé = plateau and gir= rivers, which means: the plateau of rivers.|access-date=2019-08-01|archive-date=2024-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521150247/https://books.google.com/books?id=m9W0AAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Geography==
[[File:Dunes_at_Tassili_n%27Ajjer.jpg|thumb|left|Aerial photograph of Tassili n'Ajjer]]
Tassili n'Ajjer is a plateau in south-eastern [[Algeria]] at the borders of [[Libya]] and [[Niger]], covering an area of 72,000 km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Unesco" /> It ranges from {{coord|26|20|N|5|00|E|}} east-south-east to {{coord|24|00|N|10|00|E|}}. Its highest point is the [[Adrar Afao]] that peaks at {{convert|2158|m|ft|abbr=on}}, located at {{coord|25|10|N|8|11|E|}}. The nearest towns are Djanet on the southeastern edge and Illizi on the northern edge.
The plateau is of great geological and aesthetic interest. Its panorama of geological formations consisting of rock forests, composed of eroded sandstone, resembles a lunar landscape and hosts a range of rock art styles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.archmillennium.net/tassili_national_park.htm |title=Tassili National Park, Sahara Algeria |publisher=Archmillennium.net |access-date=2012-12-16 |archive-date=2020-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920102632/http://www.archmillennium.net/tassili_national_park.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Willcox|first=A. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qilKDwAAQBAJ&q=san+bushmen+Tassili+n%E2%80%99Ajjer&pg=PP16|title=The Rock Art of Africa|date=2018-01-29|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-51535-9|language=en|access-date=2020-12-09|archive-date=2023-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407203651/https://books.google.com/books?id=qilKDwAAQBAJ&q=san+bushmen+Tassili+n%E2%80%99Ajjer&pg=PP16|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Geology==
The range is composed largely of [[sandstone]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book|title=Natural Wonders of the World|publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc|year=1980|isbn=978-0-89577-087-5|editor-last=Scheffel|editor-first=Richard L.|location=United States of America|pages=371–372|editor-last2=Wernet|editor-first2=Susan J.}}</ref> The sandstone is stained by [[desert varnish]], a thin outer layer of deposited [[Oxide|metallic oxides]] that colour the rock formations variously from near-black to dull red.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Erosion in the area has resulted in nearly 300 [[Natural arch|natural rock arches]] being formed in the south east, along with deep gorges and permanent water pools in the north.
[[File:West African Craton.svg|thumb|left|West African Craton, Tuareg Shield and East Sahara Metacraton]]
The [[Tuareg Shield]], an accumulation of [[terrane]]s that formed during the [[Neoproterozoic]] era between 750 and 550 million years ago,<ref>J. - P. Liégois et al, ''Pan-african displaced terranes in the Tuareg shield'', Geology, 1994, p. 641, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238422159_Pan-African_displaced_terranes_in_the_Tuareg_shield_Central_Sahara], PDF, 2.5 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref> encompassed the area of today's [[Ahaggar]] Mountains in Algeria, the [[Aïr]] Mountains in [[Niger]], and the [[Adrar des Ifoghas]] in Mali. To the west lies the [[West African Craton]], to the east the [[Saharan Metacraton]]. It expanded through [[Accretion (geology)|accretion]] in the north and south, so that it also encompassed the area of today's Tassili n'Ajjer.<ref name="Liégois">J.-P. Liégois, ''The Hoggar swell and volcanism, Tuareg shield, Central Sahara'', Africa Museum, B-3080 Tervuren, 2006, p. 2ff, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281917996_The_Hoggar_swell_and_volcanism_Tuareg_shield_Central_Sahara_intraplate_reactivation_of_Precambrian_structures_as_a_result_of_Alpine_convergence], PDF, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref> During this epoch, the supercontinent [[Gondwana]] formed, which also included all the cratons and shields of what would later become Africa.<ref>Paul Perron, ''Architecture and tectonic of Paleozoic intracratonic Basins'', HAL open science, 2019, p. 85, [https://theses.hal.science/tel-02284343v1/file/78888_PERRON_2019_archivage.pdf], PDF, 54 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref><ref name="Djouder">Hocine Djouder, ''Silurian succession from North Africa: Sedimentology, ichnology and thermal history for a new era of hydrocarbon exploration'', Université de Liège, BE, 2019, in French, 3 chaptres in English, p. 13, 14, 37 - 48 [https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/240479/1/PhD%20Thesis_Dr.%20Hocine%20Djouder.pdf], PDF, 28 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref>
During the subsequent [[Cambrian]] period (541 to 485 million years ago), the first [[sediment]] deposits still present today were formed in the Tassili n'Ajjer region. During this epoch, Gondwana shifted from the equatorial zone to the southern hemisphere, so that the Sahara region was located in the South Pole region during the Upper [[Ordovician]] (458 to 443 million years ago). At the end of this period, the 'Hirnantian’ ice age prevailed for a million years. An [[ice sheet]] formed, covering much of the northern half of Africa.<ref>L. Robin M. Cocks, Trond H. Torsvik, ''Ordovician palaeogeography and climate change'', Elsevier B. V., 2021, p. 65, 69-70, [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1342937X20302756], PDF, 7 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref>{{efn|In the region west of Ghat, in the Tassili n'Ajjer, flat rock formations with abrasion marks bear witness to the movement of ice during this period.<ref>[https://iugs-geoheritage.org/geoheritage_sites/the-ordovician-glacial-pavements-of-the-tassili-najjer/]</ref> More on this topic:<ref>[https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/epub/10.1144/SP533-2022-213]</ref>}} In the early [[Silurian]] period (starting 443 million years ago), the global climate changed, causing the ice of the Tuareg Shield to melt. This left behind meltwater channels that had formed under the ice.<ref>Julien Moreau, ''Laite Ordovician deglaciation of the SW Murzuk Basin (Libya)'', Basin Research, 2011, p. 15, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230277909_Late_Ordovician_deglaciation_of_the_SW_Murzuq_Basin_Libya], PDF, 6 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref><ref>D.P. Le Heron, ''The Hirnantian glacial landsystem of the Sahara: a meltwater-dominated system'', Lyell Collection, 2016, p. 509, [https://sseh.uchicago.edu/doc/Le_Heron_Atlas_of_Submarine_Glacial_Landforms_2016.pdf], PDF, 14 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref> This completed the formation of the geological [[stratigraphy]] of the ''Inner Tassili Group''. It consists mainly of sandstone and some layers of [[clay]].
[[File:Diagrams geology Tassili n'Ajjer.jpg|thumb|Two diagrams illustrating the geology of Tassili n'Ajjer]]
During the Silurian and [[Devonian]] periods, [[Transgression (geology)|transgression]] (the advance of the sea) from the north and northwest covered large areas of the Sahara with further layers of sediment. At that time, the Tassili n'Ajjer was the seabed near the coast, later becoming a [[fluvial]] floodplain. During the Silurian period, the stratigraphic sequence of the ''Intra Tassili Group'' was formed, which contains a lot of [[bioturbated]] clay and some sandstone. During the Devonian period, the formations of the ''External Tassili Group'' were formed, which contain a lot of sandstone alongside clays with [[macrofauna]] and some [[limestone]].<ref name=Djouder/> It is primarily from these two [[stratigraphic]] sequences of the Silurian and Devonian periods that petroleum and natural gas have been and continue to be extracted in the ''Illizi Basin'', north of Illizi.<ref>ALNAFT, ''The National Agency for the Valorization of Hydrocarbon Resources'', section 1. The Berkine Basin, stratigraphic aspects', [https://www.alnaft.dz/en/842/saharan-domain], retrieved on October 14, 2025</ref>
During the following 200 million years, this region remained geologically a rather quiet, fairly flat mainland area without major [[tectonic]] changes or sedimentation.<ref name=Busche>Detlef Busche, ''Die zentrale Sahara - Oberflächenformen im Wandel'', Justus Perthes Verlag, Gotha, 1998, ISBN 3-623-00550-9, p. 12, (German)</ref> - Probably as early as the [[Cretaceous]] period, but especially since the [[Miocene]] (23 to 5,3 million years ago), the Tuareg Shield began to arch as a result of [[magmatic]] uplift.<ref>Heinz Friedlein, ''Zur Geologie der Zentralsahara'', Naturhistorlische Gesellschaft Nürnberg, 1973, p. 55, (German), [https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Natur-und-Mensch_1973_0055-0056.pdf], PDF, 3 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref> The uplift in the Ahaggar region ultimately reached 4,000 to 5,000 m. The Tassili n'Ajjer region was also affected, and the uplift caused its layers to tilt toward the north. Parallel to the uplift, several [[Sedimentary basin|basins]] formed north and south of the Tuareg Shield, which now served as deposition areas for the eroded sediment, for example the Illizi Basin.<ref name=Liégois/><ref>H. Askri et al, ''Géologie de l'Algérie'', ''Geology of Algeria'', SONATRACH, DZ, p. I-36 (layer profile), [https://www.academia.edu/10687479/Geology_of_Algeria], PDF, 4 MB, retrieved on September 24, 2025</ref> Especially in the Miocene, the sedimentary layers of the ''External Tassili'' (the uppermost layer sequence) were completely eroded in the southern and eastern parts of the Tassili n'Ajjer. In the northern part, on the plateau of this layer group, the river systems dug up to 400 m deep into the sandstone and clay layers due to the now greater gradient.<ref name=Busche/>
The last major geological change occurred during the Pliocene (5,3 to 2,58 million years ago). Volcanism covered the Adrar region in southwestern Tassili n'Ajjer with craters, volcanic cones, and lava flows. This development continued into the early [[Quaternary]] period.<ref name=Liégois/>
<<gallery mode="packed" heights=110> Fadnounplateau_vers_Illizi.jpg|The barren [[Hamada]] of the ''External Tassili'' south of Illizi Oued Imihrou photo by Hocine Djouder.jpg|The three formations of the ''Intra-Tassilian Group'' from Oued Imihrou DJANET 8.jpg|Outpost of the Tassili n'Ajjer in the Oued Essendilène: two formations of the ''Inner Tassili Group'' </gallery>
===Ecology=== Tassili n'Ajjer lies within the [[West Saharan montane xeric woodlands]] [[ecoregion]]. Due to the higher elevation of the area, coupled with the water-retentive properties of the [[sandstone]], the [[vegetation]] here is somewhat more lush and verdant than in the lower regions of desert; in turn, this creates an attractive habitat for numerous animal species, from the smallest [[invertebrate]]s, up the [[food chain]] to [[mammal]]s. The park features an open woodland, primarily consisting of the [[endangered species|endangered]] and [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[Cupressus dupreziana|Saharan cypress]] and [[Myrtus nivellei|Saharan myrtle]], in its higher-elevation eastern half.<ref name="readersnatural" /> The Tassili cypress is one of the longest-living trees and organisms on Earth, after the [[bristlecone pine]]s of the [[Western United States|Western US]].<ref name=":0" />
An isolated population of the [[West African crocodile]] survived in Tassili n'Ajjer until the twentieth century; today, the species is primarily found in more tropical and sub-Saharan regions of [[West Africa|Western]] and [[Central Africa]], from [[Senegal]] to [[Chad]].<ref>"[http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0014734 Crocodiles in the Sahara Desert: An Update of Distribution, Habitats and Population Status for Conservation Planning in Mauritania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113430/http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014734 |date=2018-08-10 }}". ''[[PLOS ONE]]''. 25 February 2011.</ref> The aoudad, or [[Barbary sheep]], is the only extant species of animal depicted in the area's ancient rock artwork.<ref name="readersnatural" />
The park has been designated an [[Important Bird Area]] (IBA) by [[BirdLife International]] because it supports significant populations of [[spotted sandgrouse|spotted]], [[crowned sandgrouse|crowned]] and [[Lichtenstein's sandgrouse]], [[Pharaoh eagle-owl]]s, [[greater hoopoe-lark]]s, [[bar-tailed lark|bar-tailed]] and [[desert lark]]s, [[pale rock martin]]s, [[fulvous babbler]]s, [[white-crowned wheatear|white-crowned]] and [[mourning wheatear]]s, [[desert sparrow]]s and [[trumpeter finch]]es.<ref name=bli>{{cite web |url= https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/parc-national-du-tassili-najjer-iba-algeria|title= Parc National du Tassili N'Ajjer|author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2024|website= BirdLife Data Zone|publisher= BirdLife International|access-date= 2024-10-26}}</ref>
== Archaeology == === Background === Algerian rock art has been subject to European study since 1863, with surveys conducted by "A. Pomel (1893–1898), [[Stéphane Gsell]] (1901–1927), G. B. M. Flamand (1892–1921), [[Leo Frobenius]] and [[Hugo Obermaier]] (1925), [[Henri Breuil]] (1931–1957), L. Joleaud (1918–1938), and Raymond Vaufrey (1935–1955)."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Algeria|url=https://africanrockart.britishmuseum.org/country/algeria/|access-date=2021-04-10|website=africanrockart.britishmuseum.org|archive-date=2021-07-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719001741/https://africanrockart.britishmuseum.org/country/algeria/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Tassili was already well known by the early 20th century, but Westerners were broadly introduced to it through a series of sketches made by French legionnaires, particularly Lieutenant Charles Brenans in the 1930s.<ref name=":1" /> He brought with him French archaeologist [[Henri Lhote]], who would later return during 1956–1957, 1959, 1962, and 1970.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henri.|first=Lhote|title=The search for the Tassili frescoes: the story of the prehistoric rock-paintings of the Sahara|date=1973|publisher=Hutchinson|isbn=0-09-112380-1|oclc=667687}}</ref> Lhote's expeditions have been heavily criticized, with his team accused of faking images and of damaging paintings in brightening them for tracing and photography, which resulted in reducing the original colors beyond repair.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jean-Dominique.|first=Lajoux|title=Merveilles du Tassili N'Ajjer|date=1962|publisher=Ed. du Chêne|oclc=604199955}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Keenan|first=Jeremy|title=The lesser gods of the Sahara : social change and contested terrain amongst the Tuareg of Algeria|date=2004|publisher=Frank Cass|isbn=0-203-32762-4|location=London|oclc=62269179}}</ref>
=== Current archaeological interpretation === The site of Tassili was primarily occupied during the [[Neolithic]] period by [[Transhumance|transhumant]] pastoralist groups whose lifestyle benefited both humans and livestock. The local geography, elevation, and natural resources were optimal conditions for dry-season camping of small groups. The [[wadi]]s within the mountain range functioned as corridors between the rocky highlands and the sandy lowlands. The highlands have archaeological evidence of occupation dating from 5500 to 1500 BCE, while the lowlands have stone [[Tumulus|tumuli]] and hearths dating between 6000 and 4000 BCE. The lowland locations appear to have been used as living sites, specifically during the rainy season.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=December 2005|title=Saharan Rock Art: Archaeology of Tassilian Pastoralist Iconography. Augustin F. C. Holl|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/jar.61.4.3631543|journal=Journal of Anthropological Research|volume=61|issue=4|pages=541–542|doi=10.1086/jar.61.4.3631543|issn=0091-7710|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2024-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521150122/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/jar.61.4.3631543|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> There are numerous rock shelters within the sandstone forests, strewn with Neolithic artifacts including ceramic pots and potsherds, lithic arrowheads, bowls and grinders, beads, and jewelry.<ref name=":0" />
The transition to pastoralism following the [[African humid period|African Humid period]] during the early [[Holocene]] is reflected in Tassili n'Ajjer's archaeological material record, rock art, and zooarchaeology. Further, the occupation of Tassili is part of a larger movement and climate shift within the Central Sahara. Paleoclimatic and paleoenvironment studies started in the Central Sahara around 14,000 BP and then proceeded by an arid period that resulted in narrow ecological niches.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Soukopova|first=Jitka|date=January 2011|title=The Earliest Rock Paintings of the Central Sahara: Approaching Interpretation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2752/175169711x12961583765333|journal=Time and Mind|volume=4|issue=2|pages=193–216|doi=10.2752/175169711x12961583765333|s2cid=143429582|issn=1751-696X|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2024-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521150147/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/175169711X12961583765333|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> However, the climate was not consistent and the Sahara was split between the arid lowlands and the humid highlands. Archaeological excavations confirm that human occupation, in the form of hunter-gather groups, occurred between 10,000 and 7500 BP; following 7500 BP, humans began to organize into pastoral groups in response to the increasingly unpredictable climate.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fagan|first=Brian M.|date=1967|title=Radiocarbon Dates for Sub-Saharan Africa: V|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/179834|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=8|issue=3|pages=513–527|doi=10.1017/S0021853700007994|jstor=179834|s2cid=245918840|issn=0021-8537|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2021-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506155232/https://www.jstor.org/stable/179834|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> There was a dry period from 7900 and 7200 BP in Tassili<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Messili|first1=Lamia|last2=Saliège|first2=Jean-François|last3=Broutin|first3=Jean|last4=Messager|first4=Erwan|last5=Hatté|first5=Christine|last6=Zazzo|first6=Antoine|date=2013|title=Direct 14C Dating of Early and Mid-Holocene Saharan Pottery|url=https://hal.science/hal-02351870|journal=Radiocarbon|language=en|volume=55|issue=3|pages=1391–1402|doi=10.1017/S0033822200048323|bibcode=2013Radcb..55.1391M |s2cid=102344276|issn=0033-8222|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=|archive-url=|url-status=}}</ref> that preceded the appearance of the first pastoral groups, which is consistent with other parts of the Saharan-Sahelian belt.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Garcea|first1=Elena A.A.|last2=Wang|first2=Hong|last3=Chaix|first3=Louis|date=2016|title=High-Precision Radiocarbon Dating Application to Multi-proxy Organic Materials From Late Foraging To Early Pastoral Sites In Upper Nubia, Sudan|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44296870|journal=[[Journal of African Archaeology]]|volume=14|issue=1|pages=83–98|doi=10.3213/2191-5784-10282|jstor=44296870|issn=1612-1651|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2023-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405062142/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44296870|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The pre-Pastoral pottery excavated from Tassili dates around 9,000–8,500 BP, while the Pastoral pottery is from 7100–6000 BP.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Messili|first1=Lamia|last2=Saliège|first2=Jean-François|last3=Broutin|first3=Jean|last4=Messager|first4=Erwan|last5=Hatté|first5=Christine|last6=Zazzo|first6=Antoine|date=2013|title=Direct 14 C Dating of Early and Mid-Holocene Saharan Pottery|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02351870|journal=Radiocarbon|volume=55|issue=3|pages=1391–1402|doi=10.1017/S0033822200048323|bibcode=2013Radcb..55.1391M |s2cid=102344276|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2020-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125120321/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02351870|url-status=live}}</ref>
The rock art at Tassili is used in conjunction with other sites, including [[Dhar Tichitt]] in Mauritania,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holl|first=Augustin F. C.|date=2002|title=Time, Space, and Image Making: Rock Art from the Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130740|journal=The African Archaeological Review|volume=19|issue=2|pages=75–118|doi=10.1023/A:1015479826570|jstor=25130740|hdl=2027.42/43991|s2cid=54741966|issn=0263-0338|hdl-access=free|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2021-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506155228/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130740|url-status=live}}</ref> to study the development of [[animal husbandry]] and trans-Saharan travel in North Africa. Cattle were herded across vast areas as early as 3000–2000 BCE, reflecting the origins and spread of [[pastoralism]] in the area. This was followed by horses (before 1000 BCE) and then the camel in the next millennium.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LAMP|first=FREDERICK JOHN|date=2011|title=Ancient Terracotta Figures from Northern Nigeria|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41421509|journal=Yale University Art Gallery Bulletin|pages=48–57|jstor=41421509|issn=0084-3539|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2021-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506151933/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41421509|url-status=live}}</ref> The arrival of camels reflects the increased development of trans-Saharan trade, as camels were primarily used as transport in trade caravans.
===Prehistoric art=== The rock formation is an [[archaeology|archaeological]] site, noted for its numerous [[prehistoric]] [[Parietal art|parietal]] works of [[rock art]], first reported in 1910,<ref name=brit/> that date to the early [[Neolithic]] era at the end of the [[last glacial period]] during which the Sahara was a habitable [[savanna]] rather than the current desert. Although sources vary considerably, the earliest pieces of art are presumed to be 12,000 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.africanworldheritagesites.org/cultural-places/rock-art-pre-history/tassili-najjer.html |title=Tassili N'Ajjer (Algeria) |publisher=Africanworldheritagesites.org |access-date=February 7, 2017 |archive-date=October 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017081659/http://africanworldheritagesites.org/cultural-places/rock-art-pre-history/tassili-najjer.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://africanrockart.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Coulson-article-A10-proof.pdf|title=Rock Art of the Tassili n Ajjer, Algeria|author1=David Coulson|author2=Alec Campbell|publisher=Africanrockart.org|access-date=2021-08-18|archive-date=2019-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930123103/https://africanrockart.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Coulson-article-A10-proof.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The vast majority date to the ninth and tenth [[Millennium|millennia]] [[Before present|BP]] or younger, according to [[Optically stimulated luminescence|OSL]] dating of associated sediments.<ref name=Mercier_OSLdating>{{cite journal|title=OSL dating of quaternary deposits associated with the parietal art of the Tassili-n-Ajjer plateau (Central Sahara)|journal=Quaternary Geochronology|date=July 2012|volume=10|pages=367–373|doi=10.1016/j.quageo.2011.11.010|last1=Mercier|first1=Norbert|last2=Le Quellec|first2=Jean-Loïc|last3=Hachid|first3=Malika|last4=Agsous|first4=Safia|last5=Grenet|first5=Michel|bibcode=2012QuGeo..10..367M }}</ref> The art was dated by gathering small fragments of the painted panels that had dried out and flaked off before being buried.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=Andrew B.|date=1992|title=Origins and Spread of Pastoralism in Africa|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2155983|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=21|pages=125–141|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.21.100192.001013|jstor=2155983|issn=0084-6570|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410060614/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2155983|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Among the 15,000 engravings so far identified, the subjects depicted are large wild animals including antelopes and crocodiles, cattle herds, and humans who engage in activities such as hunting and dancing.<ref name="readersnatural" /> These paintings are some of the earliest by Central Saharan artists, and occur in the largest concentration at Tassili.<ref name=":2" /> Although Algeria is relatively close to the Iberian Peninsula, the rock art of Tassili n'Ajjer evolved separately from that of the European tradition.<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 2000|title=African Rock Art: Tassili-n-Ajjer (?8000 B.C.-?)|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tass/hd_tass.htm|access-date=2021-03-05|website=www.metmuseum.org|archive-date=2021-03-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305212257/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tass/hd_tass.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[UNESCO]], "The exceptional density of [[cave paintings|paintings]] and [[petroglyph|engravings]]...have made ''Tassili'' world famous."<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web|title=Tassili n'Ajer|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/179|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=7 March 2013|archive-date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522030003/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/179|url-status=live}}</ref>
Similar to other Saharan sites with rock art, Tassili can be separated into five distinct traditions: Archaic (10,000 to 7500 BCE), Round Head (7550 to 5050 BCE), Bovidian or Pastoral (4500 to 4000 BCE), Horse (from 2000 BCE and 50 CE), and Camel (1000 BCE and onward).
The Archaic period consists primarily of wild animals that lived in the Sahara during the Early Holocene. These works are attributed to hunter-gather peoples, consisting of only etchings. Images are primarily of larger animals, depicted in a naturalistic manner, with the occasional geometric pattern and the human figure. Usually, the humans and animals are depicted within the context of a hunting scene.
The [[Round Head Period]] is associated with specific stylistic choices depicting humanoid forms and is well separated from the Archaic tradition even though hunter-gatherers were the artists for both.<ref>Muzzolini, Alfred (2001). Whitley, David (ed.). ""Saharan Africa"". ''Handbook of Rock Art Research''. Altamira Press: 605–636.</ref> The art consists mainly of paintings, with some of the oldest and largest exposed rock paintings in Africa; one human figure stands over five meters and another at three and a half meters. The unique depiction of floating figures with round, featureless heads and formless bodies appear to be floating on the rock surface, hence the "Round Head" label. The occurrence of these paintings and motifs are concentrated in specific locations on the plateau, implying that these sites were the center of ritual, rites, and ceremonies.<ref name=":1" /> Most animals shown are [[mouflon]] and [[antelope]], usually in static positions that do not appear to be part of a hunting scene.
The Bovidian/[[Pastoral period]] correlates with the arrival of domesticated cattle into the Sahara and the gradual shift to mobile pastoralism. There is a notable and visual difference between the Pastoral period and the earlier two periods, coinciding with the aridification of the Sahara. There is increased stylistic variation, implying the movement of different cultural groups within the area. Domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs are depicted, paralleling the zooarchaeological record of the area. The scenes reference diversified communities of herders, hunters with bows, as well as women and children, and imply a growing stratification of society based on property.
The following Horse traditions correspond with the complete desertification of the Sahara and the requirement for new travel methods. The arrival of horses, horse-drawn chariots, and riders are depicted, often in mid-gallop, and is associated more with hunting than warfare.<ref name=":1" /> Inscriptions of Libyan-Berber script, used by ancestral Berber peoples, appear next to the images, however, the text is completely indecipherable.
The last period is defined by the appearance of camels, which replaced donkeys and cattle as the main mode of transportation across the Sahara.<ref>"African Rock Art: Tassili-n-Ajjer (?8000 B.C.–?)". ''www.metmuseum.org''. October 2000. Retrieved 2021-03-12.</ref> The arrival of camels coincides with the development of long-distance trade routes used by caravans to transport salt, goods, and enslaved people across the Sahara. Men, both mounted and unmounted, with shields, spears, and swords are present. Animals including cows and goats are included, but wild animals were crudely rendered.
Although these periods are successive the timeframes are flexible and are consistently being reconstructed by archaeologists as technology and interpretation develop. The art had been dated by archaeologists who gathered fallen fragments and debris from the rock face.<ref>Smith, Andrew B. (1992). "Origins and Spread of Pastoralism in Africa". ''Annual Review of Anthropology''. '''21''': 130. [[ISSN (identifier)|ISSN]] 0084-6570.</ref>
[[File:Running Horned Woman, 6,000–4,000 B.C.E., pigment on rock, Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria.jpg|thumb|North African rock painting representing 'a horned goddess', Aouanrhet, Tassili N' Ajjer, Algeria, Round Head period.]] A notable piece common in academic writing is the "Running Horned Woman", also known as the "Horned Goddess", from the round head period.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Razak|first=Arisika|date=2016-01-01|title=Sacred Women of Africa and the African Diaspora: A Womanist Vision of Black Women 's Bodies and the African Sacred Feminine|journal=International Journal of Transpersonal Studies|volume=35|issue=1|pages=129–147|doi=10.24972/ijts.2016.35.1.129|issn=1321-0122|doi-access=free}}</ref> The image depicts a female figure with horns in midstride; dots adorn her torso and limbs, and she is dressed in fringed armbands, a skirt, leg bands, and anklets. According to Arisika Razak, Tassili's Horned Goddess is an early example of the "African Sacred Feminine."<ref name=":3" /> Her femininity, fertility, and connection to nature are emphasized while the Neolithic artist superimposes the figure onto smaller, older figures. The use of bull horns is a common theme in later round head paintings, which reflects the steady integration of domesticated cattle into Saharan daily life. Cattle imagery, specifically that of bulls,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=JELÍNEK|first=JAN|title=Afarrh and the Origin of the Saharan Cattle Domestication|date=1982|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26293061|journal=Anthropologie (1962-)|volume=20|issue=1|pages=71–75|jstor=26293061|issn=0323-1119|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2021-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506155229/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26293061|url-status=live}}</ref> became a central theme in not only at Tassili, but at other nearby sites in Libya.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=di Lernia|first1=Savino|last2=Gallinaro|first2=Marina|date=2011|title=Working in a UNESCO WH Site. Problems and Practices on the Rock Art of Tadrart Akakus (SW Libya, Central Sahara)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135548|journal=Journal of African Archaeology|volume=9|issue=2|pages=159–175|doi=10.3213/2191-5784-10198|jstor=43135548|issn=1612-1651|access-date=2021-05-06|archive-date=2021-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506155227/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135548|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
===Fungoid rock art=== In 1989, the psychedelics researcher [[Giorgio Samorini]] proposed the theory that the fungoid-like paintings in the caves of Tassili are proof of the relationship between humans and psychedelics in the ancient populations of the Sahara, when it was still a verdant land:<ref name="artepreistorica 9000-%E2%80%93-7000-b-p">Giorgio Samorini, [http://www.artepreistorica.com/2009/12/the-oldest-representations-of-hallucinogenic-mushrooms-in-the-world-sahara-desert-9000-%E2%80%93-7000-b-p/ The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230503194308/http://www.artepreistorica.com/2009/12/the-oldest-representations-of-hallucinogenic-mushrooms-in-the-world-sahara-desert-9000-%E2%80%93-7000-b-p/ |date=2023-05-03 }}, ''Artepreistorica.com'', December 2009 (first published in 1992)</ref>
{{blockquote|One of the most important scenes is to be found in the Tin-Tazarift rock art site, at Tassili, in which we find a series of masked figures in line and hieratically dressed or dressed as dancers surrounded by long and lively festoons of geometrical designs of different kinds... Each dancer holds a mushroom-like object in the right hand and, even more surprising, two parallel lines come out of this object to reach the central part of the head of the dancer, the area of the roots of the two horns. This double line could signify an indirect association or non-material fluid passing from the object held in the right hand and the mind. This interpretation would coincide with the mushroom interpretation if we bear in mind the universal mental value induced by hallucinogenic mushrooms and vegetals, which is often of a mystical and spiritual nature (Dobkin de Rios, 1984:194). It would seem that these lines – in themselves an ideogram that represents something non-material in ancient art – represent the effect that the mushroom has on the human mind... In a shelter in Tin – Abouteka, in Tassili, there is a motif appearing at least twice that associates mushrooms and fish; a unique association of symbols among ethno-mycological cultures... Two mushrooms are depicted opposite each other, in a perpendicular position about the fish motif and near the tail. Not far from here, above, we find other fish which are similar to the aforementioned, but without the side-mushrooms.|[[Giorgio Samorini]], 1989}}
This theory was reused by [[Terence McKenna]] in his 1992 book ''Food of the Gods'', hypothesizing that the [[Neolithic]] culture that inhabited the site used psilocybin mushrooms as part of its religious ritual life, citing rock paintings showing persons holding mushroom-like objects in their hands, as well as mushrooms growing from their bodies.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Food of the Gods|last=McKenna|first=Terence|publisher=Bantam Books|year=1992|isbn=978-0-553-07868-8|location=United States and Canada|pages=72, 73}}</ref> For [[Henri Lhote]], who discovered the Tassili caves in the late 1950s, these were obviously secret sanctuaries.<ref name="artepreistorica 9000-%E2%80%93-7000-b-p"/>
The painting that best supports the mushroom hypothesis is the ''Tassili mushroom figure Matalem-Amazar'' where the body of the represented shaman is covered with mushrooms. According to Earl Lee in his book ''From the Bodies of the Gods: Psychoactive Plants and the Cults of the Dead'' (2012), this imagery refers to an ancient episode where a "mushroom shaman" was buried while fully clothed and when unearthed sometime later, tiny mushrooms would be growing on the clothes. Earl Lee considered the mushroom paintings at Tassili fairly realistic.<ref>Earl Lee, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PFwoDwAAQBAJ From the Bodies of the Gods: Psychoactive Plants and the Cults of the Dead] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521150254/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFwoDwAAQBAJ |date=2024-05-21 }}, ''Simon and Schuster'', 16 May 2012 ({{ISBN|9781594777011}})</ref>
According to Brian Akers, writer for the ''Mushroom'' journal, the fungoid rock art in Tassili does not resemble the representations of the ''[[Psilocybe hispanica]]'' in the [[Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin|Selva Pascuala caves]] (2015), and he doesn't consider it realistic.<ref name="mushroomthejournal spain">Brian Akers, [https://www.mushroomthejournal.com/a-cave-in-spain-contains-the-earliest-known-depictions-of-mushrooms/ A Cave In Spain Contains the Earliest Known Depictions of Mushrooms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916022802/https://www.mushroomthejournal.com/a-cave-in-spain-contains-the-earliest-known-depictions-of-mushrooms/ |date=2018-09-16 }}, ''Mushroomthejournal.com'', 6 January 2015</ref>
==In popular culture== * ''[[Tassili (album)|Tassili]]'' is the recording location and the title of a 2011 album by the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] band [[Tinariwen]]. *Tassili Plain is a track on the 1994 album ''Natural Wonders of the World in Dub'' by [[dub music|dub]] group [[Zion Train]]. *In ''[[Fate/Extella: The Umbral Star]]'', the character Altera is actually a shattered form of the deity known as Sefar, which is based on one of the drawings made in the cave group and is known in the story also as The White Titan of Tassili n'Ajjer
== Gallery == <gallery mode= heights="120" caption="Rock-Art, [[Saharan Cypress]] and Landscapes of the Tassili"> File:Rock_columns_at_Tassili_n%27Ajjer.jpg|Very high rock columns<br>photograph taken from 30 000 ft Tassili mushroom man Matalem-Amazar.png|Anonymous reproduction of the [[Tassili Mushroom Figure]] Matalem-Amazar found in Tassili.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guzmán |first1=Gastón |title=New taxonomical and ethnomycological observations on Psilocybe s.s. (Fungi, Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetidae, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) from Mexico, Africa and Spain |journal=Acta Botánica Mexicana |date=July 2012 |issue=100 |pages=79–106 |doi=10.21829/abm100.2012.32 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0187-71512012000300004 |access-date=2020-12-09 |archive-date=2020-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127062704/http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S0187-71512012000300004&script=sci_arttext |url-status=live }}</ref> File:Femme-gravure.jpg|Depiction of a dancing or seated human File:Dunes at Tassili n'Ajjer - detail.jpg|Dunes at Tassili n'Ajjer File:Tassili Sahara 74.jpg|Sand and rock landscape on the southern edge of the Tassili n'Ajjer File:Cupressus dupreziana1.jpg|Local cypresses File:Tassili Desert Algeria.jpg|Sandstone rocks and cliffs File:Great_god_of_Sefar.jpg |Ritual figure or shaman File:Tassili - catapulte?.jpg|Human figures File:African cave paintings.jpg|Human figures File:Tassili - whites and blacks leaving in harmony?.jpg|Human figures File:Algerien_Desert.jpg|Human figures with bows </gallery>
===The rock engravings of Tin-Taghirt=== The Tin-Taghirt site is located in the Tassili n'Ajjer between the cities of Dider and [[Iherir]]. <gallery mode= heights="130"> File:TinTaghirtOstrich.jpg|An ostrich File:Sleeping Antelope Tin Taghirt.jpg|Sleeping antelope - also found on the reverse of the 1000 [[Algerian dinar]] banknote File:Bubalus_Tin_Taghirt.jpg|''[[Syncerus antiquus|Bubalus antiquus]]'' File:TinTaghirtFootprints.jpg|Footprints File:TinTaghirtHumanBeings.jpg|Human beings </gallery>
== See also == * [[List of Stone Age art]] * [[List of cultural assets of Algeria]] * [[Sebiba]]
== Notes == {{notelist}}
== External links == {{commons category}} {{wikivoyage|Tassili n'Ajjer Cultural Park}} * [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/179/video Video] * [http://naturalarches.org/tassili/ The natural arches of the Tassili n'Ajjer] * ''Flore et faune du Tassili n’Ajjer'', 2023, French, illustrated. Part 1: Presentation, landscape, fauna [https://s2hnh.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Flore-et-faune-du-Tassili-nAjjer_part1.pdf], * ''Flore et faune du Tassili n’Ajjer'', part 2: Flora [https://s2hnh.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Flore-et-faune-du-Tassili-nAjjer_part2.pdf] * Pictures of the Saharan cypress (''Cupressus dupreziana'') [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/136175-Cupressus-dupreziana/browse_photos/ iNaturalist] * Pictures of the Saharan myrtle (''Myrtus nivellei'') [https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/1082910-Myrtus-nivellei/browse_photos/ iNaturalist]
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * [[Paul Bahn|Bahn, Paul G.]] (1998) ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of Prehistoric Art'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. * Bradley, R (2000) ''An archaeology of natural places'' London, Routledge. * Bruce-Lockhart, J and Wright, J (2000) ''Difficult and Dangerous Roads: Hugh Clapperton's Travels in the Sahara and Fezzan 1822-1825'' * [[Christopher Chippindale|Chippindale, Chris]] and Tacon, S-C (eds) (1998) ''The Archaeology of Rock Art'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. * Clottes, J. (2002): ''World Rock Art''. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. * Coulson, D, and Campbell, Alec (2001) ''African Rock Art: Paintings and Engravings on Stone'' New York, Harry N Abrams. * Frison-Roche, Roger (1965) ''Carnets Sahariens'' Paris, Flammarion * Holl, Augustin F.C. (2004) ''Saharan Rock Art, Archaeology of Tassilian Pastoralist Icongraphy'' * Lajoux, Jean-Dominique (1977) ''Tassili n'Ajjer: Art Rupestre du Sahara Préhistorique'' Paris, Le Chêne. * Lajoux, Jean-Dominique (1962), ''Merveilles du Tassili n'Ajjer'' (''The rock paintings of Tassili'' in translation), Le Chêne, Paris. * Le Quellec, J-L (1998) ''Art Rupestre et Prehistoire du Sahara. Le Messak Libyen'' Paris: Editions Payot et Rivages, Bibliothèque Scientifique Payot. * [[Henri Lhote|Lhote, Henri]] (1959, reprinted 1973) ''The Search for the Tassili Frescoes: The story of the prehistoric rock-paintings of the Sahara'' London. * [[Henri Lhote|Lhote, Henri]] (1958, 1973, 1992, 2006) ''À la découverte des fresques du Tassili'', Arthaud, Paris. * Mattingly, D (ed) (forthcoming) ''The archaeology of the Fezzan''. * Muzzolini, A (1997) "Saharan Rock Art", in Vogel, J O (ed) ''Encyclopedia of Precolonial Africa'' Walnut Creek: 347–353. * Van Albada, A. and Van Albada, A.-M. (2000): ''La Montagne des Hommes-Chiens: Art Rupestre du Messak Lybien'' Paris, Seuil. * Whitley, D S (ed) (2001) ''Handbook of Rock Art Research'' New York: Altamira Press.
{{Saharan rock art}} {{clear}} {{Mountains of Algeria |state=collapsed}} {{World Heritage Sites in Algeria}} {{National Parks of Algeria}} {{Prehistoric technology}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tassili N'ajjer}} [[Category:Mountain ranges of Algeria]] [[Category:Sahara]] [[Category:Saharan rock art]] [[Category:Prehistoric Africa]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Algeria]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Algeria]] [[Category:National parks of Algeria]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Algeria]] [[Category:Natural arches]] [[Category:Tuareg]] [[Category:Geography of Tamanrasset Province]] [[Category:Ramsar sites in Algeria]] [[Category:Biosphere reserves of Algeria]] [[Category:Protected areas established in 1972]] [[Category:Tourist attractions in Tamanrasset Province]] [[Category:1933 archaeological discoveries]] [[Category:1972 establishments in Algeria]]