Fish as food

{{Short description|Fish eaten by humans}} {{About|fish as food for humans|sealife in general as food|seafood|fish fed to other fish|commercial fish feed|and|aquarium fish feed}}  [[File:Fish stuffed with Thai herbs.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[Channa striata]]'' stuffed with Thai herbs]] [[File:Fish in basket.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Fish for sale in baskets at the Dubai Fish Market]] Many species of [[fish]] are [[fishing|caught]] by humans and consumed as food in virtually all regions around the world. Their [[meat]] has been an important dietary source of [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]] and other [[nutrient]]s in the [[human diet]].

The English language does not have a special [[culinary name]] for food prepared from fish like with other animals (as with ''[[pig]]'' vs. ''[[pork]]''), or as in other languages (such as Spanish ''[[wikt:pez|pez]]'' vs. ''[[wikt:pescado|pescado]]''). In [[culinary]] and [[fishery]] contexts, ''fish'' may include so-called [[shellfish]] such as [[mollusc]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and [[echinoderm]]s; but, more expansively, ''[[seafood]]'' covers both fish and other [[marine life]] used as food.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why is fish not considered as meat? |url=https://cooking.stackexchange.com/questions/46964/why-is-fish-not-considered-as-meat |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=Seasoned Advice |language=en}}</ref>

Since 1961, the average annual increase in global apparent food fish consumption (3.2 percent) has outpaced [[population growth]] (1.6 percent) and exceeded the increase in consumption of meat from all [[terrestrial animal]]s except [[poultry]] (4.9 percent), both combined (2.8 percent) and individually (bovine, ovine, porcine, et cetera). In ''[[per capita]]'' terms, food fish consumption has grown from {{cvt|9.0|kg}} in 1961, to {{cvt|20.2|kg}} in 2015, at an average rate of about 1.5 percent per year.<ref name=":0"/> The expansion in consumption has been driven not only by increased production, but also by a combination of many other factors, including reduced [[food loss and waste|wastage]], better utilization, improved [[distribution channel]]s and growing [[consumer demand]], linked with population growth, rising [[disposable income]]s and [[urbanization]].<ref name=":0"/>

[[Europe]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States]] together accounted for 47 percent of the world's total food fish consumption in 1961, but only about 20 percent in 2015. Of the global total of 149 million tonnes in 2015, [[Asia]] consumed more than two-thirds (106 million tonnes at 24.0 kg per capita),<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf|title=In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018|publisher=FAO|year=2018}}</ref> while [[Oceania]] and [[Africa]] consumed the lowest share. The shift is the result of structural changes in the sector, and the growing role of Asian countries in fish production in particular, as well as a significant gap between the economic growth rates of the world's more mature fish markets and those of many increasingly important emerging markets around the world, particularly in Asia.<ref name=":0"/>

==Species== Over 32,000 [[species]] of [[fish]] have been described,<ref>[[FishBase]]: [http://www.fishbase.org/search.php June 2012 update.] Retrieved 18 June 2012.</ref> making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. In addition, there are many species of [[shellfish]]. However, only about 20% of extant fish species are used by humans as food.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fishes Used by Humans |url=https://fishbase.se/Report/FishesUsedByHumans.php |access-date=2026-04-03 |website=fishbase.se}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible" ! colspan="4" style="width:570px;"| Common species of fish and shellfish used for food<ref>Peterson, James and editors of Seafood Business (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=s-r5bx-SG6kC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood Handbook: The Comprehensive Guide to Sourcing, Buying and Preparation''] John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9780470404164}}.</ref> |- ! style="width:100px;"| ! width=33% | Mild flavour ! width=33% | Moderate flavour ! width=33% | Full flavour |- ! valign=top | Delicate texture | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"| [[Pangasius bocourti|Basa]], [[flounder]], [[hake]], [[scup]], [[Rainbow smelt|smelt]], [[rainbow trout]], [[Mercenaria mercenaria|hardshell clam]], [[Portunus pelagicus|blue crab]], [[peekytoe crab]], [[spanner crab]], [[cuttlefish]], [[eastern oyster]], [[Pacific oyster]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f1f1fa;"| [[Anchovies as food|Anchovy]], [[Herring as food|herring]], [[lingcod]], [[Polydactylus sexfilis|moi]], [[orange roughy]], [[Rose fish|Atlantic Ocean perch]], [[Lake Victoria perch]], [[yellow perch]], [[Ostrea edulis|European oyster]], [[sea urchin]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8e8f8;"| [[Atlantic mackerel]], [[Sardines as food|sardines]] |- ! valign=top | Medium texture | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f8e8;"| [[Black sea bass]], [[European sea bass]], [[hybrid striped bass]], [[bream]], [[cod]], [[drum (fish)|drum]], [[haddock]], [[Sparidae|porgy]], [[Macruronus novaezelandiae|hoki]], [[Alaska pollock]], [[Sebastidae|rockfish]], [[pink salmon]], [[Lutjanus campechanus|snapper]], [[tilapia]], [[turbot]], [[walleye]], [[lake whitefish]], [[wolffish]], [[Mya arenaria|hardshell clam]], [[Spisula solida|surf clam]], [[cockle (bivalve)|cockle]], [[Jonah crab]], [[snow crab]], [[Crayfish as food|crayfish]], [[bay scallop]], [[Penaeus|Chinese white shrimp]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f3eaea;"| [[Sablefish]], [[Atlantic salmon]], [[coho salmon]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]], [[dungeness crab]], [[king crab]], [[blue mussel]], [[Perna canaliculus|greenshell mussel]], [[Pandalus borealis|pink shrimp]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0f0;"| [[Escolar]], [[chinook salmon]], [[chum salmon]], [[American shad]] |- ! valign=top | Firm texture | style="vertical-align:top; background:#ddf8dd;"| [[Arctic char]], [[carp]], [[catfish]], [[List of fishes known as dory|dory]], [[grouper]], [[halibut]], [[monkfish]], [[pompano]], [[Solea solea|Dover sole]], [[sturgeon]], [[tilefish]], [[wahoo]], [[Seriola quinqueradiata|yellowtail]], [[abalone]], [[conch]], [[Chionoecetes|stone crab]], [[American lobster]], [[spiny lobster]], [[Octopus as food|octopus]], [[black tiger shrimp]], [[Archosargus probatocephalus|sheepshead]], [[Macrobrachium rosenbergii|freshwater shrimp]], [[Penaeus|gulf shrimp]], [[Pacific white shrimp]], [[grey triggerfish]], [[Squid as food|squid]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f0d8;"| [[Barramundi]], [[brosmius brosme|cusk]], [[Squalidae|dogfish]], [[kingklip]], [[mahimahi]], [[opah]], [[mako shark]], [[swordfish]], [[albacore tuna]], [[yellowfin tuna]], [[geoduck|geoduck clam]], [[squat lobster]], [[sea scallop]], [[Sicyonia brevirostris|rock shrimp]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0e0;"| [[Barracuda]], [[Chilean sea bass]], [[cobia]], [[Atlantic croaker|croaker]], [[Eel as food|eel]], [[Atlantic blue marlin|blue marlin]], [[Mugil cephalus|mullet]], [[sockeye salmon]], [[bluefin tuna]] |}

==Preparation== {{See also|Fish processing}} Fish can be prepared in a variety of ways. It can be served uncooked ([[raw food]], e.g., [[sashimi]]); [[curing (food preservation)|cured]] by [[marinating]] (e.g., [[ceviche]]), [[pickling]] (e.g., [[pickled herring]]) or [[smoking (cooking)|smoking]] (e.g., [[smoked salmon]]); or [[cooking|cooked]] by [[baking]], [[frying]] (e.g., [[fish and chips]]), [[grilling]], [[poaching (food)|poaching]] (e.g., [[court-bouillon]]) or [[steaming]]. Many of the preservation techniques used in different cultures have since become unnecessary but are still performed for their resulting taste and texture when consumed.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Compared to meat, fish has a relatively delicate texture derived from short fibers separated by large sheets and thin connective tissue (about 3% of its weight, as opposed to 15% in land animals).<ref>{{cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |date=1984 |title=On Food and Cooking |location=New York |publisher=Collier Books |page=91}}</ref>{{better source|date=January 2026}}

The British historian William Radcliffe wrote in ''Fishing from the Earliest Times'': <blockquote>"The [[Emperor Domitian]] ([[Juvenal]], [[Satires (Juvenal)|IV.]]) ordered a special sitting of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] to deliberate and advise on a matter of such grave State importance as the best method of cooking a [[turbot]]."<ref>[https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~rauhn/Hist_416/hist420/JuvenalSatirespdf.pdf Juvenal: The Satires] Satire IV: Mock Epic, pages 25–29. Translated by A. S. Kline 2011.</ref></blockquote>

==Nutritional value== {| class="wikitable floatright" |- ! colspan=4 | Comparison of nutrients in 100 g of whitefish or oily fish |- ! Nutrient ! Whitefish [[Alaska pollock]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/173681/nutrients |title=Nutrient data for 15067, Fish, pollock, Alaska, cooked, dry heat (may contain additives to retain moisture) |author=United States Department of Agriculture |work=FoodData Central |date=January 4, 2019 |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> ! Oily fish [[Atlantic herring]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/175117/nutrients |title=Nutrient data for 15040, Fish, herring, Atlantic, cooked, dry heat |author=United States Department of Agriculture |work=FoodData Central |date=January 4, 2019 |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> | width=250 rowspan=9 | [[File:Halibut and salmon fillets.jpg|none|frameless]]Halibut fillet (a [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|whitefish]]) on top of a salmon fillet (an [[oily fish]]) |- ! Energy (kcal) | style="text-align:center;"| 111 | style="text-align:center;"| 203 |- ! Protein (g) | style="text-align:center;"| 23 | style="text-align:center;"| 23 |- ! Fat (g) | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | style="text-align:center;"| 12 |- ! Cholesterol (mg) | style="text-align:center;"| 86 | style="text-align:center;"| 77 |- ! Vitamin B-12 (μg) | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| 13 |- ! Phosphorus (mg) | style="text-align:center;"| 267 | style="text-align:center;"| 303 |- ! Selenium (μg) | style="text-align:center;"| 44 | style="text-align:center;"| 47 |- ! Omega-3 (mg) | style="text-align:center;"| 509 | style="text-align:center;"| 2014 |}

Globally, fish and fish products provide an average of only about 34 calories per capita per day. However, more than as an energy source, the dietary contribution of fish is significant in terms of high-quality, easily digested animal proteins and especially in fighting micronutrient deficiencies.<ref name=":0"/> A portion of 150g of fish provides about 50 to 60 percent of an adult's daily protein requirement. Fish proteins are essential in the diet of some densely populated countries where the total protein intake is low, and are particularly important in diets in [[Small Island Developing States|small island developing States]] (SIDS).<ref name=":0"/>

''Intermediate Technology Publications'' wrote in 1992 that "Fish provides a good source of high quality protein and contains many vitamins and minerals. It may be classed as either whitefish, oily fish, or shellfish. Whitefish, such as haddock and seer, contain very little fat (usually less than 1%) whereas oily fish, such as sardines, contain between 10–25%. The latter, as a result of its high fat content, contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and essential fatty acids, all of which are vital for the healthy functioning of the body."<ref name=Fellows1992>Fellows Pp and Hampton A (Eds.) (1992) [http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/X5434E/x5434e0f.htm#11.%20fish%20and%20fish%20products Fish and fish products] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208173446/http://www.fao.org/WAIRdocs/x5434e/x5434e0f.htm#11.%20fish%20and%20fish%20products |date=2019-02-08 }} Chapter 11 in: ''Small-scale food processing – A guide for appropriate equipment'' Intermediate Technology Publications, FAO, Rome. {{ISBN|1 85339 108 5}}.</ref>

==Health benefits== {{See also|Health benefits of eating seafood}}

Eating [[oily fish]] containing long-chain [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s may reduce systemic [[inflammation]] and lower the risk of [[cardiovascular disease]].<ref name="nhs">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/fish-and-shellfish-nutrition/|title=Fish and shellfish|date=2018-04-27|publisher=UK National Health Service|access-date=2019-12-30}}</ref><ref name="mayo">{{cite web |title=Omega-3 in fish: How eating fish helps your heart |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/heart-disease/in-depth/omega-3/art-20045614 |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=2 November 2020 |date=28 September 2019}}</ref> Eating about {{convert|140|g}} of oily fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids once per week is a recommended consumption amount.<ref name=nhs/><ref name=mayo/> Increasing intake of omega-3 fatty acids may slightly reduce the risk of a fatal heart attack,<ref name=mayo/> but likely has little effect on the overall number of deaths from cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abdelhamid|first1=Asmaa S|last2=Brown|first2=Tracey J|last3=Brainard|first3=Julii S|last4=Biswas|first4=Priti|last5=Thorpe|first5=Gabrielle C|last6=Moore|first6=Helen J|last7=Deane|first7=Katherine HO|last8=AlAbdulghafoor|first8=Fai K|last9=Summerbell|first9=Carolyn D|last10=Worthington|first10=Helen V|last11=Song|first11=Fujian|date=2018-11-30|title=Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=11|issue=11 |article-number=CD003177|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd003177.pub4|issn=1465-1858|pmc=6517311|pmid=30521670}}</ref>

==Health hazards== [[Fish bone]] is the most common food-related [[foreign body]] to cause [[airway obstruction]]. [[Choking]] on fish was responsible for about 4,500 reported accidents in the [[United Kingdom]] in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hassandlass.org.uk/query/reports/1998.pdf|title=Accident Statistics: 1998 – Home and leisure accident report Summary of 1998 data p.16 Department of Trade and Industry (UK)|access-date=2011-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930130746/http://www.hassandlass.org.uk/query/reports/1998.pdf|archive-date=2011-09-30}}</ref>

===Allergens=== {{Main|Fish allergy}} A [[seafood allergy]] is a [[food allergy]] to [[allergen]]s which can be present in [[fish]]. This can result in an [[hypersensitivity|overreaction]] of the [[immune system]] and lead to severe physical symptoms<ref>National Institutes of Health, NIAID Allergy Statistics 2005 [https://web.archive.org/web/19970222170452/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/allergystat.htm]</ref> from [[urticaria]] to [[angioedema]] and [[distributive shock]]. Allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood.<ref>{{cite web|title=Seafood* (Fish, Crustaceans and Shellfish) – One of the nine most common food allergens|url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/allerg/fispoie.shtml|publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency|date=2009-06-12|access-date=2009-06-21}}</ref> The most severe allergic reaction is [[anaphylaxis]], a [[medical emergency]] requiring immediate attention and is treated urgently with [[epinephrine (medication)|epinephrine]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/dait/PDF/june30_2003.pdf |title=National Report of the Expert Panel on Food Allergy Research, NIH-NIAID 2003 |date=2003-06-30|access-date=2006-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004001123/http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/dait/PDF/june30_2003.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-04 }}</ref>

===Biotoxins=== [[File:P1020064.JPG|thumb|A specially prepared dish of the poisonous blowfish [[fugu]], Japan]] Some species of fish, notably the ''[[fugu]]'' [[pufferfish]] used for [[sushi]], can result in serious [[food poisoning]] if not prepared properly. These fish always contain [[toxin]]s as a [[anti-predator adaptation|natural defense]] against [[predator]]s; it is not present due to environmental circumstances. Particularly, ''fugu'' has a lethal dose of [[tetrodotoxin]] in its [[internal organ]]s and must be prepared by a licensed ''fugu'' chef who has passed the national examination in Japan. [[Ciguatera poisoning]] can occur from eating larger fish from warm tropical waters, such as [[sea bass]], [[grouper]], [[barracuda]] and [[Lutjanus|red snapper]].<ref name=nlm>[https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002851.htm Poisoning – fish and shellfish] ''US National Library of Medicine''. Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref> [[Scombroid food poisoning|Scombroid poisoning]] can result from eating large oily fish which have sat around for too long before being refrigerated or frozen. This includes [[Scombridae|scombroids]] such as [[tuna]] and [[mackerel]], but can also include non-scombroids such as [[mahi-mahi]] and [[amberjack]].<ref name=nlm /> The poison is often odourless and tasteless.<ref name="Swift-1993" />

Many fish eat [[algae]] and other organisms that contain [[biotoxin]]s, which are defensive substances against predators. Biotoxins accumulated in fish/shellfish include [[brevetoxin]]s, [[okadaic acid]], [[saxitoxin]]s, [[ciguatoxin]] and [[domoic acid]]. Except for ciguatoxine, high levels of these toxins are only found in shellfish. Both domoic acid and ciguatoxine can be deadly to humans; the others will only cause [[diarrhea]], [[dizziness]] and a (temporary) feeling of [[claustrophobia]].<ref>EOS magazine, July–August 2010</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.chemischefeitelijkheden.nl/Uploads/.../CF-186-fycotoxinen.pdf |title=Natuurlijke toxinen in voedingsmiddelen |access-date=2010-10-04 |archive-date=2016-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308123044/http://www.chemischefeitelijkheden.nl/Uploads/.../CF-186-fycotoxinen.pdf }}</ref>

[[Shellfish]] are [[filter feeder]]s and, therefore, accumulate [[toxin]]s produced by microscopic [[alga]]e, such as [[dinoflagellate]]s and [[diatom]]s, and [[cyanobacteria]]. There are four syndromes called [[shellfish poisoning]] which can result in humans, [[sea mammal]]s and [[seabird]]s from the ingestion of toxic shellfish. These are primarily associated with [[Bivalvia|bivalve molluscs]], such as [[mussel]]s, [[clam]]s, [[oyster]]s and [[scallop]]s.<ref>{{Citation | title=Protecting Ourselves from Shellfish Poisoning | first1=Mary Wilcox | last1=Silver | journal=American Scientist | volume=94 | issue=4 | year=2006 | pages=316–325 | doi=10.1511/2006.60.316}}</ref> Fish like [[anchovies]] can also concentrate toxins such as domoic acid.<ref>[http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/hab/habs_toxins/marine_biotoxins/da/index.html Domoic Acid Poisoning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213100745/http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/hab/habs_toxins/marine_biotoxins/da/index.html |date=2012-02-13 }} Northwest Fisheries Science Center, ''NOAA''. Retrieved 16 July 2012.</ref> If suspected, medical attention should be sought.

{| class="wikitable" |+ [[Fish]] and [[Shellfish poisoning]] |- ! style="width:64px;"| ! style="width:90px;"| Poisoning type ! Symptoms ! Duration ! Toxin ! Antidote ! Sources |- ! rowspan=4 | [[Fish]] | align=right | [[Ciguatera]] | Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, usually followed by headaches, muscle aches, [[paresthesia]], numbness, [[ataxia]], vertigo and hallucinations. | Weeks to years | [[Ciguatoxin]] and similar: [[maitotoxin]], [[scaritoxin]] and [[palytoxin]] | None known | align=center | <ref name="Swift-1993">{{cite journal |vauthors=Swift A, Swift T |title=Ciguatera |journal=J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |year=1993 |pmid=8433404 |doi=10.3109/15563659309000371|s2cid=222017205 }}</ref><ref name=uhm/> |- | align=right | [[Scombroid food poisoning|Scombroid food poisoning]] | Skin flushing, throbbing headache, oral burning, abdominal cramps, nausea, diarrhea, palpitations, sense of unease, and, rarely, collapse or loss of vision. Symptoms occur usually within 10–30 minutes of ingesting spoiled fish. | Usually four to six hours | [[Histamine]], possibly others | Oral anti-histamines | align=center | <ref name=uhm/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Guss DA |title=Scombroid fish poisoning: successful treatment with cimetidine |journal=Undersea Hyperb Med |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=123–5 |year=1998 |pmid=9670438 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2294 |access-date=2008-08-12 |archive-date=2011-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180205/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2294 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> |- | align=right | [[Haff disease]] | [[Rhabdomyolysis]], that is, a swelling and breakdown of skeletal muscle (with a risk of [[acute renal failure|acute kidney failure]]) within 24 hours after consuming fish | | A toxic cause is suspected but has not been proven | None known | align=center | <ref name="Buchholz">{{cite journal|vauthors=Buchholz U, Mouzin E, Dickey R, Moolenaar R, Sass N, Mascola L |title=Haff disease: from the Baltic Sea to the U.S. shore |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=192–5 |year=2000 |pmid=10756156 |doi=10.3201/eid0602.000215 |pmc=2640861}}</ref> |- | align=right | [[Ichthyoallyeinotoxism|Ichthyo- allyeinotoxism]] | Vivid auditory and visual hallucinations similar in some aspects to LSD. | Can last for several days | | | align=center | <ref> {{cite journal | author = de Haro, L. |author2=Pommier, P. | title = Hallucinatory fish poisoning (ichthyoallyeinotoxism): two case reports from the Western Mediterranean and literature review. | journal = Clinical Toxicology | year = 2006 | volume = 44 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–8 | pmid = 16615678 | doi=10.1080/15563650500514590|s2cid=41191477 }} </ref> |- ! rowspan=4 | [[Shellfish]] | align=right | [[Amnesic shellfish poisoning|Amnesic]] | Permanent [[short-term memory loss]] and [[brain damage]] | Fatal in severe cases | [[Domoic acid]], which acts as a [[neurotoxin]] | None known | align=center | <ref name=uhm>{{cite journal | author1 = Clark, R. F. | author2 = Williams, S. R. | author3 = Nordt, S. P. | author4 = Manoguerra, A. S. | title = A Review of Selected Seafood Poisonings | journal = Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine | year = 1999 | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 175–184 | pmid = 10485519 | url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 | access-date = 2012-07-14 | archive-date = 2011-08-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180444/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 | url-status = usurped }}</ref> |- | align=right | [[Diarrheal shellfish poisoning|Diarrheal]] | [[Diarrhea]] and possibly nausea, vomiting and cramps. | Symptoms usually set in within half an hour and last about a day | [[Okadaic acid]], which inhibits intestinal cellular de-phosphorylation. | | align=center | <ref>{{cite journal|last=Dawson|first=JF|author2=Holmes CF|title=Molecular mechanisms underlying inhibition of protein phosphatases by marine toxins.|journal=[[Frontiers in Bioscience]] |date=Oct 1999|volume=4|pages=D646–58|pmid=10502549|doi=10.2741/dawson|issue=1–3|doi-access=free}}</ref> |- | align=right | [[Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning|Neurotoxic]] | Vomiting and nausea and a variety of neurological symptoms such as slurred speech. Not fatal though it may require hospitalization. | | [[Brevetoxin]]s or brevetoxin analogs | | align=center | <ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Watkins, S. M. |author2=Reich, A. |author3=Fleming, L. E. |author4=Hammond, R. | title = Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning | journal = Marine Drugs | year = 2008 | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 431–455 | pmid = 19005578 | pmc = 2579735 | doi = 10.3390/md20080021 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | author = Landsberg, J. H. | title = The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms | journal = Reviews in Fisheries Science | year = 2002 | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 113–390 | doi = 10.1080/20026491051695 | bibcode = 2002RvFS...10..113L | s2cid = 86185142 }}</ref> |- | align=right | [[Paralytic shellfish poisoning|Paralytic]] | Includes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and [[Paresthesia|tingling or burning]] sensations. Other symptoms also possible. | Occasionally fatal | Principal toxin [[saxitoxin]] | [[4-Aminopyridine]] has been used in non-human animals.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Benton | first1 = B. J. | last2 = Keller | first2 = S. A. | last3 = Spriggs | first3 = D. L. | last4 = Capacio | first4 = B. R. | last5 = Chang | first5 = F. C. | title = Recovery from the lethal effects of saxitoxin: A therapeutic window for 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) | journal = Toxicon | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 571–588 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9643470 | doi=10.1016/s0041-0101(97)00158-x| bibcode = 1998Txcn...36..571B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1006/faat.1997.2328 | last1 = Chang | first1 = F. C. | last2 = Spriggs | first2 = D. L. | last3 = Benton | first3 = B. J. | last4 = Keller | first4 = S. A. | last5 = Capacio | first5 = B. R. | title = 4-Aminopyridine reverses saxitoxin (STX)- and tetrodotoxin (TTX)-induced cardiorespiratory depression in chronically instrumented guinea pigs | journal = Fundamental and Applied Toxicology | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–88 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9268607| s2cid = 17185707 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Chen | first1 = H. | last2 = Lin | first2 = C. | last3 = Wang | first3 = T. | doi = 10.1006/taap.1996.0258 | title = Effects of 4-Aminopyridine on Saxitoxin Intoxication | journal = Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology | volume = 141 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–48 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8917674 }}</ref> | align=center | <ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Clark RF, Williams SR, Nordt SP, Manoguerra AS |title=A review of selected seafood poisonings |journal=Undersea Hyperb Med |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=175–84 |year=1999 |pmid=10485519 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 |access-date=2008-08-12 |archive-date=2011-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180444/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> |}

The toxins responsible for most shellfish and fish poisonings, including ciguatera and scombroid poisoning, are heat-resistant to the point where conventional cooking methods do not eliminate them.<ref name="Swift-1993" />

===Mercury and other toxic metals=== {{Main|Mercury in fish}} Fish products, especially those from [[apex predator|apex]] and [[trophic level|higher-order]] [[consumer (food chain)|consumer]]s up the [[food chain]], have been shown to contain varying amounts of [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy]] or [[toxic metal]]s due to [[biomagnification]]. [[Toxicity]] is a function of solubility, and insoluble compounds often exhibit negligible toxicity. [[Organometallic chemistry|Organometallic]] forms such as [[dimethyl mercury]] and [[tetraethyl lead]] can be extremely toxic.<ref name="pmc">{{cite journal |last1=Bernhoft |first1=Robin |title=Mercury Toxicity and Treatment: A Review of the Literature |year=2011 |volume=2012 |article-number=460508 |journal=Journal of Environmental and Public Health |ref=3253456 |doi=10.1155/2012/460508|pmid=22235210 |pmc=3253456 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible" |+Mercury/omega-3 levels<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = KL | last2 = Guentzel | first2 = JL | year = 2010 | title = Mercury concentrations and omega-3 fatty acids in fish and shrimp: Preferential consumption for maximum health benefits | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 60 | issue = 9| pages = 1615–1618 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.06.045 | pmid = 20633905 | bibcode = 2010MarPB..60.1615S }}</ref> ! Mercury level ! style="width:140px;"| Low < 0.04 ppm ! style="width:140px;"| Medium 0.04–0.40 ppm ! style="width:140px;"| High > 0.40 ppm |- !style="background:#FFFFCC;"|Omega-3!!colspan=3| |- ! valign=top style="background:#FFFFCC;" | High > 1.0% | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8fff8;"| [[salmon]] [[sardine]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f1f1fa;"| [[Atlantic mackerel]] [[flatfish]] [[halibut]] [[herring]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8e8f8;"| [[Spanish mackerel]] [[swordfish]] [[tilefish]] |- ! valign=top style="background:#FFFFCC;" | Medium 0.4–1.0% | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f8e8;"| [[pollock]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f3eaea;"| [[Blue grenadier|hoki]] [[tuna]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0f0;"| [[king mackerel]] [[shark]] |- ! valign=top style="background:#FFFFCC;" | Low < 0.4% | style="vertical-align:top; background:#ddf8dd;"| [[catfish]] [[shrimp]] | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f0d8;"| [[cod]] [[Lutjanidae|snapper]] [[tuna]] canned light | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0e0;"| [[grouper]] [[orange roughy]] |}

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" |- ! colspan="8" style="width:540px;"| mercury/omega-3 levels in commercial fish and shellfish |- ! class="unsortable" | ! species ! mercury<ref name=FDA>The mercury levels in the table, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from: [https://web.archive.org/web/20090602034804/http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-SpecificInformation/Seafood/FoodbornePathogensContaminants/Methylmercury/ucm115644.htm Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish (1990–2010)] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed 8 January 2012.</ref> (mean ppm) ! omega-3<ref name="ahao3">{{cite web | url = http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797 | title = Fish, Levels of Mercury and Omega-3 Fatty Acids | publisher = American Heart Association | access-date = October 6, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100709203304/http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797 | archive-date = July 9, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="KrisEtherton2002">{{Cite journal | last = Kris-Etherton | first = Penny M. |author2=William S. Harris |author3=Lawrence J. Appel | title = Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease | journal = Circulation | volume = 106 | issue = 21 | pages = 2747–2757 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94 | url = http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/106/21/2747 | pmid=12438303| s2cid = 6547417 | doi-access = | url-access = subscription }}</ref> (mean percent) ! habitat ! notes ! [[Trophic level|trophic level]]<ref name=TL>Trophic levels and maximum ages are, unless otherwise indicated, taken from the relevant species pages on Rainer Froese and Daniel Pauly (Eds) (2012) [http://www.fishbase.org/home.htm FishBase] January 2012 version. Where a group has more than one species, the average of the principal commercial species is used</ref> ! max age (years)<ref name=TL /> |- | style="background:#ff54ff;"| | [[Tilefish]] | style="text-align:center;"| 1.450 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.06 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.6 | style="text-align:center;"| 35 |- | style="background:#ff56ff;"| | [[Swordfish]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.995 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.14 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| 15 |- | style="background:#ff58ff;"| | [[Shark]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.979 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.98 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff5bff;"| | [[King mackerel]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.730 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.42 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| 14 |- | style="background:#ff60ff;"| | [[Orange roughy]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.571 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.033 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.3 | style="text-align:center;"| 149 |- | style="background:#ff62ff;"| | [[Marlin]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.485 * | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff64ff;"| | [[Atlantic Spanish mackerel|Mackerel (Spanish)]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.454 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.65 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| 5 |- | style="background:#f6f;"| | [[Grouper]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.448 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.27 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.2 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff68ff;"| | [[Tuna]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.391 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.77 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | All species, fresh/frozen | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff72ff;"| | [[Patagonian toothfish]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.354 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.0 | style="text-align:center;"| 50+<ref>Collins MA, Brickle P, Brown J and Belchier M (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=iwF-jNVj41gC&dq=%22The+Patagonian+toothfish%3A+biology%2C+ecology+and+fishery%22&pg=PA227 "The Patagonian toothfish: biology, ecology and fishery"] In: M Lesser (Ed.) ''Advances in Marine Biology'', Volume 58, pp. 229–289, Academic Press. {{ISBN|978-0-12-381015-1}}.</ref> |- | style="background:#ff7bff;"| | [[Halibut]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.241 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.01 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.3 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff86ff;"| | [[Lutjanidae|Snapper]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.166 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.26 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff88ff;"| | [[Bass (fish)|Bass]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.152 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.9 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff8bff;"| | [[Perch]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.150 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Freshwater fish|freshwater]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.0 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffa6ff;"| | [[Tuna]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.128 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.24 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | All species, canned, light | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffa8ff;"| | [[Ocean perch|Perch (ocean)]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.121 * | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffa0ff;"| | [[Cod]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.111 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.23 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.9 | style="text-align:center;"| 22 |- | style="background:#ffabff;"| | [[Carp]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.110 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Freshwater fish|freshwater]] | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffadff;"| | [[American lobster|Lobster (American)]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.107 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffb2ff;"| | [[Spiny lobster|Lobster (spiny)]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.093 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffb4ff;"| | [[Whitefish (fisheries term)|Whitefish]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.089 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffb8ff;"| | [[Herring]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.084 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.94 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.2 | style="text-align:center;"| 21 |- | style="background:#ffc0ff;"| | [[Trout]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.071 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Freshwater fish|freshwater]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc2ff;"| | [[Crab]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.065 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | [[Callinectes sapidus|Blue]], [[King crab|king]] and [[snow crab]] | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc4ff;"| | [[Hoki (fish)|Hoki]] ([[blue grenadier]]) | style="text-align:center;"| 0.058 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.48 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.5 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc6ff;"| | [[Flatfish]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.056 * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.56 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | [[Flounder]], [[plaice]] and [[sole (fish)|sole]] | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc8ff;"| | [[Haddock]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.055 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | Atlantic | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffcdff;"| | [[Atlantic mackerel]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.050 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.64 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffd2ff;"| | [[Mullet (fish)|Mullet]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.050 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffd8ff;"| | [[Pollock]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.031 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.53 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffd0ff;"| | [[Catfish]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.025 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.31 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.9 | style="text-align:center;"| 24 |- | style="background:#ffdbff;"| | [[Squid]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.023 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#fdf;"| | [[Salmon]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.022 * | style="text-align:center;"| 1.76 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | Fresh/frozen | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe0ff;"| | [[Anchovies]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.017 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.1 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe2ff;"| | [[Sardine]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.013 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.94 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | | style="text-align:center;"| 2.7 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe4ff;"| | [[Tilapia]] * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.013 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Freshwater fish|freshwater]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe6ff;"| | [[Oyster]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.012 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe8ff;"| | [[Clam]] * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.009 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe0ff;"| | [[Salmon]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.008 * | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] | Canned | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffebff;"| | [[Scallop]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.003 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffgbff;"| | [[Shrimp]] | style="text-align:center;"| 0.001 * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.12 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| 6.5<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/faq/ |title=A bouillabaisse of fascinating facts about fish |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]: [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] |access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> |- | style="background:#fff;"| | [[New Zealand green-lipped mussel|Greenshell mussel]] | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| 0.35 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#fff;"| | [[Sydney rock oyster]] | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| 1.11 | style="text-align:center;"| [[Demersal fish|demersal]] | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- class="sortbottom" | colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| * indicates methylmercury only was analyzed (all other results are for total mercury) |}

According to the [[US Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people.<ref name=FDA_rec>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html |title=What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish |publisher=Cfsan.fda.gov |date=2009-09-17 |access-date=2011-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519200853/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html |archive-date=2009-05-19 }}</ref> However, certain seafood contains sufficient mercury to harm an unborn baby or young child's developing nervous system. The FDA makes three recommendations for child-bearing women and young children: # Do not eat [[Shark meat|shark]], [[swordfish]], [[king mackerel]], or [[tilefish]] because they contain high levels of mercury. # Eat up to 12 ounces (2 average meals) a week of a variety of fish and [[shellfish]] that are lower in mercury. Four of the most commonly eaten fish that are low in mercury are [[Canned tuna|canned light tuna]], [[Salmon as food|salmon]], [[pollock]], and [[catfish]]. Another commonly eaten fish, [[albacore]] ("white tuna") has more mercury than canned light tuna. So, when choosing your two meals of fish and shellfish, you may eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) of albacore tuna per week. # Check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. If no advice is available, eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) per week of fish you catch from local waters, but do not consume any other fish during that week.

These recommendations are also advised when feeding fish and shellfish to young children, but in smaller portions.<ref name=FDA_rec/>

===Mislabelling=== When the ocean conservation organization [[Oceana (non-profit group)|Oceana]] examined over 1,200 seafood samples of seafood sold in the U.S. between 2010 and 2012, they found one-third were mislabelled. The highest rate of mislabelling occurred with snapper at 87 percent, followed by tuna at 57 percent.<ref>Warner K, Timme W, Lowell B and Hirshfield M (2013) [http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/National_Seafood_Fraud_Testing_Results_FINAL.pdf Oceana Study Reveals Seafood Fraud Nationwide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012064734/https://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/National_Seafood_Fraud_Testing_Results_FINAL.pdf |date=2021-10-12 }} ''Oceana''.</ref>

===Persistent organic pollutants=== {{See also|Marine pollution#Toxins}}

If fish and shellfish inhabit [[Marine pollution|polluted waters]], they can accumulate other toxic chemicals, particularly fat-soluble pollutants containing [[chlorine]] or [[bromine]], [[dioxins and dioxin-like compounds|dioxins]] or [[Polychlorinated biphenyl|PCBs]].

===Parasites=== {{See also|Fish diseases and parasites}} [[File:Symptoms of Raw fish infection.png|thumb|Differential symptoms of parasite infections by raw fish. All have gastrointestinal, but otherwise distinct, symptoms.<ref>For Chlonorchiasis: [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/msds-ftss/msds34e-eng.php Public Health Agency of Canada > Clonorchis sinensis – Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)] Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref><ref>For Anisakiasis: [http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/a/anisakiasis/symptoms.htm WrongDiagnosis: Symptoms of Anisakiasis] Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref><ref>For Diphyllobothrium: [https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001375.htm MedlinePlus > Diphyllobothriasis] Updated by: Arnold L. Lentnek, MD. Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref><ref>For symptoms of diphyllobothrium due to vitamin B12-deficiency [http://www.umm.edu/blood/aneper.htm University of Maryland Medical Center > Megaloblastic (Pernicious) Anemia] Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref>]] [[Parasite]]s in fish are a common natural occurrence. Though not a health concern in thoroughly cooked fish, parasites are a concern when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as [[sashimi]], [[sushi]], [[ceviche]] and [[gravlax]]. The popularity of such raw fish dishes makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk. Raw fish should be frozen to an internal temperature of {{cvt|-20|C}} for at least 7 days to kill parasites; home [[freezer]]s may not be cold enough.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm |title=''Parasites in Marine Fishes'' University of California Food Science & Technology Department Sea Grant Extension Program |publisher=Seafood.ucdavis.edu |date=1990-08-07 |access-date=2011-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927063512/http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}</ref><ref>[http://seafooduniversity.com/?p=16 Vaughn M. ''Sushi and Sashimi Safety''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927064827/http://seafooduniversity.com/?p=16 |date=2008-09-27 }}</ref>

Historically, fish that live all or part of their lives in [[fresh water]] were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see [[Sashimi]] article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly [[Southeast Asia]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in [[brackish]] or fresh water, like [[salmon]] (an [[anadromous]] coastalfish closely related to [[trout]]), are a particular problem. A study in [[Seattle, Washington]] showed that 100% of wild salmon had [[roundworm]] [[larvae]] capable of infecting people. In the same study [[fish farm|farm]]-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.<ref>{{Cite journal |volume = 25 |issue = 3 |pages = 416–419 |last = Deardorff |first = TL |author2 = ML Kent |title = Prevalence of larval Anisakis simplex in pen-reared and wild-caught salmon (Salmonidae) from Puget Sound, Washington |journal = Journal of Wildlife Diseases |date = 1989-07-01 |pmid = 2761015 |doi = 10.7589/0090-3558-25.3.416 |doi-access= free }}</ref>

Parasite infection from raw fish is rare in the [[developed world]] (fewer than 40 cases per year in the [[United States]]{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}), and involves mainly three kinds of parasites: ''[[Clonorchis sinensis]]'' (a [[trematode]]/[[fluke (flatworm)|fluke]]), ''[[Anisakis]]'' (a [[nematode]]/roundworm) and ''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'' (a [[cestode]]/[[tapeworm]]). Infection risk of ''Anisakis'' is particularly high in fish which may have lived in a river or estuary, such as salmon (''sa ke'' in [[Japanese cuisine]]) or [[Mackerel as food|mackerel]] (''sa ba'' in Japanese cuisine). Such parasite infections can generally be avoided by [[boiling]], [[grilling]], [[pickling|preserving in salt or vinegar]], or deep-freezing. In Japan, it is common to eat raw salmon and ''[[ikura]]'' ([[roe]]), but these foods are frozen overnight prior to eating to prevent infections from parasites, particularly ''Anisakis''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

==Pescetarianism== {{See also|Pescetarianism}}

[[File:Bali Hai seared ahi.jpg|thumb|left|[[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaiian food]]: Seared ahi and [[wasabi]] [[beurre blanc]] sauce]]

The neologism "[[Pescetarianism|pescetarian]]" covers those who eat fish and other [[seafood]], but not mammals and birds.<ref name="Merriam-Webster (2009)">The [[Merriam-Webster]] dictionary dates the origin of the term ''pescetarian'' to 1993 and defines it as "one whose diet includes fish but no other meat". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. ''s.v.'' pescatarian.<nowiki>[</nowiki>Online<nowiki>]</nowiki> [[Merriam-Webster|Merriam Webster, Inc]]. Available at [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian] <nowiki>[</nowiki>Accessed 17 July 2009<nowiki>]</nowiki></ref>

A 1999 [[Meta-analysis|metastudy]] combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported [[Standardized mortality ratio|mortality ratios]], where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for pescetarians to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, and occasional meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts".<ref name="AJCN metastudy">{{Cite journal|title= Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies|journal= American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume= 70|issue=3|pages=516S–524S|date = September 1999|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/516S|access-date=30 October 2009|author1=Timothy J Key |author2=Gary E Fraser |author3=Margaret Thorogood |author4=Paul N Appleby |author5=Valerie Beral |author6=Gillian Reeves |author7=Michael L Burr |author8=Jenny Chang-Claude |author9=Rainer Frentzel-Beyme |author10=Jan W Kuzma |author11=Jim Mann |author12=Klim McPherson |pmid= 10479225|doi=10.1079/phn19980006|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Since fish is animal flesh, the [[Vegetarian Society]] has stated that vegetarian diets cannot contain fish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vegsoc.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=531 |title=The Vegetarian Society, Fact Sheet |access-date=2017-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702064455/https://www.vegsoc.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=531 |archive-date=2018-07-02 }}</ref>

==In religion== {{See also|Kosher fish}} {{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center | image1 = Boyal Macher Jhol.jpg|caption1=[[Machher jhol]] is a spicy fish stew in [[Bengali cuisine|Bengali]] and [[Odia cuisine|Odia]] cuisines in the eastern [[Indian subcontinent]]. | image2 = Smoked Salmon.jpg|caption2=A plate of [[smoked salmon]] }} Religious rites and rituals regarding food also tend to classify the birds of the air and the fish of the sea separately from land-bound mammals.<ref>Regensteinn J M and Regensteinn C E (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=OFKLk3S0fzgC&dq=%22Religious+food+laws+and+the+seafood+industry%22&pg=PR8 "Religious food laws and the seafood industry"] In: R E Martin, E P Carter, G J Flick Jr and L M Davis (Eds) (2000) ''Marine and freshwater products handbook'', CRC Press. {{ISBN|9781566768894}}.</ref> Sea-bound mammals are often treated as fish under religious laws – as in Jewish dietary law, which forbids the eating of [[cetacean]] meat, such as whale, dolphin or porpoise, because they are not "fish with fins and scales"; nor, as mammals, do they chew their cud and have cloven hooves, as required by {{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11:9–12}}. [[Jewish]] ([[Kashrut|kosher]]) practice treats fish differently from other animal foods. The distinction between fish and "meat" is codified by the Jewish dietary law of ''[[kashrut]]'', regarding the mixing of milk and meat, which does not forbid the mixing of milk and fish. Modern Jewish legal practice (''[[halakha]]'') on ''kashrut'' classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be ''[[parve]]'', neither meat nor a dairy food. (The preceding portion refers only to the halakha of [[Ashkenazi Jews]]; [[Sephardic Jews]] do not mix fish with dairy.){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} Fish has traditionally been a significant [[Shabbat]] dish, as noted by the 1st century Roman satirist [[Persius]] and reflected in [[Talmud|Talmudic]] accounts that describe the efforts of the poor to obtain fish for Shabbat and festivals.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Broshi |first=Magen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |date=2001 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |series=The Library of Second Temple Studies |location=London |page=134}}</ref>

[[Ichthys]] has become a [[Christian symbolism|symbol of Christianity]] since ancient times. In the [[New Testament]] Luke 24 – Jesus's eating of a fish [{{Bibleverse|Luke|24|41–43}}] and Jesus telling his disciples where to catch fish, before cooking it for them to eat. Seasonal religious prohibitions against eating meat do not usually include fish. For example, non-fish meat was forbidden during [[Lent]] and on all Fridays of the year in pre-[[Vatican II]] [[Catholicism|Roman Catholicism]], but fish was permitted (as were eggs). (See [[Fasting and abstinence in the Roman Catholic Church|Fasting in Catholicism]].) In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], fish is permitted on some fast days when other meat is forbidden, but stricter fast days also prohibit fish with spines, while permitting [[invertebrate]] seafood such as [[shrimp]] and [[oyster]]s, considering them "fish without blood".{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}

Some [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] and [[Hinduism|Hindus]] ([[Brahmins]] of [[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]] and Saraswat Brahmins of the [[Konkan]]) abjure meat that is not fish. [[Muslim]] ([[halal]]) practice also treats fish differently from other animal foods, as it can be eaten without requiring the ritualistic slaughter that is prescribed for other halal animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Halal Seafood {{!}} ISA |url=https://www.isahalal.com/news-events/blog/halal-seafood |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=Islamic Services of America |language=en}}</ref>

==Environmental impact of fish consumption== {{Main|Environmental impact of fishing}} {{Further|Overfishing|Bycatch|Marine debris|Environmental impact of fisheries subsidies}}

==Taboos on eating fish== {{See also|Taboo food and drink#Fish}}

Among the [[Somali people]], most [[Demographics of Somalia|clan]]s have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.<ref>Frederick J. Simoons, ''Northwest Ethiopia: peoples and economy?'', (University of Wisconsin Press: 1960), p.158</ref><ref name="Simoons">Frederick J. Simoons, ''Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present'', 1994, p. 261–265, {{ISBN|0-299-14254-X}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA262 Google Books]</ref>

There are taboos on eating fish among many upland [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[Farmer|agriculturalists]] (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of southeastern [[Egypt]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to [[East Africa]], though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where [[Cushitic languages]] are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] and [[Semitic languages]] do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen.<ref name="Simoons"/><ref>{{cite journal | jstor=180989 | title=The Aquatic Civilization of Middle Africa | last1=Sutton | first1=J. E. G. | journal=The Journal of African History | date=1974 | volume=15 | issue=4 | pages=527–546 | doi=10.1017/S0021853700013864 | s2cid=162456183 }}</ref> The few [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] and [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where [[Kingdom of Kush|Cushites]] appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the [[tsetse fly]] and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by [[Nomadic pastoralism|wandering pastoralists]], the principal fish-avoiders. [[Zambia]] and [[Mozambique]]'s Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.<ref name="Simoons"/>

There is also another center of fish avoidance in [[Southern Africa]], among mainly [[Bantu languages|Bantu speakers]]. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the [[Khoisan]]. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.<ref name="Simoons"/>

Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater [[eel]] ([[Anguillidae]]) and all species of [[catfish]]. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10–13<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|11:10–13|HE}}</ref>). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this and catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni ''madh'hab'', but the Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.albalagh.net/qa/sea_food_madhahib.shtml |access-date=2007-02-16|title=Sea Food in the Four Madhahib}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/catfish-halal.shtml |access-date=2007-02-16|title=Is Catfish Halal?}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/shark-meat-halal.shtml |access-date=2007-02-16|title=Is Shark Meat Halal?}}</ref>

Many tribes of the [[Southwestern United States]], including the [[Navajo people|Navaho]], [[Apache]], and [[Zuni people|Zuñi]], have a taboo against fish and other water-related animals, including [[waterfowl]].<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=533215 | last1=Matthews | first1=Washington | title=Ichthyophobia | journal=The Journal of American Folklore | date=1898 | volume=11 | issue=41 | pages=105–112 | doi=10.2307/533215 }}</ref>

==Dishes== {{Main|List of fish dishes}} {{div col|colwidth=18em}} * [[Bokkoms]] * [[Bouillabaisse]] * [[Bourdeto]] * [[Ceviche]] * [[Cioppino]] * [[Crab stick]] * [[Crappit heid]] * [[Croquette]] * [[Curanto]] * [[Dressed herring]] * [[Fish and chips]] * [[Fish ball]] * [[Fish chowder]] * [[Fishcake]] * [[Fishstick]] * [[Gefilte fish]] * [[Kamaboko]] * [[Kipper]] * [[Lox]] * [[Machher Jhol]] * [[Paella]] * [[Pempek]] * [[Poke (Hawaii)]] * [[Pompano en Papillote]] * [[Quenelles Lyonnaises]] * [[Rakfisk]] * [[Remoulade]] * [[Rissole]] * [[Sashimi]] * [[Seafood birdsnest]] * [[Smoked salmon]] * [[Soused herring]] * [[Stargazy pie]] * [[Surimi]] * [[Surströmming]] * [[Sushi]] * [[Tuna fish sandwich]] * [[Ukha]] {{div col end}}

==See also== <div style="float:right"> {{Portal|Fish|Food}} </div> {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Anisakis]] * [[Boneless Fish]] * [[Boning knife]] * [[Fish head]] * [[Fish products]] * [[Fishmonger]] * [[Got Mercury?]] * [[Ichthyoallyeinotoxism]] * [[Kudoa thyrsites]] * [[List of fish dishes]] * [[Lists of foods]] * [[List of commercially important fish species]] * [[List of seafood dishes]] * [[Oily fish]] * [[Maguro bōchō]] * [[Pescetarianism]] * [[Phosphatidylserine]] * [[Seafood Watch]] {{div col end}}

==References== {{Reflist|35em}}

===Bibliography=== * Aquamedia, ''"Consumption of Fishery Products"'' retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20060223203558/http://www.feap.info/economics/Tradebalance_en.asp on 2007-09-17. * Paston-Williams, Sara (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=aJoDxN4T-eEC&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&pg=PA132 ''Fish: Recipes from a Busy Island''] National Trust Books. {{ISBN|9781905400072}}. * Sweetser, Wendy (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=eHrvJQGiObEC&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&pg=PA194 ''The Connoisseur's Guide to Fish & Seafood''] Sterling Publishing Company,. {{ISBN|9781402770517}}. * {{cite journal | pmc = 1084135 | year = 2001 | last1 = Tidwell | first1 = J. H. | title = Fish as food: Aquaculture's contribution: Ecological and economic impacts and contributions of fish farming and capture fisheries | journal = EMBO Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = 958–963 | last2 = Allan | first2 = G. L. | doi = 10.1093/embo-reports/kve236 | pmid = 11713181 }} * University of Michigan Health System, ''"Fish & Seafood"'' retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20070526011755/http://www.med.umich.edu/umim/clinical/pyramid/fish.htm on 2007-09-17. * VegDining.com, ''"Frequently Asked Questions-Definitions"'' retrieved from http://www.ivu.org/faq/definitions.html on 2007-09-17. * ''The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000'', 2000, retrieved from [https://web.archive.org/web/20061122184857/http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index5.html] on 2007-11-17. [[World Health Organization]]. * {{Free-content attribution | title = In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018 | author = FAO | publisher = FAO | page numbers = | source = | documentURL = http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf | license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:In_brief,_The_State_of_World_Fisheries_and_Aquaculture,_2018.pdf | license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO }}

==External links== {{Commons and category|Fish (food)}} {{Cookbook|Fish}} * [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061018094758.htm Science Daily] Benefits Of Eating Fish Greatly Outweigh The Risks, New Study Says * [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/02/030210080251.htm Science Daily] Experts Say Consumers Can Eat Around Toxins In Fish * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=4CD31D31E16AC873F5F421D5880E88D6 Scientific American] Soy and fish protect from cancer: study. * {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Fish as Food|short=x}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fish (Food)}} [[Category:Fish as food| ]] [[Category:Types of food]] [[Category:Surimi]] [[Category:Fish products]]