Arctic Cordillera

{{Short description|Terrestrial ecozone in northern Canada}} {{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}} {{Use Canadian English|date=May 2020}} {{Infobox ecoregion |name = Arctic Cordillera |image = Maktak Fiord 1 2001-07-25.jpg |image_size = 300px |image_alt = |caption = [[Baffin Mountains]] ecoregion of the Arctic Cordillera |map = Arctic Cordillera2.jpg |map_size = 275px |map_alt = |map_caption = |biome = |animals = |bird_species = |mammal_species = |border1 = [[Northern Arctic Ecozone (CEC)|Northern Arctic]] |border2 = [[Taiga Shield Ecozone (CEC)|Taiga Shield]] |area = 242,190 |country = [[Canada]] |state1 = [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] |state2 = [[Nunavut]] |state3 = [[Quebec]] |region_type = Provinces |elevation = |coordinates = {{Coord|81.93|N|74.90|W|type:mountain_scale:100000_region:CA|display=inline,title}} |geology = |seas = |rivers = |climate = [[Polar climate|Polar]] and [[Ice cap climate|Ice cap]] |soil = |conservation = |global200 = |habitat_loss = |habitat_loss_ref = |protected = |protected_ref = }}

The '''Arctic Cordillera''' is a Level I terrestrial [[List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)|ecoregion of North America]] designated by the [[Commission for Environmental Cooperation]] (CEC) in its [[North American Environmental Atlas]]. Located in northern Canada it is characterized by a vast, deeply dissected chain of [[mountain range]]s extending along the northeastern flank of the [[Canadian Arctic Archipelago]] from [[Ellesmere Island]] to the northeasternmost part of the [[Labrador Peninsula]] in northern [[Labrador]] and northern [[Quebec]], Canada. It spans most of the eastern coast of [[Nunavut]] with high glaciated peaks rising through ice fields and some of Canada's largest ice caps, including the [[Penny Ice Cap]] on [[Baffin Island]].<ref>[https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ice-cap/ Ice Cap] ''The Canadian Encyclopedia'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050515130059/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0003941 |date=May 15, 2005 }} Retrieved on 2008-02-10</ref> It is bounded to the east by [[Baffin Bay]], [[Davis Strait]] and the [[Labrador Sea]] while its northern portion is bounded by the [[Arctic Ocean]].

The geographic range is composed along the provinces of Labrador: including Eastern [[Baffin Island|Baffin]], [[Devon Island]], [[Ellesmere Island|Ellesmere]], [[Bylot Island]], the [[Torngat Mountains]], and some parts of the Northeastern fringe. The landscape is dominated by massive polar icefields, alpine glaciers, inland fjords, and large bordering bodies of water, distinctive of many similar arctic regions in the world. Although the terrain is infamous for its unforgiving conditions, humans maintained an established population of 1000 people – 80% of which were [[Inuit]]. In addition, the landscape is 75% covered by ice or exposed bedrock, with a continuous [[permafrost]] that persists throughout the year, making plant and animal life somewhat scarce. The temperature of the Arctic Cordillera ranges from 6 °C in summer, down to −16 °C in winter.{{dubious|date=January 2026}} Vegetation is largely absent in this area due to permanent ice and snow.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arctic.uoguelph.ca/cpe/environments/land/a_cordillera/a_cordillera.htm|title=Arctic Cordillera}}</ref>

==Overview== The range is mostly located in Nunavut but extends southeast into the northernmost tip of Labrador and northeastern Quebec. The system is divided into a series of ranges, with mountains reaching heights of more than {{cvt|2000|m|0}}. The highest is [[Barbeau Peak]] on Ellesmere Island at {{cvt|2616|m|0}}, which is the highest point in eastern [[North America]].<ref>{{cite bivouac|261|Barbeau Peak|2008-02-10}}</ref> The system is also one of Canada's three mountain systems, the others being the [[Western Cordillera (North America)|Western Cordillera]] of [[Western Canada]]<ref name="FG">[http://www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/vignettes/Terrestrial/ac/default.cfm Arctic Cordillera Ecozone] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040615061006/http://www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/vignettes/Terrestrial/ac/default.cfm |date=June 15, 2004 }} Retrieved on 2008-02-10</ref> and the Canadian extension of the [[Appalachian Mountains]] into the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] and [[Atlantic Provinces]].

The Arctic Cordillera is a narrow [[Ecozones of Canada|ecozone]] compared to other Canadian ecozones.<ref name="GoVCA_ecozones">{{Cite web |series=Ecological Framework of Canada |title=Ecoregion |access-date=May 29, 2020 |url=http://ecozones.ca/english/region/132.html |archive-date=September 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921180800/http://ecozones.ca/english/region/132.html |url-status=live }} It is one of fifteen ecozones identified in Canada—Northern Arctic, Southern Arctic, Taiga Cordillera, Taiga Plains, Taiga Shield, Hudson Plains, Boreal Cordillera, Boreal Plains, Boreal Shield, Prairies, Montane Cordillera, Pacific Maritime, Atlantic Maritime, and [[Mixedwood Plains Ecozone (Canada)|Mixedwood Plains]].</ref> The majority of this ecozone borders the [[Northern Arctic]], while the small segment within Labrador borders the [[Taiga Shield]]. While the Arctic Cordillera mountain system includes most of the Arctic islands and regions such as [[Bathurst Island (Canada)|Bathurst Island]], [[Cornwall Island (Nunavut)|Cornwall Island]], [[Amund Ringnes Island]], [[Ellef Ringnes Island]], Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, [[Bylot Island]] and Labrador, the Arctic Cordillera Ecozone only covers Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, [[Axel Heiberg Island]], Bylot Island and Labrador.<ref name="FG"/>

==Geography== ===Regions=== The Arctic Cordillera is geographically diverse. Much of Ellesmere Island is covered by the Arctic Cordillera, making it the most mountainous in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oceandots.com/arctic/canada/ellesmere.php |title=oceandots.com: Ellesmere Island |access-date=2009-01-15 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223043232/http://www.oceandots.com/arctic/canada/ellesmere.php |archive-date=2010-12-23}}</ref> It is considered part of the [[Queen Elizabeth Islands]], with [[Cape Columbia]] being the most northerly point of land in Canada. It encompasses an area of {{cvt|196235|km2|0}}, making it the [[List of islands by area|world's tenth largest island]] and [[List of Canadian islands by area|Canada's third largest island]]. The first inhabitants of Ellesmere Island were small bands of [[Inuit]] drawn to the area for [[Peary caribou]], [[muskox]], and [[marine mammal]] hunting about 1000–2000 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/archeo/oracles/eskimos/12.htm |author=Civilization.ca |title=Arctic History |access-date=January 16, 2008 |archive-date=September 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923232404/http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/archeo/oracles/eskimos/12.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Axel Heiberg Island is one of the several members of the [[Canadian Arctic Archipelago]] and the largest of the [[Sverdrup Islands]], having an area of {{cvt|43178|km2|0}}. It has been inhabited in the past by Inuit, but was uninhabited by the time it was named by [[Otto Sverdrup]], who explored it around 1900. In 1959, scientists from [[McGill University]] explored Expedition Fiord in central Axel Heiberg Island. This resulted in the establishment of the [[McGill Arctic Research Station]], constructed {{cvt|8|km|0}} inland from Expedition Fjord in 1960.

Baffin Island is the largest island in Canada and the fifth largest in the world, with an area of {{cvt|507451|km2|0}}.

[[Devon Island]] is the largest uninhabited island on [[Earth]]. With an area of {{cvt|55247|km2|0}}, it is the second-largest of the Queen Elizabeth Islands, the [[List of islands by area|27th largest in the world]] and Canada's 6th largest. An outpost was established at [[Dundas Harbour, Nunavut|Dundas Harbour]] in August 1924 as part of a government presence intended to curb foreign [[whaling]] and other activity.

Much of Bylot Island is covered by the Arctic Cordillera. At {{cvt|11067|km2|0}} it is ranked [[List of islands by area|71st largest island in the world]] and Canada's 17th largest. While there are no permanent settlements on Bylot, Inuit from [[Pond Inlet]] regularly travel to it.

===Protected areas=== [[Image:Tanquary Fiord 2 1997-08-05.jpg|right|thumb|[[Tanquary Fiord]], showing confluence of [[Air Force River]], [[Rollrock River]] and [[Macdonald River (Nunavut)|Macdonald River]] ]]

More than one-fifth of Ellesmere Island is protected as [[Quttinirpaaq National Park]] (formerly Ellesmere Island National Park), which includes seven [[fjord]]s and a variety of [[glacier]]s, as well as [[Lake Hazen]], the world's largest lake north of the [[Arctic Circle]]. Barbeau Peak, the highest mountain in Nunavut at {{cvt|2616|m|0|comma=gaps}}, is located in the [[British Empire Range]] on Ellesmere Island. The most northern mountain range in the world, the [[Challenger Mountains]], is located in the northwest region of the island. The northern lobe of the island is called [[Grant Land]].

In July 2007, a study noted the disappearance of [[habitat]] for waterfowl, invertebrates, and algae on Ellesmere Island. According to John P. Smol of [[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]] in [[Kingston, Ontario]], and Marianne S. V. Douglas of the [[University of Alberta]] in Edmonton, warming conditions and evaporation have caused low-water-level changes in the chemistry of ponds and wetlands in the area. The researchers noted, "In the 1980s they often needed to wear hip waders to make their way to the ponds, while by 2006 the same areas were dry enough to burn."<ref name="enn">[http://www.enn.com/today.html?id=13065&ref=rss "Northern Canada Ponds Drying Up"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711035742/http://www.enn.com/today.html?id=13065 |date=2007-07-11 }}. ''Environmental News Network''.</ref>

[[Sirmilik National Park]] in northern Baffin Island harbours large populations of [[thick-billed murre]]s, [[black-legged kittiwake]]s and [[snow goose|greater snow geese]]. The park comprises three areas: Bylot Island, [[Oliver Sound]] and the [[Borden Peninsula]].

[[Auyuittuq National Park]], located on Baffin Island's [[Cumberland Peninsula]], features the many terrains of [[Arctic]] wilderness such as fjords, glaciers, and [[ice field]]s. In [[Inuktitut]]—the language of Nunavut's Aboriginal people, Inuit—{{Lang|iu|Auyuittuq}} means "the land that never melts." Although {{Lang|iu|Auyuittuq}} was established in 1976 as a national park reserve, it was upgraded to a full national park in 2000. Well-known peaks in the park include [[Mount Asgard]] and [[Mount Thor]], with a {{cvt|1250|m|0|comma=gaps}}, 105° cliff face.

The [[Torngat Mountains National Park Reserve]], located on the [[Labrador Peninsula]], covers much of the southern end of the Arctic Cordillera. It protects many species of Arctic wildlife, such as [[caribou]], [[polar bear]]s, [[peregrine falcon]]s and [[golden eagle]]s. The park was established on January 22, 2005, making it the first national park to be created in Labrador.

===Glaciers and ice caps=== [[Image:Tanquary Fiord 16 1997-08-05.jpg|thumb|left|[[Gull Glacier]] in [[Tanquary Fjord]] ]]

The drier northern section of the Arctic Cordillera is largely covered with [[ice cap]]s while glaciers are more common at the more humid southern end. Large portions of Ellesmere Island are covered with glaciers and ice, with Manson Icefield and Sydkap in the south; Prince of Wales Icefield and Agassiz Ice Cap along the central-east side of the island; and substantial ice cover in Northern Ellesmere Island. The northwest coast of Ellesmere Island was covered by a massive, {{cvt|500|km}} long ice shelf until the 20th century. The Ellesmere ice shelf reduced by 90 percent in the twentieth century due to [[global warming]], leaving the separate Alfred Ernest, Ayles, Milne, Ward Hunt, and Markham Ice Shelves.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/30/science/earth/30ice.html?hp&ex=1167454800&en=eb5d838b27550ca9&ei=5094&partner=homepage "Arctic Ice Shelf Broke Off Canadian Island"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130205032/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/30/science/earth/30ice.html?hp&ex=1167454800&en=eb5d838b27550ca9&ei=5094&partner=homepage |date=January 30, 2018 }} ''New York Times'' 30 December 2006</ref> A 1986 survey of Canadian ice shelves found that {{cvt|48|km2|0}}, involving {{cvt|3.3|km3}} of ice, calved from the [[Milne Ice Shelf|Milne]] and [[Ayles Ice Shelf|Ayles]] ice shelves between 1959 and 1974.<ref>[[Martin O. Jeffries|Jeffries, Martin O]]. [http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic39-1-15.pdf Ice Island Calvings and Ice Shelf Changes, Milne Ice Shelf and Ayles Ice Shelf, Ellesmere Island, N.W.T.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928113808/http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic39-1-15.pdf|date=September 28, 2019}}. ''Arctic'' 39 (1) (March 1986)</ref> The [[Ward Hunt Ice Shelf]], the largest remaining section of thick (greater than {{cvt|10|m||sp=|disp=sqbr}}) landfast sea ice along the northern coastline of Ellesmere Island, lost {{cvt|600|km}} of ice in a massive calving in 1961–1962.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hattersley-Smith |first=G. |title=The Ward Hunt Ice Shelf: recent changes of the ice front |journal=Journal of Glaciology |volume=4 |issue=34 |pages=415–424 |year=1963 |doi=10.3189/S0022143000027830 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It further decreased by 27% in thickness (13 m, 43 ft) between 1967 and 1999.<ref>Vincent, W.F., J.A.E. Gibson, M.O. Jeffries. [http://www.cen.ulaval.ca/warwickvincent/PDFfiles/149.pdf Ice-shelf collapse, climate change, and habitat loss in the Canadian high Arctic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910214656/http://www.cen.ulaval.ca/warwickvincent/PDFfiles/149.pdf |date=September 10, 2008 }}. ''[[Polar Record]]'' 37 (201): 133-142 (2001)</ref> The breakup of the Ellesmere ice shelves has continued in the 21st century: the Ward Ice Shelf experienced a major breakup during summer 2002;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/wardhunt/ |title=Breakup of the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf |author=NASA Earth Observatory |date=2004-01-20 |access-date=September 30, 2007 |archive-date=September 16, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916020519/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/wardhunt/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the Ayles Ice Shelf calved entirely on August 13, 2005—the largest break-off of the ice shelf in 25 years, it may pose a threat to the oil industry in the [[Beaufort Sea]] (the piece is {{cvt|66|km2|0|sp=|disp=sqbr}}).<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6218333.stm |title=BBC News - Huge Arctic ice break discovered |date=December 29, 2006 |access-date=September 30, 2007 |archive-date=June 30, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630025639/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6218333.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Barnes icecap]] is found in the central part of the Baffin Island and has been in retreat since at least the early 1960s when the Geographical Branch of the then Department of Mines & Technical Surveys sent a three-man survey team to the area to measure isostatic rebound and cross-valley features of the [[Isortoq River]].

==Hydrology== Nearly 75% of the land within this ecoregion is exposed bedrock or ice. The majority of the water is locked up in frozen ice and snow, therefore there are very few named rivers or other bodies of water within this region. The annual amount precipitation is about 200 mm, which usually falls down as snow or ice. Huge ice caps dominate the landscape, and they spawn large glaciers that are pushed down steep fjords and into the sea. When the temperature gets above freezing for an extended period time a little amount of runoff is created, which is generally under 200 mm annually.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/rhc-wsc/default.asp?lang=En&n=E94719C8-1 | title=Hydrology of Canada| date=2007-01-09}}</ref>

==Geology== [[File:Saglek Fjord Labrador 2008.JPG|thumb|right|Folded rock in the [[Torngat Mountains]]]] The northern portion of the Arctic Cordillera was uplifted during the [[Innuitian orogeny]] when the [[North American Plate]] moved northward during the mid-[[Mesozoic]]. It contains [[igneous]] and [[metamorphic rocks]], but for the most part is composed of [[sedimentary rock]]s. Mountains on Axel Heiberg Island consist mainly of long [[ridge]]s of folded mid-Mesozoic and [[Palaeozoic]] [[Stratum|strata]] with minor igneous [[intrusion]]s.

The Arctic Cordillera is younger than the [[Appalachians]], and so erosion has not had time to reduce it to rounded [[hill]]s. The mountains are also barren because trees can neither survive the extremely cold winter temperatures, nor grow during the short summers. Vast areas are covered by permanent ice and snow. The Arctic Cordillera resembles the Appalachians in composition and contain similar types of [[mineral]]s. The mineral resources have not been greatly exploited, however, because the region's remote location makes development too costly when cheaper alternatives exist further south.

Mountains on southeastern Ellesmere Island are principally made of [[granite|granitic]] [[gneiss]], magmatic, undifferentiated intrusive and volcanic rocks. They are typified by being highly [[erosion|eroded]], with conspicuous deep vertical fissures and narrow ledges.

{{Citation needed span|text=The Arctic Cordillera form the eastern edge of the Canadian Shield, which covers much of Canada's landscape.|date=May 2020|reason=Greenland is part of the Canadian Shield, but from this article the Arctic Cordillera is only located on Canadian islands.}} [[Precambrian]] rock is the major component of the [[bedrock]].

The Arctic Cordillera is dominated by vast mountain ranges stretching for thousands of miles, virtually untouched by man. These mountains were formed millions of years ago during the mid-[[Mesozoic]] when the [[North American Plate]] moved northward, pushing earth and rock upwards. The mountains of the north contain metamorphic and igneous rock, and are predominantly sedimentary rock. On the other hand, the southern mountains are greater, composed of granite gneiss and magmatic volcanic rock. These mountains are characterized as being highly erodible with very steep and jagged cliffs with narrow ledges. The highest peak in the Arctic Cordillera mountain range is [[Barbeau Peak]] – standing almost nine thousand feet tall. In general, the Arctic Cordillera Mountain Range is most similar (in composition and age) to the [[Appalachian Mountain Range]] of the United States. However, as the Appalachian Mountains are slightly older, their cliffs have been eroded, and are less jagged than those of the Arctic Cordillera.This ecoregion is also home to very limited amounts of exposed soil. Only in extremely sheltered places – such as that of caves – is surface soil present. The remaining soil is hidden beneath deep snow and ice, and is kept in a constant state of permafrost.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/english/ecozones/arcticcordillera/arcticcordillera.htm|title=Canadian Biodiversity: Ecozones: Arctic Cordillera|first=Torsten|last=Bernhardt|access-date=2013-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080127100902/http://canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/english/ecozones/arcticcordillera/arcticcordillera.htm|archive-date=2008-01-27|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Volcanism=== {{main|Volcanism in Canada}} [[Image:Dragon Cliffs, Nunavut.jpg|thumb|[[Dragon Cliff]], including the [[flood basalt]] lava layers]]

Mountains of [[volcanic rock]] range in age from 1.2 billion to 65 million years old.<ref name="SE">[http://www.ec.ca/soer-ree/English/Vigettes/Terrestrial/ac/land.cfm Landforms and Climate of the Arctic Cordillera Ecozone] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714122927/http://www.ec.ca/soer-ree/English/Vigettes/Terrestrial/ac/land.cfm |date=2014-07-14 }} Retrieved on 2007-09-26</ref> The [[Late Cretaceous]] [[Ellesmere Island Volcanics]] has been uncertainly associated to both the early volcanic activity of the [[Iceland hotspot]] and the [[Alpha Ridge]]. Even though these volcanics are about 90 million years old, the volcanoes and [[Scoria|cinder]] can still be seen.<ref>[http://www.ees.rochester.edu/pmag/arctic/arctic99/journalchris.html Chris's journal entries] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219143742/http://www.ees.rochester.edu/pmag/arctic/arctic99/journalchris.html |date=2015-02-19 }} Retrieved on 2007-08-05</ref>

The Late Cretaceous [[Strand Fiord Formation]] is interpreted to represent the craton-ward extension of the Alpha Ridge, a volcanic ridge that was active during the formation of the [[Amerasian Basin]]. The formation is part of the thick Sverdrup Basin succession and immediately precedes the final basin foundering event. The Strand Fiord volcanics are encased in marine strata and thin southward from a maximum thickness of more than {{cvt|789|m}} on northwestern Axel Heiberg to a zero edge near the southern shore of the island. [[Tholeiitic basalt|Tholeiitic]] [[icelandite]] [[basalt]] flows are the main constituent of the formation with pyroclastic conglomerates, [[sandstone]]s, [[mudrock]]s and rare coal seams also present. The lava flows range in thickness from {{cvt|6|to|60|m}} and subaerial flows predominate. Both pahoehoe and aa [[lava]] types are common and the volcanic pile accumulated mostly by the quiet [[effusive eruption|effusion]] of lavas. The [[pyroclastic rock|pyroclastic]] [[Lithology|lithologies]] become more common near the southern and eastern edges of the formation and represent [[lahar]]s and beach to shallow marine reworked deposits. The formation contains [[flood basalt]]s, which are found on western Axel Heiberg Island at [[Dragon Cliff]], {{cvt|300|m|ft}} tall. It contains columnar jointing units that are usually {{cvt|1|to|3|m}} in diameter.

The [[Bravo Lake Formation]] in central Baffin Island is a rare alkaline suite that formed as a result of submarine [[rift]]ing during the [[Paleoproterozoic]] period.<ref>[http://gac.esd.mun.ca/gac_2004/search_abs/sub_program.asp?sess=98&form=10&abs_no=280 Volcanology and geochemistry of the Bravo Lake Formation, Baffin Island, Nunavut] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415162029/http://gac.esd.mun.ca/gac_2004/search_abs/sub_program.asp?sess=98&form=10&abs_no=280 |date=2009-04-15 }}. Retrieved on 2007-11-06</ref> The lavas of the [[volcanic belt]] display geochemical characteristics similar to modern ocean-island-basalt groups. The range from moderately to intensely fractionated. Rare-earth-element profiles are similar to those from tholeiitic basalts and extremely [[alkaline]] lavas in [[Hawaii]].<ref>[http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/baffin4d/proj/p21_e.php Central Baffin Island 4-D Project - Projects] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416021920/http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/baffin4d/proj/p21_e.php |date=2009-04-16 }}: Paleoproterozoic mafic magmatism in central Baffin Island. Retrieved on 2007-11-06</ref>

==Highest peaks== <div style="float:right;width:200px;margin-left:20px"> [[Image:Mount Asgard 3 2001-07-25.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Mount Asgard]] in July 2001]] [[Image:Mount Thor Peak 1997-08-07.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Mount Thor]] in 1997]] </div> {| class=wikitable ! align="left"|Mountain/peak ||metres|| feet || Notes |- |[[Barbeau Peak]] ||2,616||8,583||Highest point on Ellesmere Island |- |[[Mount Whisler]] ||2,500||8,202||Second highest point on Ellesmere Island |- |[[Commonwealth Mountain]] ||2,225||7,300||  |- |[[Mount Oxford (Nunavut)|Mount Oxford]] ||2,210||7,251||  |- |[[Outlook Peak]] ||2,210||7,251||Highest point on Axel Heiberg Island |- |[[Mount Odin]] ||2,147||7,044||Highest point on Baffin Island |- |[[Mount Asgard]] ||2,015||6,611||  |- |[[Qiajivik Mountain]] ||1,963||6,440||Highest point in northern Baffin Island |- |[[Angilaaq Mountain]] ||1,951||6,401||Highest point on Bylot Island |- |[[Kisimngiuqtuq Peak]] ||1,905||6,250||  |- |[[Arrowhead Mountain (Nunavut)|Arrowhead Mountain]] ||1,860||6,102||  |- |[[Mount Eugene]] ||1,850||6,070||  |- |[[Ukpik Peak]] ||1,809||5,935||  |- |[[Mount Nukap]] ||1,780||5,840||  |- |[[Bastille Peak]] ||1,733||5,656||  |- |[[Mount Thule]] ||1,711||5,614||  |- |[[Angna Mountain]]||1,710||5,610||  |- |[[Mount Thor]] ||1,675||5,500||Features the Earth's greatest purely vertical drop |- |[[Mount Caubvick]] ||1,642||5,387||Highest point in mainland Canada east of Alberta |}

==Mountain ranges== Several ranges of the Arctic Cordillera have official names:

===Axel Heiberg Island=== * [[Geodetic Hills]] * [[Joy Range]] * [[Princess Margaret Range]] * [[Swiss Range]] * White Triplets Peaks

===Baffin Island=== *[[Baffin Mountains]] *[[Bruce Mountains]] *[[Everett Mountains]] *[[Hartz Mountains (Nunavut)|Hartz Mountains]] *[[Krag Mountains]] *[[Precipitous Mountains]]

===Bathurst Island=== *[[Grogan Morgan Range]] *[[Jeffries Range]] *[[Scoresby Hills]] *[[Stokes Range]]

===Bylot Island=== *[[Byam Martin Mountains]]

===Devon Island=== *[[Cunningham Mountains]] *[[Douro Range]] *[[Grinnell Range]] *[[Haddington Range]] *[[Treuter Mountains]]

===Ellesmere Island=== *[[Blackwelder Mountains]] *[[Blue Mountains (Nunavut)|Blue Mountains]] *[[Boulder Hills]] *[[British Empire Range]] *[[Challenger Mountains]] *[[Conger Range]] *[[Garfield Range]] *[[Inglefield Mountains]] *[[Krieger Mountains]] *[[Osborn Range]] *[[Prince of Wales Mountains]] *[[Sawtooth Range (Nunavut)|Sawtooth Range]] *[[Thorndike Peaks]] *[[United States Range]] *[[Victoria and Albert Mountains]]

===Île Vanier=== *[[Adam Range]]

===Labrador and Quebec=== *[[Torngat Mountains]] **[[Selamiut Range]]

==Flora and fauna== [[Image:Qijuttaaqanngittuq Valley 1 1997-08-07.jpg|right|thumb|Qijuttaaqanngittuq Valley in the southern [[Baffin Mountains]]]]

Not much can grow in the severe environment, where killing frost can come at any time during the year and even [[soil]] is rare. Three-quarters of the land is bare [[Rock (geology)|rock]], and even [[lichen]] have a hard time of it. Trees are hardly noticeable. Plants that do grow in the region are mostly tiny species that often grow in thick Insulating mats to protect themselves from the cold or are covered in thick hairs that help to insulate and to protect them from the harsh wind.

Some of the plant species found are Arctic [[black spruce]], [[Arctic willow]], [[cottongrass]], [[crustose]] lichens, [[kobresia]], [[moss]] species, wood [[Juncaceae|rush]], wire rush, [[purple saxifrage]], [[Dryas (plant)|''Dryas'']] species such as [[mountain avens]], [[sedge]]s, ''[[Diapensia lapponica]]'', [[Papaver radicatum|Arctic poppy]], [[mountain sorrel]], river beauty, [[moss campion]], [[bilberry]], and [[Arctic white heather]].

The conditions here are far too severe for [[reptile]]s and [[amphibian]]s to survive; [[insect]]s are also rare in the region. [[Muskoxen]] and barren-ground caribou are the only large herbivores in this environment, while [[polar bear]]s and the [[Arctic wolf]] are the only large carnivores to be found in the region. Smaller herbivores include the [[Arctic hare]] and the [[collared lemming]]. [[Arctic fox]]es and [[stoat]]s are some of the smaller carnivores found in the region. Marine mammals include [[narwhale|narwhals]], [[beluga whale]]s, [[walrus]] along with [[ringed seal|ringed]] and [[bearded seal]]s.

The furry-legged [[rock ptarmigan]] is a widespread bird in this region. Typical birds of prey include the [[gyrfalcon]] and [[snowy owl]]. Some of the more widespread shore- and seabirds are the [[thick-billed murre]], [[black-legged kittiwake]], [[ruddy turnstone]], [[red knot]], [[black guillemot]], widespread [[ringed plover]], [[little ringed plover]] and [[northern fulmar]]. [[Songbird]]s found in the Arctic Cordillera include the [[hoary redpoll]], [[common redpoll]], [[snow bunting]], and [[Lapland longspur]]. The [[snow goose]], [[common eider|common]] and [[king eider]], and [[red-throated loon]] are some species of [[waterfowl]] that live in the region.

===Plant communities=== The Arctic Cordillera is a very high stress environment for plants to try and grow and regenerate. Vegetation is largely absent due to permanent ice and snow. Due to the extremely cold, dry climate, along with the ice-fields and lack of soil materials, the high and mid-elevations are largely devoid of significant populations of plants. In the warmer valleys at low elevations and along coastal margins, the plant cover is more extensive, consisting of herbaceous and shrub-type communities. Stream-banks and coastlines are the most biologically productive areas here. The plants in this region have a history of being survivors and stress tolerant to high winds, low temperatures, few available macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. Plants have adaptations such as fluffy seed masses, staying low to the ground, and use of other plant masses for extra insulation.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Climate Impacts on Northern Canada: Regional Background|first1=Terry D.|last1=Prowse|first2=Chris|last2=Furgal|first3=Barrie R.|last3=Bonsal|first4=Daniel L.|last4=Peters|date=1 July 2009|journal=[[Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment]]|volume=38|issue=5|pages=248–256|doi=10.1579/0044-7447-38.5.248|pmid=19714957|s2cid=9710763}}</ref>

===Keystone species=== Due to the harsh environments and extremely low temperatures that encompass the Arctic Cordillera, there is not a large variety of plants and animals that are able to survive and exist as a population. However, some animal species, both herbivores and carnivores, are able to survive the extreme weather and terrain. Among these animals are [[wolves]], [[polar bears]], [[Arctic foxes]], [[musk-oxen]], and [[caribou]]. For the most part, the large carnivores are the dominant species in the ecoregion, mainly the polar bear. It is the keystone species for the area due to many of its habits, including its diet and hunting strategies. In addition, the life history of the 22,000 polar bears in the Arctic clearly defines its current existence in the Arctic Cordillera.<ref>Kerr, R. (2002). A warmer arctic means change for all. August 30, 2002. Retrieved from http://sfx.uvm.edu/UVM. March 11, 2013</ref>

The large carnivorous species defines the ecoregion due to its intimate relationship with the ice as well as its extremely intelligent hunting tactics.<ref>Durner, G.M. (2009, November 05). Polar bear sea-ice relationships. Alaska science center.</ref> No other predatory animal defines the Arctic Cordillera as well as the large white polar bear and that is why when people think about arctic animals, they think about the polar bear. As long as the polar bear exists, it will be the keystone species of the Arctic Cordillera. However, this existence relies solely on the degree of ice melt that is encountered in the future.<ref>Richardson, E. (2009). Polar Bear Life History and Population Dynamics. InfoNorth. Retrieved from http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic62-4-491.pdf</ref>

===Endangered species=== ====Polar bear==== [[File:Polarbär 12 2004-11-17.jpg|thumb|Polar bear]]

The [[polar bear]] is one of the most notably affected species in the Arctic Cordillera, mainly due to their heavy reliance on arctic ice for hunting and bedding grounds. Habitat loss, caused by global warming, has led to many dangerous behavioural changes including a new behaviour called long swims. These are swims lasting as long as ten days performed by mother bears to attempt to find food for their cubs, which generally lead to the death of the cub.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Long-distance swimming by polar bears (Ursus maritimus) of the southern Beaufort Sea during years of extensive open water|first1=A.M.|last1=Pagano|first2=G.M.|last2=Durner|first3=S.C.|last3=Amstrup|first4=K.S.|last4=Simac|first5=G.S.|last5=York|date=27 April 2012|journal=[[Can. J. Zool.]]|volume=90|issue=5|pages=663–676|doi=10.1139/z2012-033|url = https://zenodo.org/record/1235909|doi-access=free}}</ref> Because of their stature and aggressiveness, direct conservation practices are not very useful to the polar bear. Instead, scientific observation to better understand these animals is the largest form of traditional conservation.<ref>"Conservation of Polar Bears in Canada". Government of Canada, [[Environment Canada]]. N.p., 20 August 2012. Web. 25 February 2013.</ref>

====Arctic black spruce==== The [[Arctic black spruce]] is an example of a plant native to the Arctic Cordillera that is considered to be in ecological decline. The black spruce is a species of least concern because of habitat loss and deforestation from the [[spruce budworm moth]].<ref>Fellin, D. and J. Dewey (March 1992). Western Spruce Budworm Forest Insect & Disease Leaflet 53, U.S. Forest Service. Retrieved on: September 14, 2008.</ref> In the Arctic Cordillera however, the black spruce population is in good health, and is slowly gaining habitat through the retreat of polar ice.<ref>Kokelj, S.V.; Burn, C.R. (2003). "'Drunken forest' and near-surface ground ice in Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories, Canada". In Marcia Phillips, [[Sarah Springman]], Lukas Arenson. Proceedings of the 8th Int'l Conf. on Permafrost. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema. {{ISBN|9058095827}}. Retrieved 2 April 2013.</ref>

====Bowhead whale==== [[File:Bowhead Whale 2002-08-10.jpg|thumb|Bowhead whale]]

Another species that is of great importance to this ecoregion is the endangered [[Bowhead whale]] (''Balaena mysticetus''). Five total stocks of this species exist in the region within the arctic oceans and adjacent seas: the [[Spitsbergen]] stock, Baffin Bay/Davis Strait, stock and Hudson Bay/Foxe Basin Stock, [[Sea of Okhotsk]] Stock, and the Bering/Chukchi/Beaufort Stock. Historically, these whales have served as a cultural icon, and an important source of food and fuel to the Inuit. At this point in time,{{When|date=June 2013}} their populations were estimated between 30,000 and 50,000 individuals.

However, with the expansion of commercial whaling in the 16th and 17th century, this species was exploited to dangerously low numbers. Commercial hunting of bowheads was officially ended in 1921, when moratoria were established to protect the remaining 3,000 individuals left in the wild.<ref>"Bowhead Whale (Balaena Mysticetus) - Office of Protected Resources - NOAA Fisheries." Bowhead Whale (Balaena Mysticetus) - Office of Protected Resources - [[NOAA Fisheries]]. NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources, 5 December 2012. Web. 24 February 2013.</ref>

Today, those same moratoria are still in effect, but the Bowhead population has been reinstated to a manageable population of between 7,000 and 10,000 individuals. Nonetheless, these whales have been (and remain) on the [[IUCN Red List]] since 1984.<ref name="Finley, K. J. 2001">{{cite journal | last1 = Finley | first1 = K. J. | year = 2001 | title = Natural History and Conservation of the Greenland Whale, or Bowhead, in the Northwest Atlantic | journal = [[Arctic (journal)|Arctic]] | volume = 54 | issue = 1| page = 55 | doi=10.14430/arctic764| citeseerx = 10.1.1.500.2600 }}</ref> One of the most important conservation efforts for this species is "legal" protection by the [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]], which came into force in 1935. This convention was further strengthened and ratified by Canada in 1977 to support the [[International Whaling Commission]]’s (IWC) recommendation for full protection of the bowhead whale.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lambertsen | first1 = R. H. | last2 = Rasmussen | first2 = K. J. | last3 = Lancaster | first3 = W. C. | last4 = Hintz | first4 = R. J. | year = 2005 | title = Functional Morphology of the Mouth of the Bowhead Whale and its Implications for Conservation | journal = [[Journal of Mammalogy]] | volume = 96 | issue = 2| pages = 342–352 | doi=10.1644/ber-123.1| doi-access = free }}</ref> Further conservation efforts have involved more physically demanding solutions, including the recommended funding of specialized technical machines that have the capability to remove debris that commonly kills these whales due to entanglement and accidental indigestion.<ref name="Finley, K. J. 2001"/>

==Climate== [[File:Nachvak Fjord Labrador 2008.JPG|thumb|right|[[Nachvak, Newfoundland and Labrador|Nachvak Fjord]], Torngat Mountains]]

The Arctic Cordillera has one of Canada's most inhospitable climates. The weather is generally very cold and dry with a few weeks of sun and rain in the summer. Snow is the most common form of precipitation in the Cordillera. The region only gets 20−60 centimeters of precipitation annually. The temperature in this ecoregion averages around 4 degrees Celsius during the summer. Winter is very dark and long, when temperatures average at {{cvt|-35|C}}, although it is somewhat milder and more humid in its southernmost portions. A [[Atmospheric circulation#Polar cell|polar cell]] is a system of winds that influence the climate of the Cordillera. It is made up of the [[Westerlies]], which are winds that blow warm air east to west from 30 to 60 degrees latitude up to the poles, and the [[Polar Easterlies]], which blow cold air back south where it will repeat the process.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ecozones.ca/english/zone/ArcticCordillera/land.html |title=Landforms and Climate of the Arctic Cordillera Ecozone}}</ref>

It was not always as cold as it is today. [[Tree stump]]s were discovered in 1985 on [[Axel Heiberg Island]] dating back 40 million years, indicating this northerly part of the cordillera was warmer and wetter than its present-day climate, with much more [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080217182242/http://www.parkwardens.com/zone1/1.html ParkWardens: Arctic Cordillera Ecozone Overview]}} Retrieved on 2007-11-08</ref>

==Natural resources and human influence== Only about 2,600 people live in the region, found primarily in the communities of [[Clyde River, Nunavut|Clyde River]], [[Qikiqtarjuaq, Nunavut|Qikiqtarjuaq]] (formerly known as Broughton Island), and [[Pond Inlet, Nunavut|Pond Inlet]]. These communities are rather small, with the populations being 820, 473 and 1,315 respectively in 2006.<ref>2006 Census http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-550/Index.cfm?TPL=P3C&Page=INDX&LANG=Eng {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514040005/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-550/Index.cfm?TPL=P3C&Page=INDX&LANG=Eng |date=May 14, 2013 }}</ref> Most of the people who live in the region survive by [[hunting]], [[fishing]], and [[animal trapping|trapping]].

The Arctic Cordillera is a cold, harsh environment making plant life and animal-life sparse; even soil is rare in this ecoregion. Moss, [[cottongrass]], and [[Arctic heather]] are examples of plant life that can be found in valleys. Meanwhile, polar bears, seals, and walruses roam the shores and survive off the thriving marine ecosystem.<ref>Bell, Trevor. "Arctic Cordillera Ecozone." ''[[Natural Environment]]''. [[J.R. Smallwood Centre for Newfoundland Studies]], November 2002. Web.</ref> Fish, clams, and shrimp are just a few of the resources the local Inuit communities of [[Nunavut]] use in the highly productive waters to support their economy. Nunavut's government is also investing in exploration of mineral resources; [[Breakwater Resources]], for example, has [[Nanisivik Mine]], a zinc-lead mine in [[Arctic Bay]] that just reopened in April 2003 after closing the year before due to declining resources.<ref>Government of Canada. (12/19/2012). Human Activity and the Environment. [[Statistics Canada]]. Retrieved March 10, 2013 from https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/16-201-x/2007000/10542-eng.htm</ref> [[Climate change]] is the strongest human influence in the Arctic Cordillera. Rising temperatures in the Arctic are causing ice shelves, and the habitats they provide, to shrink from year to year. Researchers of global warming also express concern for the economic, political, and social consequences of the resulting decline in fisheries stocks expected because of the changing climate.<ref>Jeffers, Jennifer. "Climate Change and the Arctic: Adapting to Changes in Fisheries Stocks and Governance Regimes." ''[[Ecology Law Quarterly]]'' 37.3 (2010): 917-66. ELQ. Web.</ref>

==See also== {{Portal|Geography|Canada}} *[[List of mountain ranges]] *[[Geography of Nunavut]] *[[Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador]] *[[Geography of Canada]] *[[Ledoyom (Ice body)]]

==References== {{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading== {{commons and category|Arctic Cordillera}} {{refbegin}} *Chernoff, M. N., H. R. Hovdebo, and J. Stuart-Smith. ''Eastern Canadian Cordillera and Arctic Islands An Aerial Reconnaissance''. Ottawa: 24th International Geological Congress, 1972. *Geological Survey of Canada. ''Cordillera and Pacific Margin Interior Plains and Arctic Canada''. Geological Survey of Canada Current Research, 1998-A. 1998. *Hall, John K. ''Arctic Ocean Geophysical Studies The Alpha Cordillera and Mendeleyev Ridge''. Palisades, N.Y.: Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, Columbia University, 1970. *Walker, Edward R. ''A Synoptic Climatology for Parts of the Western Cordillera''. Montreal: McGill University, 1961. {{refend}}

{{Arctic Cordillera}} {{Arctic topics}} {{Mountain ranges of Nunavut}} {{Mountains of Nunavut}} {{Canada topics}} {{Newfoundland and Labrador}}

[[Category:Arctic Cordillera| ]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of Newfoundland and Labrador]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of Nunavut]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of the Qikiqtaaluk Region]] [[Category:Mountain ranges of Baffin Island]] [[Category:Labrador]] [[Category:Mountains of Nunavut]] [[Category:Ecozones of Canada]] [[Category:Regions of the Arctic]] [[Category:Cordilleras]]