Svādhyāya

{{Short description|Term of self study}} {{for|the movement|Swadhyaya Movement}} {{italic title}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}} {{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}

[[Image:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|right|Rigveda manuscript, Sanskrit in Devanagari script, India, early 19th century]]

'''{{IAST|Svādhyāya}}''' (Devanagari: {{lang|sa|स्वाध्याय}}) is a Sanskrit term which means self-study and especially the recitation of the Vedas and other sacred texts.{{efn|For compound derivation as {{lang|sa|स्व}} + {{lang|sa|अध्यायः}} and meanings of ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' as "1. self-recitation, muttering to one-self. -2. study of the Vedas, sacred study, perusal of sacred books. -3. the Veda itself. -4. a day on which sacred study is enjoined to be resumed after suspension." see: {{Harvnb|Apte|1965|p=1016}}, right column.}}{{efn|For definition of "स्वाध्याय, m. repeating to oneself, study ''of the Veda''; repetition ''of the Veda'' aloud" see: {{Harvnb|Macdonell|1996|p=373}}, left column.}}{{efn|For definition as "the regular habit of study of religious books", see: {{Harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=303}}}} It is also a broader concept with several meanings. In various schools of Hinduism, ''Svadhyaya'' is a Niyama (virtuous observance) connoting introspection and "study of self".<ref>Sharda Nandram (2010), Synchronizing Leadership Style with Integral Transformational Yoga Principles, In Spirituality and Business (Editors: Nandram and Borden), Springer Berlin Heidelberg, {{ISBN|978-3-642-02660-7}}, pages 183-203</ref>

==Etymology, meaning and usage== Svādhyāya is a compound Sanskrit word composed of sva (स्व) + adhyāya (अध्याय). Adhyāya means "a lesson, lecture, chapter; reading".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AdhyAya], Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref> Svā means "own, one's own, self, the human soul".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html SvA], Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref> Therefore, Svādhyāya literally means "one's own reading, lesson".

Svādhyāya is also a compound Sanskrit word composed of svā (स्वा) + dhyāya (ध्याय). Dhyāya means "meditating on".<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=dhyAyam&direction=SE&link=yes&choice=yes dhyAyam], Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</ref> The root of Adhyāya and Dhyāya is “Dhyai” (ध्यै) which means “meditate, contemplate, think of”.<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=dhyai&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 ध्यै] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> The term Svādhyāya therefore, also connotes “contemplation, meditation, reflection of one self”, or simply “to study one’s own self”.<ref name=rsovik>Rolf Sovik (2014), Understanding Yourself: the path of Svadhyaya, Himalayan Institute Press, {{ISBN|978-0893892470}}, pages 191-197</ref>

The term ''Svadhyaya'' also has other meanings. In the Śruti, it refers to the historical practice of self-reciting Vedas to ensure their memorization and faithful oral transmission to subsequent generations.<ref name=arya6/> In various schools of Hinduism, particularly ''Yoga'', ''Svadhyaya'' is also a ''niyama'' (observance), a virtuous behavior. As a virtue, it means "study of self", "self-reflection", or "introspection, observation of self".<ref>C Woiwode (2013), Transcendence and Spirituality Human Needs and the Practices of the Indian Svadhyaya Movement, Journal of Developing Societies, 29(3): 233-257</ref><ref>KH Garland (2010), Yoga, Pradhana Dharma, and the Helping Professions: Recognizing the Risk of Codependency and the Necessity of Self-Care, International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 1(1): 90-97</ref><ref>L. Fishman (2002), Yoga in medicine. in Alternative medicine and rehabilitation (Wainapel S, Fast A, Editors), {{ISBN|978-1888799668}}, pages 139–73</ref>

{{IAST|Svādhyāya}} is translated in a number of ways. Some translate it as the "study of the scriptures and ''darśanas''."<ref>{{Harvnb|Bhattacharyya|1956|pp=25–26}}, volume 4.</ref> Some translators simply use the word "study" without qualifying the type of study.<ref>For translation of YS 2.1 as ""Purificatory action, study, and making God the motive of action, constitute the ''yoga'' of action." see: {{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1967|p=462}}.</ref><ref>For translation of YS 2.1 as "Austerity, study, and the dedication of the fruits of one's work to God: these are the preliminary steps to yoga." see: Prabhavananda and Isherwood, p. 95.</ref> MacNeill translates it as "self-study or spiritual self-education".<ref>Paul MacNeill (2011), Yoga and Ethics: The Importance of Practice, in Yoga-Philosophy for Everyone (Editors: Stillwagon et al.), Wiley-Blackwell, {{ISBN|978-0470658802}}, Chapter 18</ref> Dhyāya, when used in the context of self study in ancient and medieval Indian texts, is synonymous with ''Abhyasa'', ''Adhi'' and ''Viks''; while Adhyāya, when used in context of reciting and reading in Indian texts, is synonymous with ''Anukti'', ''Nipatha''<ref>often used to describe recitation of Vedas by a student; see BL Dwivedi (1994), Evolution of educational thought in India, {{ISBN|978-8172110598}}, page 119</ref> and ''Patha''.<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html Study] Monier Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany; see discussion notes and cited Indian texts</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de Sanskrit English Dictionary] Koeln University, Germany; Search for each of: abhyAsam, adhI, vIkS, anUkti, nipaTha, paTh</ref>

==Svadhyaya in ancient literature== {{Hinduism}}

===Upanishads=== Taittiriya Upanishad’s hymn 1.9.1<ref>Original: ऋतं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । सत्यं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । तपश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । दमश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । शमश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अग्नयश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अग्निहोत्रं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । अतिथयश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । मानुषं च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजा च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजनश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च । प्रजातिश्च स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च ॥ १ ॥ For two translations: TN Raghavendra (2002), Vishnu Saharanama, {{ISBN|8190282727}}, page 763, and {{Harvnb|Zaehner|1966|p=136}}</ref> emphasizes the central importance of ''Svadhyaya'' in one’s pursuit of Reality (Ṛta), Truth (Satya), Self-restraint (Damah), Perseverance (Tapas), Tranquility and Inner Peace (Samas),<ref>शम</ref> Relationships with others, family, guests (Praja, Prajana, Manush, Atithi) and all Rituals (Agnaya, Agnihotram).<ref name=tnr>TN Raghavendra (2002), Vishnu Saharanama, {{ISBN|8190282727}}, page 763</ref><ref>For translation, see: {{Harvnb|Zaehner|1966|p=136}}.</ref>

Taittiriya Upanishad, however, adds in verse 1.9.1, that along with the virtue of ''{{IAST|svādhyāyā}}'' process of learning, one must teach and share (''pravacana'') what one learns.<ref name=tnr/> This is expressed by the phrase "''{{IAST|svādhyāyapravacane ca}}''", translated as "and learning and teaching" by Gambhīrānanda<ref>For Sanskrit text of ''Taittirīya Upanishad'' 1.9.1; translation of {{lang|sa|स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च}} (''svādhyāyapravacane ca'') as "and learning and teaching (are to be practiced)"; and comment that "''Svādhyāyaḥ'' is study (of the scriptures). ''Pravacanam'' is teaching (of the scriptures)", see: {{Harvnb|Gambhīrānanda|1986|pp=40–43}}.</ref>

In verse 1.11.1, the final chapter in the education of a student, the Taittiriya Upanishad reminds,<ref>For context as "the teacher gives the scholar who is departing on his life's journey", and translation of opening phrases of ''Taittirīya Upanishad'' 1.11, see: {{Harvnb|Winternitz|1972|p=259, vol. 1}}.</ref> {{blockquote| सत्यंवद । धर्मंचर । स्वाध्यायान्माप्रमदः । Speak the Satya, follow the Dharma, from ''Svadhyaya'' never cease.|Taittiriya Upanishad|1.11.1-2<ref>TN Raghavendra (2002), Vishnu Saharanama, {{ISBN|8190282727}}, page 197-198</ref><ref>For text and translation of ''Taittirīya Upanishad'' 1.11.1 phrase ''{{IAST|svādhyāyānmā}}'' (= ''{{IAST|svādhyāyāt}}'' "from study" + ''{{IAST|mā pramadaḥ}}'' "make no deviation") as "Make no mistake about study", see: {{Harvnb|Gambhīrānanda|1986|pp=47–48}}.</ref><ref>For translation of ''Taittirīya Upanishad'' 1.11.1 phrase as "Do not neglect study <nowiki>[</nowiki>of the Veda<nowiki>]</nowiki>", see: {{Harvnb|Zaehner|1966|p=136}}; For translation of ''Taittirīya Upanishad'' 1.11.1 phrase ''{{IAST|svādhyāyapravacanābhyāṁ na pramaditavyam}}'' as "Do not be negligent in the study and recitation <nowiki>[</nowiki>of the Veda<nowiki>]</nowiki>", see: {{Harvnb|Gambhīrānanda|1986|pp=47–48}}.</ref>}}

One of the earliest mention of Svādhyāya is found in Taittiriya Aranyaka 2.15: "{{IAST|svādhyayo-adhyetavyah}}" ("svādhyāya must be practiced"). Śatpath Brāhmana also repeats it.<ref>Monier-Williams</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2015}} Chandogya Upanishad verse 4.16.1-2 recommends both silent (''mānas'') and vocal (''vāchika'') types of svādhyāya.

===Other scriptures=== Patanjali's ''Yogasutra'', in verse II.44, recommends ''Svadhyaya'' as follows

{{blockquote| स्वाध्यायादिष्टदेवतासंप्रयोगः॥ Study thy self, discover the divine.|Patanjali’s Yogasutra|II.44<ref>Stephen Phillips (2009), ''Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231144858}}, page 209</ref>}}

Vishnu Smriti's verse 22.92, states that "human body is cleansed by water, the mind is cleansed by truth, the soul by self-study and meditation, while understanding is cleansed by knowledge".<ref>Original: [https://archive.org/stream/vishnusmriti#page/n75/mode/2up Vishnu Smriti], Verse 22.92, page 68 (in Sanskrit) Translation: [https://archive.org/stream/institutesvishn00jollgoog#page/n140/mode/2up Vishnu Smriti] Julius Jolly (Translator), Charles Scribner & Sons, Chapter XXII, Verse 92, page 97</ref>

Vasistha Dharmasastra verses 27.1 through 27.7 states that ''Svadhyaya'' helps an individual understand and overcome his past.<ref name=walter>W.O. Kaebler, Tapta-Marga: Asceticism and Initiation in Vedic India, State University of New York Press, pages 53-60, 112-115</ref> Apastamba Dharmasutra 1.4.12.1 states ''Svadhyaya'' is a form of ''Tapas''. This view is shared by Baudhayana Dharmasastra in verses 4.1.29 to 4.1.30, which adds that ‘‘svadhyaya is a means of getting past one’s past mistakes and any guilt”.<ref name=walter2>Walter O. Kaelber (1979), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269719 Tapas and Purification in Early Hinduism], Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2 (Dec., 1979), pages 192-214</ref> Baudhayana Dharmasastra describes ‘‘Svadhyaya’’, in verse 2.6.11, as the path to Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Spirit, Eternal Self).<ref name=walter/>

{{IAST|Svādhyāya}} is mentioned as one of the virtues in ''Bhagavad Gita'' 16.1.<ref>For text of BG 16.1 and translation of ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' as "study of the scriptures", see: {{Harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=779}}.</ref> ''Svadhyaya'' is mentioned a second time in ''Bhagavad Gita'' verse 17.15 as a component of the discipline of one's speech by which, states the verse, " speak words that are truthful, kind, helpful, and elevates those who hear it".<ref>For text of BG 17.15 and translation of ''{{IAST|svādhyāyābhyasanaṁ}}'' as "the practice of the study of scriptures" see: {{Harvnb|Gambhīrānanda|1997|pp=644–645}}.</ref><ref>Christopher Key Chapple (2009), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1-4384-2841-3}}, page 648</ref>

==Svadhyaya as a historical practice==

=== Learning one's Vedic recension === As a tool for memorization, ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' had a unique meaning for Vedic scholars as the principal tool for the oral preservation of the Vedas in their original form for millennia. When used as a formal part of scriptural study, ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' involves repeated recitations of scripture for purposes of mastering the mantras with their accurate pronunciation.<ref name=arya6>For traditional uses of ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' in the sense of repetition of scriptural mantras for purposes of memorization, see: {{Harvnb|Arya|1986|p=6}}.</ref>

The Vedas had not been committed to writing in ancient times. Almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years, not on the still-extant and superior oral tradition.<ref>Quotation of "... almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years, not on the still extant and superior oral tradition" is from: Witzel, M., "Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}}", in: {{Harvnb|Flood|2003|p=69}}.</ref> Monier Monier-Williams defines ''śruti'' as "sacred knowledge orally transmitted by the {{IAST|Brāhmans}} from generation to generations, the Veda".<ref>For definition of ''śruti'' as "sacred knowledge orally transmitted" see: {{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1899|p=1101}}.</ref> Michael Witzel explains this oral tradition as follows:

<blockquote> The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a ''tape-recording''.... Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present.<ref>For the quotation comparing recital to a "tape-recording" see: Witzel, M., "Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}}", in: {{Harvnb|Flood|2003|pp=68–69}}.</ref>" </blockquote>

The commentator Sāyana discusses this term in the introduction of his commentary on the ''{{IAST|Ṛgveda}}'', in which he says that ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' enables Vedic rituals (yājnika karmakānda) to take place.<ref>For text of Sāyana commentary as ''{{IAST|karma-kārana-bhūta-svādhyāya}}'' see: {{Harvnb|Sontakke|1972|p=19}}.</ref>

Madhva, the dualistic Vaishnava philosopher, defined philosophy as the three-stage process of understanding (''{{IAST|śravaṇa}}''), reflection (''{{IAST|manana}}''), and application (''{{IAST|nididhyāsana}}''), expressing itself in two forms: study (''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'') and teaching (''{{IAST|pravacana}}''). Of these two, Madhva considered teaching to be the highest aspect of discipline leading to {{IAST|mokṣa}}.<ref>For Madhva's threefold definition of philosophy and the twofold division of expression, see: Raghavendrachar, H. N., "Madhva's Brahma-Mīmāṁsā", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), volume 3, p. 330.</ref> Mādhavāchārya's views on svādhyāya are to be found in chapter 15 of Sarva-Darśana-Sangraha (cf. references).

The ''Taittirīya Upanishad'', which belongs to the ''Yajur Veda'', is still popular among those who learn Vedic chanting.<ref>For ''{{IAST|Taittirīya Upaniṣad}}'' as part of ''Yajur Veda'', and continued popularity with students of Vedic chant, see: {{Harvnb|Gambhīrānanda|1986|p=iv}}.</ref> Recitation of mantras (Japa) is an integral part of Bhakti Yoga, and in this tradition of Hinduism, it is sometimes called ''Japa Yoga''.<ref>Jennifer Munyer (2012), ''How Yoga Won the West, in Yoga-Philosophy for Everyone: Bending Mind and Body'' (Editors: Liz Swan and Fritz Allhoff), Wiley-Blackwell, {{ISBN|978-0-470-65880-2}}, pages 3-14</ref>

===Exceptions=== There are certain days on which ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' were prohibited, these were called ''{{IAST|anadhyāya}}'', after which ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' must be resumed on the following day; therefore the day of resumption is also called {{IAST|svādhyāya}}.<ref>Sanskrit English Dictionary of Monier-Williams</ref>

==Svadhyaya as a Niyama== thumb|Yoga meditation – a means to the virtue of Svadhyaya. Svādhyāya is one of the three key elements in the practice of yoga as defined in the ''Yoga Sutras of Patanjali'', appearing in the opening verse of Book two on spiritual practice and elaborated upon in two other verses.<ref>For Sanskrit text of verses 2.1, 2.32, and 2.44 and discussion as a key practice, see: {{Harvnb|Taimni|1961|pp=127–128, 220, 250}}.</ref> Patanjali mentions {{IAST|svādhyāya}} a second time as one of the five recommended observances (''niyamas''), along with purity, contentment, austerity, and self-surrender.<ref>For text and translation of YS 2.32, and translation of ''niyama'' as "observances", see: {{Harvnb|Taimni|1961|p=220}}.</ref> The five ''niyamas'', together with the five abstentions (''yamas''),<ref>For the five ''yamas'' or "restraints" as: abstention from injury (''{{IAST|ahiṁsā}}'', nonviolence), truthfulness (''satya''), non-stealing (''asteya''), control of the carnal desires and passions (''brahmacarya''), and non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts (''aparigraha''), see: {{Harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=302}}.</ref> have been described as "'the ten commandments' of the {{IAST|Sāṁkhya-Yoga}}."<ref>For quotation including ''{{IAST|svādhyāya}}'' in the comparison to the ten commandments, see: Hiriyanna, M., "The {{IAST|Sāṁkhya}}", in: {{Harvnb|Bhattacharyya|1956|p=49}}, volume 3.</ref>

The practice of Svadhyaya as a Niyama is perfected in many forms.<ref name=rsovik/> One form of Svadhyaya is mantra meditation, where certain sound constructs pregnant with meaning are recited, anchoring the mind to one thought. This practice helps draw the mind away from outward-going tendencies, silencing the crowding of thoughts, and ultimately towards inward feeling of resonance.<ref name=rsovik/> It can alternately be any music, sermon, chant, inspirational book that absorbs the person to a state of absorption, trance, unifying oneness.<ref name=gary>Gary Kraftsow, [http://www.yogajournal.com/article/philosophy/polishing-the-mirror/ Polishing the mirror], Yoga Journal, February 25, 2008</ref>

Svadhyaya is practiced as a self-reflection process, where one silently meditates, in Asana, on one's own behaviors, motivations and plans. Svadhyaya is, in a sense, for one's spirit and mind a process equivalent to watching one's body in a non-distorting mirror.<ref>G Kraftsow (2002), Yoga for Transformation: Ancient Teachings and Holistic Practices for Healing Body, Mind, and Heart, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0140196290}}, pages 22-27</ref> This self-study, in Yoga, is not merely contemplation of one's own motives and behaviors, but also of one's circumstances and the environment one is in, assessing where one is in one's life, what is one's life direction, if and how desirable changes may lead to a more fulfilling Self.<ref name=gary/><ref>Nina Markil, Hatha Yoga: Benefits and Principles for a More Meaningful Practice, ACSM'S Health & Fitness Journal, September/October 2010, 14(5): pp 19-24</ref><ref>Michelle Corrigan (2010), Your Quest for a Spiritual Life: Based on the Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, {{ISBN|978-1846942952}}, pages 33-34</ref>

== See also == Sanskrit and Vedic learning

==Notes== {{notelist}}

==References== {{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==

*{{Citation | last=Apte | first=Vaman Shivram | year=1965 | title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary | place=Delhi | publisher= Motilal Banarsidass | edition=Fourth Revised and Enlarged | isbn=81-208-0567-4 }} *{{Citation | last=Arya | first=Usharbudh | year=1986 | title=Yoga-Sūtras of Patañjali | place=Honesdale, Pennsylvania | publisher=The Himalayan International Institute | edition=Volume 1 | isbn=0-89389-092-8 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/yogasutrastransl00pata }} *{{Citation | editor-last=Bhattacharyya | editor-first =Haridas | year =1956 | title =The Cultural Heritage of India | place = Calcutta | publisher =The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture }}. Four volumes. *{{Citation |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Satischandra |last2=Datta| first2=Dhirendramohan |title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy |year=1984 |publisher=University of Calcutta |location=Calcutta |edition=Eighth Reprint }} *{{Citation |last=Chidbhavananda |first=Swami |title=The Bhagavad Gita |year=1997 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam }} *{{Citation | editor-last=Flood | editor-first =Gavin | year =2003 | title =The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism | publisher =Blackwell Publishing Ltd. | isbn =1-4051-3251-5 }} *{{Citation | last=Gambhīrānanda | first=Swami | year=1986 | title={{IAST|Taittirīya Upaniṣad}}: With the Commentary of {{IAST|Śaṅkarācārya}} | place=Calcutta | publisher= Advaita Ashrama | edition=Second }} *{{Citation | last=Gambhīrānanda | first=Swami | year=1997 | title=Bhagavad Gītā: With the commentary of {{IAST|Śaṅkarācārya}} | place=Calcutta | publisher= Advaita Ashrama | edition=Fourth Reprint | isbn=81-7505-041-1 }} *{{Citation | last=Karpātri | first=Swāmi | year=1979 | title=Vedārtha-Pārijāta | place=Calcutta | publisher=Śri Rādhā krishna Dhanuka Prakāśan Sansthān | ref=none }} Introduction by {{IAST|Pattābhirām Śāstri}}. Sanskrit and Hindi; Introduction has an English translation as well by Elliot M. Stern. Available from: {{IAST|Sañchālaka}}, {{IAST|Vedaśāstra}} Research Centre, {{IAST|Kedārghat}}, {{IAST|Vārānasi}}, India. *{{Citation | last=Macdonell | first=Arthur Anthony | author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell | year=1996 | title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary | place=Adyar, India | publisher= Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers | isbn=81-215-0715-4 }} *(Manusmriti) :{{ Citation | author = Translation by G. Bühler| title = Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manu (Vol. XXV)| publisher = Oxford | year = 1886| ref=none}} Available online as [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu.htm The Laws of Manu] *{{Citation | last =Monier-Williams | first =Monier | author-link =Monier Monier-Williams | year =1899 | title =A Sanskrit-English Dictionary | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | url =http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/ }}. *{{Citation | last=Pandey | first=Rajbali | year=1969 | title=Hindu {{IAST|Saṁskāras}}: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments | place=Delhi | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | edition=Second Revised | isbn=81-208-0434-1 | ref=none }} *{{Citation |last=Prabhavananda |first=Swami |author-link= Swami Prabhavananda|author2=Isherwood, Christopher|title=How To Know God|year=1953 |publisher=Vedanta Press |isbn=0-87481-041-8 |ref=none}} *{{Citation |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |author2=Moore |title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy |year=1967 |publisher=Princeton |isbn=0-691-01958-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh }} *{{Citation | last=Śāstri | first=Hargovinda | year=1978 | title={{IAST|Amarkoṣa}} with Hindi commentary | place=Vārānasi | publisher=Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office | ref=none }} *{{Citation | last =Sontakke | first =N. S. | editor-last=Sontakke | editor-first =N. S. | year =1972 | title ={{IAST|Rgveda-Samhitā: Śrimat-Sāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā}} | edition =First | publication-place =Pune | publisher ={{IAST|Vaidika Samśodhana Maṇḍala}} | editor2-last=Rājvade | editor2-first=V. K. }}. The editorial board for the First Edition included N. S. Sontakke (Managing Editor), V. K. {{IAST|Rājvade}}, M. M. {{IAST|Vāsudevaśāstri}}, and T. S. {{IAST|Varadarājaśarmā}}. This work is entirely in Sanskrit. *{{Citation | last=Taimni | first=I. K. | year=1961 | title=The Science of Yoga | place=Adyar, India | publisher= The Theosophical Publishing House | isbn=81-7059-212-7 }} *{{Citation |last=Winternitz |first=Maurice |title=History of Indian Literature |year=1972 |edition=Second revised reprint |publisher=Oriental Books Reprint Corporation |place=New Delhi }} Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta. *{{Citation | last=Zaehner | first=R. C. | year=1966 | title=Hindu Scriptures | place=London | publisher= Everyman's Library }} *{{Citation | last=Zaehner | first=R. C. | year=1969 | title=The Bhagavad Gītā | place=London | publisher= Oxford University Press | edition=Oxford Paperbacks | isbn=0-19-501666-1 | ref=none }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Svadhyaya}} Category:Hindu philosophical concepts Category:Yoga concepts Category:Vedas Category:Jain philosophical concepts Category:Jain ethics Category:Hindu ethics