Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages

{{short description|Subgroup of the Austronesian language family}} {{Infobox language family |name=Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands |altname=Barrier Islands–Batak, Sumatran |region=Sumatra, Indonesia |familycolor=Austronesian |fam2= Malayo-Polynesian |protoname=Proto-Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands (Proto-Sumatran) |glotto=nort2829 |glottorefname=Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands }}

The '''Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages''' (also '''Barrier Islands–Batak languages''' or '''Sumatran languages''') are a group of Malayo-Polynesian languages spoken by the Batak and related peoples in the interior of North Sumatra and by the Nias, Mentawai people, and others on the Barrier islands (Simeulue, Nias, and Mentawai Islands Regency) off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.

==Classification== The languages of the Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands subgroup are:

*Gayo *Batak languages *Simeulue *Nias–Sikule *Mentawai *Enggano (?)

This subgroup was first proposed by Lafeber (1922), who called it "Batak-Nias".<ref name=Lafeber1922>{{cite book |last=Lafeber |first=Abraham |title=Vergelijkende klankleer van het Niasisch |year=1922 |location=s'-Gravenhage |publisher=Hadi Poestaka |url=https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=MMKB02A:000030153:00001}}</ref> Nothofer (1986) presented lexical and phonological evidence in support of this subgroup, calling it "Barrier Islands–Batak".<ref name=Nothofer1986>Nothofer, Bernd (1986). "The Barrier Island Languages in the Austronesian Language Family". In Geraghty, P., Carrington, L. and Wurm, S.A. (eds.) ''Focal II: Papers From the Fourth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics'', pp. 87–109. Pacific Linguistics, Series C, No. 94, Canberra, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University.</ref>

The position of the highly divergent Enggano language is controversial. Both Lafeber (1922) and Nothofer (1986) include Enggano as a probable daughter language.<ref name=Lafeber1922/><ref name=Nothofer1986/> This is rejected by Edwards (2015) who considers Enggano a primary branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages.<ref name=Edwards2015>Edwards, Owen (2015). "The Position of Enggano within Austronesian". ''Oceanic Linguistics 54''(1): 54–109</ref> Recent research by Smith (2017) however supports the inclusion of Enggano within his tentative "Sumatran" subgroup, which is an extended version of Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands that further includes the Nasal language spoken in Bengkulu in southwestern Sumatra.<ref name=Smith2017>Smith, Alexander D. (2017). "The Western Malayo-Polynesian Problem". ''Oceanic Linguistics 56''(2): 435–490</ref> Smith's proposal is supported by Billings & McDonnell (2022) who classify the Sumatran languages as follows:<ref name="Billings McDonnell 2022">Billings, Blaine; McDonnell, Bradley. 2022. ''[https://seals31.sched.com/event/11Uwj/subgrouping-malayo-polynesian-languages-of-sumatra-and-the-barrier-islands Subgrouping Malayo-Polynesian languages of Sumatra and the Barrier Islands]''. Presentation given at the 31st Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 31), University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, May 18–20, 2022. ([https://static.sched.com/hosted_files/seals31/d1/2022_seals_proto_sumatran.pdf slides])</ref>

*Batak languages * Northern Barrier Islands (Simeulue) * Central Barrier Islands (Sikule, Nias) * Mentawai *Gayo *Nasal *Enggano

As phonological evidence for the inclusion of these languages with the Sumatran subgroup they propose:<ref name="Billings McDonnell 2022"/>

;Mergers #PMP *j, *g > Proto-Sumatran *g #PMP *z, *d > Proto-Sumatran *d #PMP *ñ, *n > Proto-Sumatran *n #PMP *R, *r > Proto-Sumatran *r #PMP *h > Proto-Sumatran zero

;Shift (sound change) #PMP *q > Proto-Sumatran *h

==Lexicon== Edwards (2015: 78)<ref name=Edwards2015/> provides the following table comparing body part vocabulary items across various languages of the Barrier Islands. Edwards (2015: 89) considers the aberrant Enggano language as not part of the Barrier Islands-Batak languages. {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Gloss !! PMP !! Enggano !! Mentawai !! Nias !! Sikule !! Simeulue |- | head || *qulu|| {{Lang|eno|e-(ʔ)udu}} || {{Lang|mwv|uteʔ}} || {{Lang|nia|həɡə}} || {{Lang|skh|tuhu}} || {{Lang|smr|ulu}} |- | hair, head || *buhek || {{Lang|eno|e-pududui}} || {{Lang|mwv|alai}} || {{Lang|nia|bu}} || {{Lang|skh|bu}} || {{Lang|smr|buʔ}} |- | face || *daqih || {{Lang|eno|e-baka}} || {{Lang|mwv|mata}} || {{Lang|nia|bava}} || {{Lang|skh|muko}} || {{Lang|smr|bobaŋon}} |- | eye || *mata || {{Lang|eno|e-baka}} || {{Lang|mwv|mata}} || {{Lang|nia|hərə}} || {{Lang|skh|mata}} || {{Lang|smr|mata}} |- | nose || *ijuŋ || {{Lang|eno|ẽ-pãnũ}} || {{Lang|mwv|asak}} || {{Lang|nia|ixu}} || {{Lang|skh|nixu}} || {{Lang|smr|ixuŋ}} |- | mouth || *baqbaq || {{Lang|eno|e-kaʔa}} || {{Lang|mwv|ŋaŋa}} || {{Lang|nia|bava}} || {{Lang|skh|bafa}} || {{Lang|smr|ba(ʔ)ba}} |- | lips || *biRbiR || {{Lang|eno|e-ukudipo}} || {{Lang|mwv|bibo}} || {{Lang|nia|beve}} || {{Lang|skh|befe}} || {{Lang|smr|befil}} |- | tongue || *dilaq || {{Lang|eno|e-dio†}} || {{Lang|mwv|lila}}, {{Lang|mwv|ʤala}} || {{Lang|nia|lela}} || {{Lang|skh|l/nela}} || {{Lang|smr|dila}} |- | tooth || *nipen || {{Lang|eno|e-kaʔa}} || {{Lang|mwv|ʧon}} || {{Lang|nia|ifɨ}} || {{Lang|skh|ifɨ}} || {{Lang|smr|ehen}} |- | ear || *taliŋa || {{Lang|eno|e-kadiha}} || {{Lang|mwv|taliŋa}} || {{Lang|nia|taliŋa}} || {{Lang|skh|ɡuɡuyu}} || {{Lang|smr|(k)oeuʔ}} |- | neck || *liqeR || {{Lang|eno|ẽ-ũʔũ}} || {{Lang|mwv|lolokat}} || {{Lang|nia|baɡi}} || {{Lang|skh|ʔoɡu}} || {{Lang|smr|leŋɡəl}} |- | hand || *kamay/*lima || {{Lang|eno|e-ʔapo}} || {{Lang|mwv|kabei}} || {{Lang|nia|bələxa}}, {{Lang|nia|taŋa}} || {{Lang|skh|taŋa}} || {{Lang|smr|kaoʔ}}, {{Lang|smr|siʔu}} |- | fingernail || *kanuhkuh || {{Lang|eno|ẽ-kanũʔũnũ}} || {{Lang|mwv|sulet}} || {{Lang|nia|siʔa}} || {{Lang|skh|tena}} || {{Lang|smr|tenab˺}} |- | breast || *titi(q)/*susu || {{Lang|eno|e-koko}} || {{Lang|mwv|tottot}} || {{Lang|nia|susu}} || {{Lang|skh|totoʔ}} || {{Lang|smr|totuʔ}} |- | belly || *tian || {{Lang|eno|e-kitai}} || {{Lang|mwv|baɣa}} || {{Lang|nia|talu}} || {{Lang|skh|amatan}} || {{Lang|smr|besil}} |- | leg || *qaqay || {{Lang|eno|e-ae}} || {{Lang|mwv|dere}} || {{Lang|nia|ahe}} || {{Lang|skh|ae}} || {{Lang|smr|haɨ}} |- | knee || *tuhud || {{Lang|eno|ẽ-pũʔũ u-ae}} || {{Lang|mwv|bókolo}} || {{Lang|nia|tuhi}} || {{Lang|skh|bohun}} || {{Lang|smr|boxul}} |- | hair, body || *bulu || {{Lang|eno|e-pududui}} || {{Lang|mwv|bulu}} || {{Lang|nia|bu}} || {{Lang|skh|bu}} || {{Lang|smr|buʔ}} |- | skin || *kulit || {{Lang|eno|e-ʔudi}} || {{Lang|mwv|kulit}} || {{Lang|nia|uli}} || {{Lang|skh|bebi}} || {{Lang|smr|bebiʔ}} |- | meat/flesh || *hesi || {{Lang|eno|e-heda}} || {{Lang|mwv|akkelak}} || {{Lang|nia|naɡole}} || {{Lang|skh|ö(h)i}} || {{Lang|smr|isi}} |- | fat/grease || *miñak/*himaR || {{Lang|eno|ẽ-mĩnãʔã‡}} || {{Lang|mwv|lainak}} || {{Lang|nia|tavə}} || {{Lang|skh|tafɨ}} || {{Lang|smr|tafɨ}} |- | bone || *tuqelaŋ || {{Lang|eno|e-ʔaa}} || {{Lang|mwv|tolat}} || {{Lang|nia|təla}} || {{Lang|skh|tɨ/öla}} || {{Lang|smr|sod˺}} |- | heart || *pusuq || {{Lang|eno|e-báhau}}, {{Lang|eno|ẽ-kẽmã}} || {{Lang|mwv|teinuŋ}} || {{Lang|nia|tədə}} || {{Lang|skh|ɨlaxa}}, {{Lang|skh|oho}} || {{Lang|smr|ate}} |- | blood || *daRaq || {{Lang|eno|e-kiaki}} || {{Lang|mwv|loɣau}} || {{Lang|nia|do}} || {{Lang|skh|do}} || {{Lang|smr|dala}} |- | liver || *qatay || {{Lang|eno|ẽ-nĩũnĩũ}} || {{Lang|mwv|atei}} || {{Lang|nia|ate}} || || {{Lang|smr|bala}} |- | urine || *iheq || {{Lang|eno|ẽ-ĩkõ}} || {{Lang|mwv|kia}} || {{Lang|nia|iə}} || {{Lang|skh|xiɨ}} || {{Lang|smr|k/xiɨ}} |- | excrement || *taqi || {{Lang|eno|e-kai}} || {{Lang|mwv|tanai}} || {{Lang|nia|tai}} || {{Lang|skh|tai}} || {{Lang|smr|tai}} |}

Proto-Sumatran lexical innovations listed by Billings & McDonnell (2022) are:<ref name="Billings McDonnell 2022"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" ! English gloss !! Proto-Sumatran !! Pre-Gayo !! Proto-Batak languages !! Proto-Northern Barrier Islands !! Proto-Central Barrier Islands !! Pre-Mentawai !! Nasal |- | friend || *alay || || *aley || *alay || *le || *aley || |- | to kiss || *aŋgəh || || *aŋgəh || *aŋkə || *ago || || |- | ginger || *bahiŋ || || *bahiŋ || *baiŋ || || || |- | heron || *baruŋ || || *baruŋ || *baluŋ || || || |- | bat || *bəŋkik || || *bəŋkik || *bəŋiʔ || *bəgi || || |- | maggot || *bərŋay || || *bərŋey || *bəŋay || || || |- | mountain || *dələg || || *dələg || *dələk || *lələ || *lelew || |- | nest || *hasar || *asay || *asar || || || || {{Lang|nsy|hasal}} |- | sibling in law || *lakun || *lakun || || *laʔun || *laʔo || *lakun || |- | one || *sada || *sara || *sada || *sara || *sara || *sara || |- | snail || *ciəh || || *cih || || || || {{Lang|nsy|siyuh}} |- | roof || *tarub || || *tarub || *talup || || || |- | low || *təruh || *tuyuh || *təruh || *təlu || *tou || || |- | midday || *tigər || || *tigər || *tikəl || *sixo || || |- | smoke || *timbər || || *timbər || *timbəl || *simbo || *timbo || |- | to ask for || *tindaw || *tiro || || *tindaw || *sində || *tidow || |- | rattan || *puləgəs || || *puləgəs || || || *pulege || |}

==References== {{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Northwest Sumatra-Barrier Islands languages}} Category:Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages Category:Languages of Sumatra Category:North Sumatra