{{short description|First sacred canonical text of Hinduism}} {{about|the collection of Vedic hymns|the manga series|RG Veda{{!}}''RG Veda''}} {{protection padlock|small=yes}} {{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}} {{italic title}} {{Infobox religious text | religion = [[Historical Vedic religion]]<br />[[Hinduism]] | image = Rigveda MS2097.jpg | caption = ''Rigveda'' (padapāṭha) manuscript in [[Devanāgarī]], early 19th century. After a scribal benediction (''śrīgaṇéśāyanamaḥ oṁ''), the first line has the first pada, RV 1.1.1a (''agniṃ iḷe puraḥ-hitaṃ yajñasya devaṃ ṛtvijaṃ'' – "I praise [[Agni]], the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice"). The pitch-accent is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red. | image_size = 280px | alt = | language = [[Vedic Sanskrit]] | period = [[wikt:circa|c.]] 1500{{ndash}}1000 BCE{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} ([[Vedic period]]) | chapters = 10 mandalas | sutras = | verses = 10,552 mantras<ref>{{cite web |title=Construction of the Vedas |url=https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717035126/https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true |archive-date=17 July 2021 |access-date=3 July 2020 |website=VedicGranth.Org}}</ref> |background=#FFC569}}
{{Hindu scriptures}} The '''''Rigveda''''' or '''''Rig Veda''''' ({{langx|sa|[[wikt:ऋग्वेद|ऋग्वेद]]}}, {{IAST3|ṛgvedá}}, from [[wikt:ऋच्|ऋच्]], "praise"<ref>Derived from the root ''{{IAST|ṛc}}'' "to praise", cf. Dhātupātha 28.19. [[Monier-Williams]] translates ''Rigveda'' as "a Veda of Praise or Hymn-Veda".</ref> and [[wikt:वेद|वेद]], "knowledge") is an [[ancient Indian]] [[Miscellany|collection]] of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] [[hymn]]s (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical [[Hindu texts]] (''[[śruti]]'') known as the [[Vedas]].{{sfn|Witzel|1997|pp=259–264}}<ref>Antonio de Nicholas (2003), ''Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man'', New York: Authors Choice Press, {{ISBN|978-0-595-26925-9}}, p. 273</ref> Only one [[Shakha]] of the many survive today, namely the [[Shakala Shakha|Śakalya]] Shakha. Much of the contents contained in the remaining Shakhas are now lost or are not available in the public forum.<ref name=":0" />
The ''Rigveda'' is the oldest known [[Vedic Sanskrit]] text.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|p=3}} Its early layers are among the oldest extant texts in any [[Indo-European language]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin F. |title=The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yivABQAAQBAJ&pg=PT565 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4299-9598-6 |pages=565{{ndash}}566 |access-date=6 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907142747/https://books.google.com/books?id=yivABQAAQBAJ&pg=PT565 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|According to Edgar Polomé, the Hittite language [[Anitta (king)|Anitta]] text from the 17th century BCE is older. This text is about the conquest of Kanesh city of Anatolia. Other Hittite texts mention gods which Polomé identifies as being analogous to those mentioned in the ''Rigveda'', such as [[Tarḫunna]] being similar to the Vedic [[Indra]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Polomé |first=Edgar |editor-last=Per Sture Ureland |title=Entstehung von Sprachen und Völkern: glotto- und ethnogenetische Aspekte europäischer Sprachen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9su8E8eOsgC&pg=PA51 |url-status=live |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2010 |page=51 |access-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907142751/https://books.google.com/books?id=T9su8E8eOsgC&pg=PA51 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |isbn=978-3-11-163373-2}}</ref>}} Most scholars believe that the sounds and texts of the ''Rigveda'' have been orally transmitted with precision since the 2nd millennium BCE,{{sfn|Wood|2007}}{{sfn|Hexam|2011|p=chapter 8}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2013}} through [[Indian mathematics#Styles of memorisation|methods of memorisation]] of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity,<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Vedas and Upaniṣads |last= Witzel |first=Michael |editor=Gavin Flood | pages=68–71 |title=The Blackwell companion to Hinduism |date=2005 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Oxford |isbn=1-4051-3251-5 |edition=1st paperback}}: "The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a ''tape-recording'' of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present"</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Staal|first1=Frits|author-link=Frits Staal|year=1986|title=The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science|publisher=Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Filliozat|first1=Pierre-Sylvain|year=2004|chapter=Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature|pages=360–375|editor1-last=Chemla|editor1-first=Karine |editor1-link=Karine Chemla|editor2-last=Cohen |editor2-first=Robert S.|editor3-last=Renn|editor3-first=Jürgen|display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Gavroglu|editor4-first=Kostas|title=History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science)|publisher=Springer Netherlands|location=Dordrecht, Netherlands |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7|isbn=978-1-4020-2320-0}}</ref> though the dates are not confirmed and remain contentious until concrete evidence surfaces.{{sfn|Jamison|Brereton|2014|p=5-7}} [[Philological]] and [[Historical linguistics|linguistic]] evidence indicates that the bulk of the ''Rigveda'' Samhita was composed in the northwestern region of the [[Indian subcontinent]] (see [[Rigvedic rivers]]), most likely between {{circa}} 1500 and 1000 BCE,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p= 37}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p= 454}}{{sfn|Witzel|2019|p=11|ps=: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the ''Rig Veda'' for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The ''Rig Veda'' is a late Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE. However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the ''Rig Veda'' cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into account a period needed for linguistic change, it may not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE."}} although a wider approximation of {{circa}} 1900{{ndash}}1200 BCE has also been given.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=158}}<ref name="Lucas F. Johnston, Whitney Bauman 2014 179">{{cite book |last=Lucas F. Johnston, Whitney Bauman |title=Science and Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |page=179}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}}
The text is layered, consisting of the ''Samhita'', ''Brahmanas'', ''Aranyakas'' and ''Upanishads''.{{refn|group=note|The associated material has been preserved from two [[Shakha|śākhā]]s or "schools", known as {{IPA|[[Shakala Shakha|Śākalya]]}} and {{IPA|Bāṣkala}}. The school-specific commentaries are known as [[Brahmana]]s (''[[Aitareya-brahmana]]'' and ''[[Kaushitaki-brahmana]]'') [[Aranyaka]]s (''Aitareya-aranyaka'' and ''Kaushitaki-aranyaka''), and [[Upanishads]] (partly excerpted from the Aranyakas: ''Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad'', [[Aitareya Upanishad|Aitareya-upanishad]], ''Samhita-upanishad'', ''[[Kaushitaki Upanishad|Kaushitaki-upanishad]]'').}} The ''Rigveda Samhita'' is the core text and is a collection of 10 books (''{{IAST|maṇḍala}}''s) with 1,028 hymns (''{{IAST|sūkta}}''s) in about 10,600 verses (called ''{{IAST|ṛc}}'', eponymous of the name ''Rigveda''). In the eight books{{snd}}Books 2 through 9{{snd}}that were composed the earliest, the hymns predominantly discuss [[cosmology]], rites required to earn the favour of the [[Deity|gods]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Bauer |first=Susan Wise |author-link=Susan Wise Bauer |title=The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome |publisher=[[W. W. Norton]] |location=New York |edition=1st |year=2007 |pages=265 |isbn=978-0-393-05974-8}}</ref> as well as praise them.<ref>Werner, Karel (1994). ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism''. Curzon Press. {{ISBN|0-7007-1049-3}}.</ref>{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=4, 7{{ndash}}9}} The more recent books (Books 1 and 10) in part also deal with philosophical or speculative questions,{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=4, 7{{ndash}}9}} virtues such as ''[[dāna]]'' (charity) in society,<ref name=chatterjee3>C Chatterjee (1995), [https://archive.today/20150415005506/http://jhv.sagepub.com/content/1/1/3.short Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview], Journal of Human Values, Vol 1, No 1, pp. 3{{ndash}}12;<br>Original text translated in English: [[s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 117|The Rig Veda]], Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T. H. Griffith (Translator);</ref> questions about the origin of the universe and the nature of the divine,<ref name=3translations/><ref>Examples:<br>'''Verse 1.164.34''', "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?"<br>'''Verse 1.164.34''', "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?"<br>'''Verse 1.164.5''', "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?"<br>'''Verse 1.164.6''', "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?";<br>'''Verse 1.164.20''' (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.";<br>[[s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164|Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164]] Wikisource;<br>See translations of these verses: {{harvp|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014}}</ref> and other metaphysical issues in their hymns.<ref name=metaphysics>Antonio de Nicholas (2003), ''Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man'', New York: Authors Choice Press, {{ISBN|978-0-595-26925-9}}, pp. 64{{ndash}}69;<br>[[Jan Gonda]] (1975), ''A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}, pp. 134{{ndash}}135.</ref>
The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to the most archaic poems of the [[Iran]]ian and [[Greek language]] families, the ''[[Gatha (Zoroaster)|Gathas]]'' of old [[Avestan]] and ''[[Iliad]]'' of [[Homer]].<ref name="Lowe2015-IE"/> The Rigveda's preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language [[Proto-Indo-European]].<ref name="Lowe2015-IE">{{cite book|last=Lowe|first=John J.|title=Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L07CBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100505-3|pages=2– |quote=The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families. Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable. Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance.}}</ref> Some of its verses continue to be recited during Hindu prayer and celebration of [[sanskara (rite of passage)|rites of passage]] (such as [[wedding]]s), making it probably the world's oldest [[religious text]] in continued use.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Klaus Klostermaier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-1QJMu80UIC&pg=PA6 |title=Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-88920-158-3 |page=6 |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |access-date=3 February 2016 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907142837/https://books.google.com/books?id=J-1QJMu80UIC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Lester Kurtz (2015), ''Gods in the Global Village'', SAGE Publications, {{ISBN|978-1-4833-7412-3}}, p. 64, Quote: "The 1,028 hymns of the Rigveda are recited at initiations, weddings and funerals...."</ref>
==Dating and historical context== {{further|Historical Vedic religion|Vedic period|Proto-Indo-Aryan}} [[File:Early Vedic Culture (1700-1100 BCE).png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of tribes and [[Rigvedic rivers|rivers]] mentioned in the ''Rigveda''.]]
===Dating=== According to Jamison and Brereton, in their 2014 translation of the ''Rigveda'', the dating of this text "has been and is likely to remain a matter of contention and reconsideration". The dating proposals so far are all inferred from the style and the content within the hymns themselves.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=5{{ndash}}6}} Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium BCE.{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} Being composed in an early [[Old Indo-Aryan|Indo-Aryan]] language, the hymns must post-date the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian|Indo-Iranian]] separation, dated to roughly 2000 BCE.{{sfn|Mallory|1989}} A reasonable date close to that of the composition of the core of the ''Rigveda'' is that of the [[Mitanni]] documents of northern Syria and Iraq ({{circa|1450}}{{ndash}}1350 BCE), which also mention the Vedic gods such as Varuna, Mitra and Indra.<ref name=Witzel2003/><ref>"As a possible date ad quem for the RV one usually adduces the Hittite-Mitanni agreement of the middle of the 14th cent. B.C. which mentions four of the major Rgvedic gods: mitra, varuNa, indra and the nAsatya azvin)" [http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104a.txt M. Witzel, Early Sanskritization – Origin and development of the Kuru state] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105185651/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104a.txt |date=5 November 2011}}</ref> Some scholars have suggested that the Rig Veda was composed on the banks of a river in Haraxvaiti province in southern [[Afghanistan]] ([[Persian language|Persian]]: Harahvati; [[Sanskrit]]: Sarasvati; possibly the [[Helmand Province|Helmand]] or [[Arghandab District, Kandahar|Arghandab]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kochhar |first=Rajesh |url=https://ehrafarchaeology.yale.edu/document?id=aq47-001 |title=The Vedic people: their history and geography |date=1997 |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=978-81-250-1384-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBXLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT8 |title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |date=2015-06-01 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5214-118-0 |language=en}}</ref> Other evidence also points to a composition date close to 1400 BCE.<ref>Kochar, Rajesh (2000), ''The Vedic People: Their History and Geography'', Orient Longman {{ISBN|81-250-1384-9}}</ref><ref>Rigveda and River Saraswati: [http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/306/contrasarav.htm class.uidaho.edu] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805172651/http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/306/contrasarav.htm |date=5 August 2009}}</ref> The earliest texts were composed in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, and the more philosophical later texts were most likely composed in or around the region that is the modern era state of [[Haryana]].{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|p=5}}
The ''Rigveda''{{'}}s core is accepted to date to the late [[Bronze Age]], making it one of the few examples with an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between {{circa|1500}} and 1000 BCE.{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} According to [[Michael Witzel]], the codification of the ''Rigveda'' took place at the end of the Rigvedic period between {{circa|1200}} and 1000 BCE, in the early [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]] kingdom.{{sfn|Witzel|2019|p=11|ps=: "Incidentally, the Indo-Aryan loanwords in Mitanni confirm the date of the ''Rig Veda'' for ca. 1200–1000 BCE. The ''Rig Veda'' is a late Bronze age text, thus from before 1000 BCE. However, the Mitanni words have a form of Indo-Aryan that is slightly older than that ... Clearly the ''Rig Veda'' cannot be older than ca. 1400, and taking into account a period needed for linguistic change, it may not be much older than ca. 1200 BCE."}} [[Asko Parpola]] argues that the ''Rigveda'' was systematized around 1000 BCE, at the time of the Kuru kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |author-link=Asko Parpola |title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DagXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT149 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |page=149 |isbn=978-0-19-022693-0}}</ref>
No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meier-Brügger|first=Michael|title=Indo-European Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC|year=2003|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-017433-5|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329134206/https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Macdonell |first=Arthur|title=A History Of Sanskrit Literature|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4179-0619-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Keith |first=A. Berriedale |author-link=Arthur Berriedale Keith |title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C |year=1996 |orig-year=First published 1920 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1100-3 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118074240/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Historical and societal context=== The ''Rigveda'' is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the centre of attention of [[Western world|Western]] scholarship from the times of [[Max Müller]] and [[Rudolf Roth]] onwards. The ''Rigveda'' records an early stage of [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]]. There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities with the [[Early Iranian languages|early Iranian]] [[Avesta]],<ref>{{harvcolnb|Oldenberg|1894}} (tr. Shrotri), p. 14 "The Vedic diction has a great number of favourite expressions which are common with the Avestic, though not with later Indian diction. In addition, there is a close resemblance between them in metrical form, in fact, in their overall poetic character. If it is noticed that whole Avesta verses can be easily translated into the Vedic alone by virtue of comparative phonetics, then this may often give, not only correct Vedic words and phrases, but also the verses, out of which the soul of Vedic poetry appears to speak."</ref><ref>{{harvcolnb|Bryant|2001|pp=130{{ndash}}131}} "The oldest part of the Avesta... is linguistically and culturally very close to the material preserved in the Rigveda... There seems to be economic and religious interaction and perhaps rivalry operating here, which justifies scholars in placing the Vedic and Avestan worlds in close chronological, geographical and cultural proximity to each other not far removed from a joint Indo-Iranian period."</ref> deriving from the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] times,<ref>{{harvcolnb|Mallory|1989}} p. 36 "Probably the least-contested observation concerning the various Indo-European dialects is that those languages grouped together as Indic and Iranian show such remarkable similarities with one another that we can confidently posit a period of Indo-Iranian unity..."</ref> often associated with the early [[Andronovo culture]] of {{Circa|2000 BCE}}.<ref>{{harvcolnb|Mallory|1989}} "The identification of the Andronovo culture as Indo-Iranian is commonly accepted by scholars."</ref>
The ''Rigveda'' offers no direct evidence of social or political systems in the Vedic era, whether ordinary or elite.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=57{{ndash}}59}} Only hints such as [[cattle]] raising and [[horse racing]] are discernible, and the text offers very general ideas about the ancient Indian society. There is no evidence, state Jamison and Brereton, of any elaborate, pervasive or structured [[caste system]].{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=57{{ndash}}59}} Social stratification seems embryonic, then and later a social ideal rather than a social reality.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=57{{ndash}}59}} The society was semi-nomadic and pastoral with evidence of agriculture since hymns mention plow and celebrate agricultural divinities.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=6{{ndash}}7}} There was division of labor and a complementary relationship between kings and poet-priests but no discussion of a relative status of social classes.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=57{{ndash}}59}} Women in the ''Rigveda'' appear disproportionately as speakers in dialogue hymns, both as mythical or [[Divinity|divine]] [[Indrani]], [[Apsara]]s [[Urvashi|Urvasi]], or [[Yamuna in Hinduism|Yami]], as well as Apāla Ātreyī (RV 8.91), Godhā (RV 10.134.6), Ghoṣā Kākṣīvatī (RV 10.39.40), Romaśā (RV 1.126.7), [[Lopamudra|Lopāmudrā]] (RV 1.179.1{{ndash}}2), Viśvavārā Ātreyī (RV 5.28), Śacī Paulomī (RV 10.159), Śaśvatī Āṅgirasī (RV 8.1.34). The women of the ''Rigveda'' are quite outspoken and appear more sexually confident than men, in the text.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=57{{ndash}}59}} Elaborate and aesthetic hymns on wedding suggest rites of passage had developed during the Rigvedic period.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=57{{ndash}}59}} There is little evidence of [[dowry]] and no evidence of [[Sati (practice)|sati]] in it or related Vedic texts.<ref>Michael Witzel (1996), "Little Dowry, No Sati: The Lot of Women in the Vedic Period", ''Journal of South Asia Women Studies'', Vol 2, No 4</ref>
The Rigvedic hymns mention [[Asian rice|rice]] and porridge, in hymns such as 8.83, 8.70, 8.77 and 1.61 in some versions of the text;{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=40, 180, 1150, 1162}} however, there is no discussion of rice cultivation.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=6{{ndash}}7}} The term ''áyas'' (metal) occurs in the ''Rigveda'', but it is unclear which metal it was.<ref>Chakrabarti, D.K., ''The Early Use of Iron in India'' (1992, [[Oxford University Press]]) argues that it may refer to any metal. If ''ayas'' refers to iron, the ''Rigveda'' must date to the late second millennium at the earliest.</ref> Iron is not mentioned in ''Rigveda'', something scholars have used to help date ''Rigveda'' to have been composed before 1000 BCE.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|p=5}} Hymn 5.63 mentions "metal cloaked in gold", suggesting that metalworking had progressed in the Vedic culture.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|p=744}}
Some of the names of [[Rigvedic deities|gods and goddesses]] found in the ''Rigveda'' are found amongst other belief systems based on [[Proto-Indo-European religion]], while most of the words used share common [[Proto-Indo-European root|roots]] with words from other [[Indo-European languages]].{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=50{{ndash}}57}} However, about 300 words in the ''Rigveda'' are neither Indo-Aryan nor Indo-European, states the Sanskrit and Vedic literature scholar [[Frits Staal]].<ref name="Staal2008p23" /> Of these 300, many{{snd}}such as ''kapardin'', ''kumara'', ''kumari'', ''kikata''{{snd}}come from [[Munda languages|Munda or proto-Munda languages]] found in the eastern and northeastern (Assamese) region of India, with roots in [[Austroasiatic languages]]. The others in the list of 300{{snd}}such as ''mleccha'' and ''nir''{{snd}}have [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] roots found in the southern region of India, or are of Tibeto-Burman origins. A few non-Indo-European words in the ''Rigveda''{{snd}}such as for camel, mustard and donkey{{snd}}belong to a possibly lost Central Asian language.<ref name="Staal2008p23">{{Cite book |last=Frits Staal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC |title=Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights |publisher=Penguin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-309986-4 |pages=23{{ndash}}24 |access-date=19 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143308/https://books.google.com/books?id=HcE23SjLX8sC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="HockBashir2016">{{Cite book |last=Franklin C Southworth |title=The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia |year=2016 |isbn=978-3-11-042330-3 |editor-last=Hock |editor-first=Hans Henrich |editor-link=Hans Henrich Hock |pages=241–374 |doi=10.1515/9783110423303-004 |editor-last2=Bashir |editor-first2=Elena |editor-link2=Elena Bashir}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The [[horse]] ([[ashva]]), [[cattle]], sheep and goat play an important role in the ''Rigveda''. There are also references to the [[elephant]] ([[Hastin]], Varana), [[camel]] (Ustra, especially in [[Mandala 8]]), ass (khara, rasabha), [[Domestic buffalo|buffalo]] (Mahisa), [[wolf]], [[hyena]], [[lion]] (Simha), mountain goat (sarabha) and to the [[gaur]] in the ''Rigveda''.<ref>Among others, Macdonell and Keith, and Talageri 2000, Lal 2005</ref> The [[peafowl]] (mayura), the goose ([[hamsa (bird)|hamsa]]) and the [[chakravaka]] (''[[Tadorna ferruginea]]'') are some birds mentioned in the ''Rigveda''.}} The linguistic sharing provides clear indications, states Michael Witzel, that the people who spoke Rigvedic Sanskrit already knew and interacted with Munda and Dravidian speakers.<ref name="Erdosy2012p98">{{Cite book |last=Michael Witzel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ |title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2012 |isbn=978-3-11-081643-3 |editor-last=George Erdosy |pages=98{{ndash}}110 with footnotes}}, Quote (p. 99): "Although the Middle/Late Vedic periods are the earliest for which we can reconstruct a linguistic map, the situation even at the time of the Indua Civilisation and certainly during the time of the ''earliest texts of the Rigveda'', cannot have been very different. There are clear indications that the speakers of Rigvedic Sanskrit knew, and interacted with, Dravidian and Munda speakers."</ref>
==Text==
===Composition=== The "family books" (2{{ndash}}7) are associated with various clans and chieftains, containing hymns by members of the same clan in each book; but other clans are also represented in the ''Rigveda''. The family books are associated with specific regions, and mention prominent [[Bharatas (tribe)|Bharata]] and Pūru kings.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=262}}
Tradition associates a [[rishi]] (the composer) with each {{IAST|ṛc}} (verse) of the ''Rigveda''. Most sūktas are attributed to single composers;{{refn|group=note|Semi-mythical [[divine inspiration|divinely inspired]] maha[[rishi]]s are believed to have composed the Rigvedic hymns. The main contributors were [[Angiras]], [[Kanva]], [[Vasishtha]], and [[Vishvamitra]]. Among the other celebrated authors are [[Atri]], [[Bhrigu]], [[Kashyapa]], [[Gritsamada]], [[Agastya]], [[Bharadvaja]], as well as female sages [[Lopamudra]] and [[Ghosha]]. In a few cases, more than one rishi is given, signifying lack of certainty.}} for each of them the ''Rigveda'' includes a lineage-specific ''{{IAST|āprī}}'' hymn (a special sūkta of rigidly formulaic structure, used for rituals). In all, 10 families of rishis account for more than 95 per cent of the {{IAST|ṛc}}s.
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! Book !! Clan !! Region{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=262}} |- | [[Mandala 2]] || [[Gritsamada|Gṛtsamāda]] || NW, Punjab |- | [[Mandala 3]] || [[Viśvāmitra]] || Punjab, Sarasvatī |- | [[Mandala 4]] || Vāmadeva || NW, Punjab |- | [[Mandala 5]] || [[Atri]] || NW → Punjab → Yamunā |- | [[Mandala 6]] || Bharadvāja || NW, Punjab, Sarasvati; → Gaṅgā |- | [[Mandala 7]] || [[Vasiṣṭha]] || Punjab, Sarasvati; → Yamunā |- | [[Mandala 8]] || [[Kaṇva]] and Āṅgirasa || NW, Punjab |}
===Collection and organisation=== The codification of the ''Rigveda'' took place late in the Rigvedic or rather in the early post-Rigvedic period at {{Circa|1200 BCE}}, by members of the early [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]] tribe, when the centre of Vedic culture moved east from the Punjab into what is now [[Uttar Pradesh]].{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=261}} The ''Rigveda'' was codified by compiling the hymns, including the arrangement of the individual hymns in ten books, coeval with the composition of the younger Veda Samhitas.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|pp=261–266}} According to Witzel, the initial collection took place after the Bharata victory in the [[Battle of the Ten Kings]], under king [[Sudas|Sudās]], over other Puru kings. This collection was an effort to reconcile various factions in the clans which were united in the Kuru kingdom under a Bharata king.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=263}}{{refn|group=note|Witzel: "The original collection must have been the result of a strong political effort aiming at the re-alignment of the various factions in the tribes and poets' clans under a post-Sudås Bharata hegemony which included (at least sections of) their former Pūru enemies and some other tribes.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=263}}}} This collection was re-arranged and expanded in the [[Kuru kingdom]], reflecting the establishment of a new Bharata-Puru lineage and new srauta rituals.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=263-264}}{{refn|group=note|Witzel: "To sum up: as has been discussed in detail elsewhere [''Early Sanskritization''], the new Kuru dynasty of Parik it, living in the Holy Land of Kuruk etra, unified most of the Rigvedic tribes, brought the poets and priests together in the common enterprise of collecting their texts and of "reforming" the ritual."{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=265}}}}
The fixing of the [[Vedic chant]] (by enforcing regular application of [[sandhi]]) and of the padapatha (by dissolving Sandhi out of the earlier metrical text), occurred during the later Brahmana period, in roughly the 6th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Arthur Berriedale |url=https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahanasa00keit#page/44/mode/2up |title=Rigveda Brahmanas: the Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda |date=1920 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |page=44 |language=en}}</ref>
The surviving form of the ''Rigveda'' is based on an early [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]] collection that established the core 'family books' (mandalas [[Mandala 2|2]]{{ndash}}[[Mandala 7|7]], ordered by author, deity and metre<ref name=":0">H. Oldenberg, Prolegomena,1888, Engl. transl. New Delhi: Motilal 2004</ref>) and a later redaction, coeval with the redaction of the other [[Veda]]s, dating several centuries after the hymns were composed. This redaction also included some additions (contradicting the strict ordering scheme) and [[orthoepic]] changes to the [[Vedic Sanskrit]] such as the [[regularization (linguistics)|regularization]] of [[sandhi]] (termed ''orthoepische Diaskeuase'' by Oldenberg, 1888).
===Organisation===
====Mandalas==== The text is organized in ten "books", or ''[[mandala|maṇḍalas]]'' ("circles"), of varying age and length.{{Sfn|George Erdosy|1995|pp=68{{ndash}}69}} The "family books", mandalas 2{{ndash}}7, are the oldest part of the ''Rigveda'' and the shortest books; they are arranged by length (decreasing length of hymns per book) and account for 38% of the text.<ref name="pincott598">{{Cite journal |last=Pincott |first=Frederic |year=1887 |title=The First Maṇḍala of the Ṛig-Veda |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1428640 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=598{{ndash}}624 |doi=10.1017/s0035869x00019717 |s2cid=163189831 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906164520/https://zenodo.org/record/1428640 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |access-date=12 March 2020|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=10{{ndash}}11}}
The hymns are arranged in collections each dealing with a particular deity: ''Agni'' comes first, ''Indra'' comes second, and so on. They are attributed and dedicated to a [[rishi]] (sage) and his family of students.<ref name="Holdrege2012">{{Cite book |last=Barbara A. Holdrege |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlvikndgEmIC |title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4384-0695-4 |pages=229{{ndash}}230}}</ref> Within each collection, the hymns are arranged in descending order of the number of stanzas per hymn. If two hymns in the same collection have equal numbers of stanzas then they are arranged so that the number of syllables in the metre are in descending order.{{sfn|George Erdosy|1995|pp=68–69, 180–189}}{{sfn|Gregory Possehl|Michael Witzel|2002|pp=391–393}} The second to seventh mandalas have a uniform format.<ref name=pincott598/>
The [[Mandala 8|eighth]] and [[Mandala 9|ninth]] mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The ninth mandala is entirely dedicated to [[Soma (drink)|Soma]] and the [[Soma ritual]]. The hymns in the ninth mandala are arranged by both their prosody structure ([[chanda]]) and by their length.<ref name=pincott598/>
The [[Mandala 1|first]] and the [[Mandala 10|tenth]] mandalas are the youngest; they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, accounting for 37% of the text. Nevertheless, some of the hymns in mandalas 8, 1 and 10 may still belong to an earlier period and may be as old as the material in the family books.{{Sfn|Bryant|2001|pp=66{{ndash}}67}} The first mandala has a unique arrangement not found in the other nine mandalas. The first 84 hymns of the tenth mandala have a structure different from the remaining hymns in it.<ref name=pincott598/>
====Hymns and prosody==== Each mandala consists of hymns or ''{{IAST|sūkta}}''s (''{{IAST|[[su-]] + [[Vāc|ukta]]}}'', literally, "well recited, [[:wikt:eulogy|eulogy]]") intended for various [[Yajna|ritual]]s. The {{IAST|sūkta}}s in turn consist of individual stanzas called ''{{IAST|ṛc}}'' ("praise", ''pl.'' ''{{IAST|ṛcas}}''), which are further analysed into units of verse called ''{{IAST|[[pada (foot)|pada]]}}'' ("[[Foot (poetry)|foot]]" or step).
The hymns of the ''Rigveda'' are in different poetic metres in Vedic Sanskrit. The [[Sanskrit prosody|metres]] most used in the {{IAST|ṛcas}} are the [[gayatri]] (3 verses of 8 syllables), [[anushtubh]] (4×8), [[trishtubh]] (4×11) and [[Vedic metre|jagati]] (4×12). The trishtubh metre (40%) and gayatri metre (25%) dominate in the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kireet Joshi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1CJlM2nhlt0C |title=The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1991 |isbn=978-81-208-0889-8 |pages=101{{ndash}}102}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/historyofsanskri00macdrich#page/56/mode/2up A history of Sanskrit Literature], Arthur Macdonell, Oxford University Press/Appleton & Co, p. 56</ref>{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|p=74}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" ! Metre{{refn|group=note|The total number of verses and metre counts show minor variations with the manuscript.<ref name=mueller373/>}} !! Rigvedic verses<ref name="mueller373">{{cite book |last=F. Max Müller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i2cqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA373 |title=Physical Religion |publisher=Longmans & Green |year=1891 |pages=373{{ndash}}379 |access-date=6 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143309/https://books.google.com/books?id=i2cqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA373 |url-status=live}}</ref> |- | Gayatri || 2451 |- | Ushnih || 341 |- | Anushtubh || 855 |- | Brihati || 181 |- | Pankti || 312 |- | Trishtubh || 4253 |- | Jagati || 1348 |- | Atigagati || 17 |- | Sakvari || 19 |- | Atisakvari || 9 |- | Ashti || 6 |- | Atyashti || 84 |- | Dhriti || 2 |- | Atidhriti || 1 |- | Ekapada || 6 |- | Dvipada || 17 |- | Pragatha Barhata || 388 |- | Pragatha Kakubha || 110 |- | Mahabarhata || 2 |- | style="text-align: right;" |Total|| 10402 |}
===Transmission=== As with the other Vedas, the redacted text has been handed down in several versions, including the ''[[Padapatha]]'', in which each word is isolated in [[pausa|pausal]] form and is used for just one way of memorization; and the ''[[Samhitapatha]]'', which combines words according to the rules of sandhi (the process being described in the ''[[Pratisakhya]]'') and is the memorized text used for recitation.
The ''Padapatha'' and the ''Pratisakhya'' anchor the text's true meaning,<ref>{{Cite book |last=K. Meenakshi |title=Indian Linguistic Studies: Festschrift in Honor of George Cardona |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-208-1885-9 |editor-last=George Cardona |page=235 |chapter=Making of Pāṇini |editor-last2=Madhav Deshpande |editor-last3=Peter Edwin Hook}}</ref> and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by [[oral tradition]] alone.<ref name="Witzel2003">{{harvnb|Witzel|2003|pp=[https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo/page/n82 68]{{ndash}}69}}. "The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a tape-recording of ca. 1500{{ndash}}500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. On the other hand, the Vedas have been written down only during the early second millennium CE, while some sections such as a collection of the Upanishads were perhaps written down at the middle of the first millennium, while some early, unsuccessful attempts (indicated by certain Smriti rules forbidding to write down the Vedas) may have been made around the end of the first millennium BCE".</ref> In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit [[compound word|compound]]s into [[word stem|stem]]s and inflections, as well as certain permutations. This interplay with sounds gave rise to a [[Vyākaraṇa|scholarly tradition]] of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[phonetics]].
It is unclear as to when the ''Rigveda'' was first written down. The oldest surviving manuscripts have been discovered in [[Nepal]] and date to {{circa|1040 CE}}.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|pp=259{{ndash}}264}}<ref>The oldest manuscript in the [[Pune]] collection dates to the 15th century. The [[Benares Sanskrit University]] has a ''Rigveda'' manuscript of the 14th century. Older palm leaf manuscripts are rare.</ref> According to Witzel, the Paippalada Samhita tradition points to written manuscripts {{circa|800}}–1000 CE.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=259, footnote 7}} The Upanishads were likely in the written form earlier, about mid-1st millennium CE ([[Gupta Empire]] period).<ref name=Witzel2003/><ref>Wilhelm Rau (1955), ''Zur Textkritik der Brhadaranyakopanisad'', ZDMG, 105(2), p. 58</ref> Attempts to write the Vedas may have been made "towards the end of the 1st millennium BCE". The early attempts may have been unsuccessful given the ''Smriti'' rules that forbade the writing down the Vedas, states Witzel.<ref name=Witzel2003/> The oral tradition continued as a means of transmission until modern times.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|p=18}}
===Recensions=== [[Image:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|thumb|upright=1.35|Geographical distribution of the Late Vedic Period. Each major region had its own recension of Rig Veda (''Śākhās''), and the versions varied.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|pp=259{{ndash}}264}}]]
Several [[shakha]]s (from skt. ''śākhā'' f. "branch", i. e. "recension") of the Rig Veda are known to have existed in the past. Of these, [[Shakala Shakha|Śākala Śākhā]] (named after the scholar [[Shakalya|Śākalya]]) is the only one to have survived in its entirety. Another śākhā that may have survived is the Bāṣkala, although this is uncertain.<ref>{{harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=69}}. "The RV has been transmitted in one recension (the ''śākhā'' of Śākalya) while others (such as the Bāṣkala text) have been lost or are only rumored about so far."</ref><ref>Maurice Winternitz (''History of Sanskrit Literature'', Revised English Translation Edition, 1926, vol. 1, p. 57) says that "Of the different recensions of this Saṃhitā, which once existed, only a single one has come down to us." He adds in a note (p. 57, note 1) that this refers to the "recension of the Śākalaka-School."</ref><ref>Sures Chandra Banerji (''A Companion To Sanskrit Literature'', Second Edition, 1989, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, pp. 300{{ndash}}301) says that "Of the 21 recensions of this Veda, that were known at one time, we have got only two, viz. ''Śākala'' and ''Vāṣkala''."</ref>
The surviving padapāṭha version of the ''Rigveda'' text is ascribed to Śākalya.<ref>Maurice Winternitz (''History of Sanskrit Literature'', Revised English Translation Edition, 1926, vol. 1, p. 283.</ref> The {{IAST|[[Shakala Shakha|Śākala]]}} recension has 1,017 regular hymns, and an appendix of 11 ''{{IAST|[[valakhilya|vālakhilya]]}}'' hymns<ref>Mantras of "khila" hymns were called ''khailika'' and not {{IAST|ṛcas}} (''Khila'' meant distinct "part" of Rgveda separate from regular hymns; all regular hymns make up the ''akhila'' or "the whole" recognised in a śākhā, although khila hymns have sanctified roles in rituals from ancient times).</ref> which are now customarily included in the 8th mandala (as 8.49{{ndash}}8.59), for a total of 1028 hymns.<ref>[[Hermann Grassmann]] had numbered the hymns 1 through to 1028, putting the {{IAST|vālakhilya}} at the end. Griffith's translation has these 11 at the end of the eighth mandala, after 8.92 in the regular series.</ref> The {{IAST|Bāṣkala}} recension includes eight of these {{IAST|vālakhilya}} hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 regular hymns for this śākhā.<ref>cf. Preface to Khila section by C.G.Kāshikar in Volume-5 of Pune Edition of RV (in references).</ref> In addition, the {{IAST|Bāṣkala}} recension has its own appendix of 98 hymns, the [[Khilani]].<ref>These Khilani hymns have also been found in a manuscript of the {{IAST|Śākala}} recension of the Kashmir ''Rigveda'' (and are included in the Poone edition).</ref>
In the 1877 edition of Aufrecht, the 1028 hymns of the ''Rigveda'' contain a total of 10,552 {{IAST|ṛc}}s, or 39,831 padas. The [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] gives the number of syllables to be 432,000,<ref>equalling 40 times 10,800, the number of bricks used for the ''[[uttaravedi]]'': the number is motivated numerologically rather than based on an actual syllable count.</ref> while the metrical text of van Nooten and Holland (1994) has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); counting the number of syllables is not straightforward because of issues with sandhi and the post-Rigvedic pronunciation of syllables like súvar as svàr.
Three other shakhas are mentioned in ''Caraṇavyuha'', a [[pariśiṣṭa]] (supplement) of Yajurveda: Māṇḍukāyana, Aśvalāyana and [[Sankhyayana|Śaṅkhāyana]]. The Atharvaveda lists two more shakhas. The differences between all these shakhas are very minor, limited to varying order of content and inclusion (or non-inclusion) of a few verses. The following information is known about the shakhas other than [[Śākala Shākha|Śākala]] and Bāṣkala:{{Sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)| Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|p=16}} * Māṇḍukāyana: Perhaps the oldest of the Rigvedic shakhas. * Aśvalāyana: Includes 212 verses, all of which are newer than the other Rigvedic hymns. * [[Sankhyayana|Śaṅkhāyana]]: Very similar to Aśvalāyana * Saisiriya: Mentioned in the ''Rigveda'' [[Pratisakhya]]. Very similar to Śākala, with a few additional verses; might have derived from or merged with it. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Shakha !Samhita !Brahmana !Aranyaka !Upanishad |- |''Shaakala'' |Shaakala Samhita |Aitareya Brahmana |Aitareya Aranyaka |Aitareya Upanishad |- |''Baashkala'' |Kaushitaki Samhita |[[Sankhyayana Brahmana|Kaushitaki Brahmana]] |Manuscript exists |Kaushitaki Upanishad |- |''[[Sankhyayana|Shankhayana]]'' |Sankhayana Samhita |[[Sankhyayana Brahmana|Shankhayana Brahmana]] |Shankhyana Aranyaka |edited as a part of the Aranyaka |}
===Manuscripts=== [[File:1500-1200 BCE Rigveda, manuscript page sample i, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), Adhyaya 1, lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''Rigveda'' manuscript page, Mandala 1, Hymn 1 (Sukta 1), lines 1.1.1 to 1.1.9 (Sanskrit, Devanagari script)]] The ''Rigveda'' hymns were composed and preserved by [[oral tradition]]. They were memorized and verbally transmitted with "unparalleled fidelity" across generations for many centuries.<ref name=Witzel2003/>{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=13{{ndash}}14}} According to Barbara West, it was probably first written down about the 3rd-century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbara A. West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |publisher=Infobase |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |page=282 |access-date=12 May 2016 |archive-date=27 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727121024/https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Michael McDowell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urcyCnUurGMC |title=World Religions at Your Fingertips |last2=Nathan Robert Brown |publisher=Penguin |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-101-01469-1 |page=208 |access-date=12 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120022648/https://books.google.com/books?id=urcyCnUurGMC |archive-date=20 January 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The manuscripts were made from [[Birch bark manuscript|birch bark]] or [[palm leaf manuscript|palm leaves]], which decompose and therefore were routinely copied over the generations to help preserve the text.
====Versions==== There are, for example, thirty manuscripts of ''Rigveda'' at the [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]], collected in the 19th century by [[Georg Bühler]], Franz Kielhorn and others, originating from different parts of India, including [[Kashmir]], [[Gujarat]], the then [[Rajaputana]], and [[Central Provinces]]. They were transferred to [[Deccan College (Pune)|Deccan College]], [[Pune]], in the late 19th century. They are in the [[Sharada script|Sharada]] and [[Devanagari]] scripts, written on birch bark and paper. The oldest of the Pune collection is dated to 1464 CE. These thirty manuscripts were added to [[UNESCO]]'s [[Memory of the World Register|Memory of the World International Register]] in 2007.<ref name="rigveda">{{Cite web |title=Rigveda |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/memory-world/rigveda |publisher=[[UNESCO]] [[Memory of the World Programme]]|access-date=2025-01-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mukul |first=Akshaya |date=2007-06-21 |title=Rig Veda manuscripts in Unesco's heritage list |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rig-veda-manuscripts-in-unescos-heritage-list/articleshow/2137459.cms |access-date=2025-01-10 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Rigveda manuscripts in preserved safely in Pune Institute - Oneindia … | url = https://www.oneindia.com/2008/02/28/rigveda-manuscripts-in-preserved-safely-in-pune-institute-1204269314.html | date = 2026-02-17 | archiveurl = https://archive.today/20260217133016/https://www.oneindia.com/2008/02/28/rigveda-manuscripts-in-preserved-safely-in-pune-institute-1204269314.html | archivedate = 2026-02-17 }}</ref>
Of these thirty manuscripts, nine contain the samhita text, five have the [[padapatha]] in addition. Thirteen contain Sayana's commentary. At least five manuscripts (MS. no. 1/A1879-80, 1/A1881-82, 331/1883-84 and 5/Viś I) have preserved the complete text of the ''Rigveda''. MS no. 5/1875-76, written on birch bark in bold Sharada, was only in part used by [[Max Müller]] for his edition of the ''Rigveda'' with Sayana's commentary.
Müller used 24 manuscripts then available to him in Europe, while the Pune Edition used over five dozen manuscripts, but the editors of Pune Edition could not procure many manuscripts used by Müller and by the Bombay Edition, as well as from some other sources; hence the total number of extant manuscripts known then must surpass perhaps eighty at least.<ref>cf. Editorial notes in various volumes of Pune Edition, see references.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=October 2019}}
====Scripts==== ''Rigveda'' manuscripts in paper, palm leaves and birch bark form, either in full or in portions, have been discovered in the following Indic scripts: * [[Devanagari]] (Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal)<ref>{{Cite book |last=John Collinson Nesfield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4ooAAAAYAAJ |title=A Catalogue of Sanscrit MSS.: Existing in Oudh Discovered Oct.-Dec. 1874, Jan.-Sept. 1875, 1876, 1877, 1879–1885, 1887–1890 |year=1893 |pages=1{{ndash}}27 |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143309/https://books.google.com/books?id=u4ooAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf Rigvedasamhita, Rigvedasamhita-Padapatha and Rigvedasamhitabhashya] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113122721/http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf |date=13 November 2020}}, Memory of the World Register, UNESCO (2006), page 2, Quote: "One manuscript written on birch bark is in the ancient Sharada script and the remaining 29 manuscripts are written in the Devanagari script. All the manuscripts are in Sanskrit language."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Julius Eggeling |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.344907/page/n13 |title=Vedic manuscripts (Catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts in the library of the India office: Part 1 of 7) |publisher=India Office, London |year=1887 |oclc=492009385}}</ref> * [[Grantha script|Grantha]] (Tamil Nadu)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arthur Coke Burnell |url=https://archive.org/details/b30094288 |title=Catalogue of a Collection of Sanskrit Manuscripts |publisher=Trübner |year=1869 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/b30094288/page/5 5]{{ndash}}8}}</ref><ref>A copy of the ''Rigveda'' samhita Books 1 to 3 in [[Tamil-Grantha script]] is preserved at the Cambridge University Sanskrit Manuscript Library (MS Or.2366). This ''talapatra'' palm leaf manuscript was likely copied sometime between mid-18th and late-19th-century. [https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-OR-02366 Ṛgveda Saṃhitā (MS Or.2366)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007184445/https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-OR-02366 |date=7 October 2019}}, University of Cambridge, UK</ref> * [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]] (Kerala)<ref>{{Cite book |last=A B Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzFIAQAAMAAJ |title=Rigveda Brahmanas, Harvard Oriental Series, Vol 25 |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1920 |page=103 |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143309/https://books.google.com/books?id=hzFIAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[Nandinagari]] (South India)<ref name="MackenzieWilson1828">{{Cite book |last1=Colin Mackenzie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hno-AAAAcAAJ |title=Mackenzie Collection: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Oriental Manuscripts and Other Articles Illustrative of the Literature, History, Statistics and Antiquities of the South of India |last2=Horace Hayman Wilson |publisher=Asiatic Press |year=1828 |pages=1{{ndash}}3}}</ref> * [[Sharada script|Sharada]] (Punjab, Kashmir)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Nilima Sen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sextAAAAMAAJ&q=Hindu+Shahi+wrote+Sanskrit+in+Sharada&dq=Hindu+Shahi+wrote+Sanskrit+in+Sharada&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj0jbXt_OeTAxVEWUEAHbwkEb8Q6AF6BAgOEAM |title=Cultural History of Kapisa and Gandhara |date=1984 |publisher=Sundeep |isbn=978-81-7574-027-3 |pages=83 |language=en |quote=...Hindu Shahi's adoption of Sanskrit language and Sarada script...}}</ref>{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=284}}<ref>[http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf Rigvedasamhita, Rigvedasamhita-Padapatha and Rigvedasamhitabhashya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113122721/http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/india_rigveda.pdf |date=13 November 2020 }}, Memory of the World Register, UNESCO (2006), page 3, Quote: "A particularly important manuscript in this collection is the one from Kashmir, written on birch bark, in the Sharada script (No. 5/1875-76)."</ref> ====Comparison==== The various ''Rigveda'' manuscripts discovered so far show some differences. Broadly, the most studied Śākala recension has 1017 hymns, includes an appendix of eleven ''valakhīlya'' hymns which are often counted with the eighth mandala, for a total of 1028 metrical hymns. The Bāṣakala version of ''Rigveda'' includes eight of these ''vālakhilya'' hymns among its regular hymns, making a total of 1025 hymns in the main text for this śākhā. The Bāṣakala text also has an appendix of 98 hymns, called the ''Khilani'', bringing the total to 1,123 hymns. The manuscripts of Śākala recension of the ''Rigveda'' have about 10,600 verses, organized into ten Books (''Mandalas'').{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=77}}<ref name=hastings/> Books 2 through 7 are internally homogeneous in style, while Books 1, 8 and 10 are compilation of verses of internally different styles suggesting that these books are likely a collection of compositions by many authors.<ref name=hastings/>
The first mandala is the largest, with 191 hymns and 2006 verses, and it was added to the text after Books 2 through 9. The last, or the 10th Book, also has 191 hymns but 1754 verses, making it the second largest. The language analytics suggest the 10th Book, chronologically, was composed and added last.<ref name=hastings/> The content of the 10th Book also suggest that the authors knew and relied on the contents of the first nine books.<ref name=hastings/>
The ''Rigveda'' is the largest of the four Vedas, and many of its verses appear in the other Vedas.<ref name=nicholas273/> Almost all of the 1875 verses found in [[Samaveda]] are taken from different parts of the ''Rigveda'', either once or as repetition, and rewritten in a chant song form. Books 8 and 9 of the ''Rigveda'' are by far the largest source of verses for Sama Veda. Book 10 contributes the largest number of the 1350 verses of ''Rigveda'' found in [[Atharvaveda]], or about one fifth of the 5987 verses in the Atharvaveda text.<ref name="hastings">James Hastings, {{Google book|5D4TAAAAYAAJ|Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics}}, Vol. 7, Harvard Divinity School, TT Clark, pp. 51{{ndash}}56</ref> A bulk of 1875 ritual-focussed verses of [[Yajurveda]], in its numerous versions, also borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in ''Rigveda''.<ref name="nicholas273">Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, New York: Authors Choice Press, {{ISBN|978-0-595-26925-9}}, pp. 273{{ndash}}274</ref><ref>Edmund Gosse, {{Google books|xco9AQAAIAAJ|Short histories of the literatures of the world|page=181}}, New York: Appleton, p. 181</ref>
==Contents== Altogether the Rigveda consists of: * the ''[[Samhita]]'' (hymns to the deities, the oldest part of the ''Rigveda'') * the ''[[Brahmana]]''s, commentaries on the hymns * the ''[[Aranyaka]]''s or "forest books" * the ''[[Upanishads|Upanishad]]''s In western usage, "Rigveda" usually refers to the ''Rigveda'' Samhita, while the Brahmanas are referred to as the "Rigveda Brahmanas" (etc.). Technically speaking, however, "the Rigveda" refers to the entire body of texts transmitted along with the Samhita portion. Different bodies of commentary were transmitted in the different [[shakha]]s or "schools". Only a small portion of these texts has been preserved: The texts of only two out of five shakhas mentioned by the [[Pratishakhyas|Rigveda Pratishakhya]] have survived. The late (15th or 16th century) ''[[Shri Guru Charitra]]'' even claims the existence of twelve Rigvedic shakhas. The two surviving Rigvedic corpora are those of the '' Śākala'' and the '' Bāṣkala'' shakhas.
===Hymns===
{{See also|Anukramani|Rigvedic deities}}
The Rigvedic hymns are dedicated to various deities, chief of whom are [[Indra]], a heroic god praised for having slain his enemy [[Vrtra]]; [[Agni]], the sacrificial fire; and [[Soma (drink)|Soma]], the sacred potion or the plant it is made from. Equally prominent gods are the [[Adityas]] or Asura gods [[Mitra (Vedic)|Mitra]]–[[Varuna]] and [[Ushas]] (the dawn). Also invoked are [[Savitr]], [[Vishnu]], [[Rudra]], [[Pushan]], [[Brihaspati]] or [[Brahmanaspati]], as well as deified natural phenomena such as [[Dyaus Pita]] (the shining sky, Father Heaven), [[Prithivi]] (the earth, Mother Earth), [[Surya]] (the sun god), [[Vayu]] or Vata (the wind), [[Ap (water)|Apas]] (the waters), [[Parjanya]] (the thunder and rain), [[Vāc|Vac]] (the word), many [[Rigvedic rivers|rivers]] (notably the [[Sapta Sindhu]], and the [[Sarasvati River]]). The [[Adityas]], Vasus, Rudras, Sadhyas, [[Ashvins]], [[Maruts]], [[Rbhus]], and the [[Vishvadevas]] ("all-gods") as well as the "thirty-three gods" are the groups of deities mentioned.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Jamison |first=Stephanie W |url=https://wiswo.org/books/_resources/book-reference-pdfs/Jamison-Brereton-2014-The%20Rigveda-The%20Earliest%20Poetry%20of%20India%20all%203%20Volume%20Sets.pdf |title=The Rigveda, The Earliest Religious Poetry of India |last2=Brereton |first2=Joel P. |date=23 April 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199370184}}</ref>
* [[Mandala 1]] comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the ''Rigveda''. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra, as well as Varuna, Mitra, the Ashvins, the Maruts, Usas, Surya, Rbhus, Rudra, Vayu, Brhaspati, Visnu, Heaven and Earth, and all the Gods. This Mandala is dated to have been added to the ''Rigveda'' after Mandala 2 through 9, and includes the philosophical Riddle Hymn 1.164, which inspires chapters in later Upanishads such as the [[Mundaka Upanishad|Mundaka]].{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=4, 7–9}}<ref>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n395/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pp. 374–375</ref><ref>F. Max Müller (1884), The Upanishads, Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/38/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pp. 38–40</ref> * [[Mandala 2]] comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi ''{{IAST|gṛtsamada śaunahotra}}''.<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 3]] comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra and the Vishvedevas. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in [[Hinduism]] as the [[Gayatri Mantra]]. Most hymns in this book are attributed to ''{{IAST|viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ}}''.<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 4]] comprises 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra as well as the Rbhus, Ashvins, Brhaspati, Vayu, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to ''{{IAST|vāmadeva gautama}}''.<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 5]] comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the [[Visvedevas]] ("the all gods"), the [[Maruts]], the twin-deity [[Mitra-Varuna]] and the [[Asvins]]. Two hymns each are dedicated to [[Ushas]] (the dawn) and to [[Savitr]]. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the ''{{IAST|atri}}'' clan.<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 6]] comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, all the gods, Pusan, Ashvin, Usas, etc. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the ''{{IAST|bārhaspatya}}'' family of [[Bharadvaja|Bharadwāja]].<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 7]] comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the [[Maruts]], [[Mitra-Varuna]], the [[Asvins]], [[Ushas]], [[Indra-Varuna]], [[Varuna]], [[Vayu]] (the wind), two each to [[Sarasvati]] (ancient river/goddess of learning) and [[Vishnu]], and to others. Most hymns in this book are attributed to ''{{IAST|vasiṣṭha maitravaruṇi}}''.<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 8]] comprises 103 hymns to various gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal ''{{IAST|vālakhilya}}''. Hymns 1–48 and 60–66 are attributed to the clan of the sade [[Kanva|Kaṇva]], the rest to other (mainly [[Angiras|Āngirasa]] clan) poets.<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 9]] comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to ''[[Soma (drink)|Soma]] Pavamāna'', the cleansing of the sacred potion of the Vedic religion.<ref name=":1" /> * [[Mandala 10]] comprises additional 191 hymns, frequently in later language, addressed to Agni, Indra and various other deities. It contains the [[Nadistuti sukta]] which is in praise of rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the [[Purusha sukta]] which has been important in studies of Vedic sociology.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=57–59}} It also contains the [[Nasadiya sukta|Nasadiya sukta (Hymn of Creation)]] (10.129) which deals with multiple speculations about the creation of universe, and whether anyone can know the right answer.<ref name=3translations/> The marriage hymns (10.85) and the death hymns (10.10–18) still are of great importance in the performance of the corresponding [[Grhya]] rituals.
===Rigveda Brahmanas=== {{See also|Brahmana}} Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the ''{{IAST|Bahvṛcas}}'' (i.e. "possessed of many verses"), as the followers of the ''Rigveda'' are called, two have come down to us, namely those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. The ''[[Aitareya-brahmana]]''<ref>Edited, with an English translation, by M. Haug (2 vols., Bombay, 1863). An edition in Roman transliteration, with extracts from the commentary, has been published by Th. Aufrecht (Bonn, 1879).</ref> and the [[Sankhyayana Brahmana|''Kaushitaki-'' (or ''Sankhayana-'') ''brahmana'']] evidently have for their groundwork the same stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however, considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight. There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Arthur Berriedaled |url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.23771 |title=Rigveda Brahmanas: the Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas of the Rigveda |date=1920 |language=English}}</ref>
[[File:1500-1200 BCE, Devi sukta, Rigveda 10.125.1-2, Sanskrit, Devanagari, manuscript page 1735 CE (1792 VS).jpg|thumb|left|Devi sukta, which highlights the goddess tradition of Hinduism is found in ''Rigveda'' hymns 10.125. It is cited in ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'' and is recited every year during the [[Durga Puja]] festival.]] The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two. It consists of 30 chapters (''adhyaya''); while the Aitareya has 40, divided into eight books (or pentads, ''pancaka''), of five chapters each. The last 10 adhyayas of the latter work are, however, clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part of it at the time of [[Pāṇini]] (c. 5th century BCE), if, as seems probable, one of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of Brahmanas, consisting of 30 and 40 adhyayas, refers to these two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend (also found in the Shankhayana-sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana) of [[Shunahshepa]], whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2025-05-17 |title=The Legend of Śunaḥśepa [Part 12] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/essay/aitareya-brahmana-analysis/d/doc1599284.html |access-date=2026-05-23 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
While the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of ''haviryajna'', or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, etc., whereupon follows the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7{{ndash}}10 contain the practical ceremonial and 11{{ndash}}30 the recitations (''shastra'') of the hotar. Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of Itara), also mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough that this person arranged the Brahmana and founded the school of the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in opposition to the Paingya—the Brahmana, it would seem, of a rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one of the manuscripts calls it—the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed) in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kausitaki (Shankhayana) Brahmana {{!}} Vedic Heritage Portal |url=https://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/kausitaki-shankhyayana-brahmana/ |access-date=2026-05-23 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Archive |first=Internet Sacred Text |title=The Upanishads, Part 1 (SBE01): Introduction to the Upani... |url=https://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe01/sbe01019.htm |access-date=2026-05-23 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive |language=English}}</ref>
===Rigveda Aranyakas and Upanishads=== {{See also|Aranyaka|Upanishads}} Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a "forest book", or [[Aranyaka]]. The ''Aitareyaranyaka'' is not a uniform production. It consists of five books (''aranyaka''), three of which, the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the ceremony called ''mahavrata'', or great vow. The last of these books, composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is, indeed, ascribed by Hindu authorities either to Shaunaka or to Ashvalayana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely speculative, and are also styled the ''Bahvrca-brahmana-upanishad''. Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled out as the [[Aitareya Upanishad]],<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp. 7{{ndash}}14</ref> ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the first book), to Mahidasa Aitareya; and the third book is also referred to as the ''Samhita-upanishad''. As regards the ''Kaushitaki-aranyaka'', this work consists of 15 adhyayas, the first two (treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the 7th and 8th of which correspond to the first, fifth, and third books of the Aitareyaranyaka, respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the highly interesting [[Kaushitaki Upanishad|Kaushitaki (Brahmana-) Upanishad]],<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp. 21{{ndash}}23</ref> of which we possess two different recensions. The remaining portions (9{{ndash}}15) of the Aranyaka treat of the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, etc., ending with the ''vamsha'', or succession of teachers.
====Significance==== The text is a highly stylized poetical Vedic Sanskrit with praise addressed to the Vedic gods and chieftains. Most hymns, according to Witzel, were intended to be recited at the annual New Year Soma ritual.<ref name="Witzel69">{{harvnb|Witzel|2003|pp=[https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo/page/n83 69]{{ndash}}70}}.</ref> The text also includes some nonritual poetry,<ref name=Witzel69/> fragments of mythology, archaic formulas, and a number of hymns with early philosophical speculations.<ref name="Witzel71">{{harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=[https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo/page/n85 71]}}.</ref> Composed by the poets of different clans, including famed Vedic ''rishis'' (sages) such as [[Vishvamitra]] and [[Vasishtha]], these signify the power of prestige therewith to ''vac'' (speech, sound), a tradition set in place.<ref name=Witzel69/> The text introduced the prized concepts such as ''Rta'' (active realization of truth, cosmic harmony) which inspired the later Hindu concept of [[Dharma]]. The Rigvedic verses formulate this ''Rta'' as effected by ''[[Brahman]]'', a significant and non-self-evident truth.<ref name=Witzel69/> The text also contains hymns of "highly poetical value"{{snd}}some in dialogue form, along with love stories that likely inspired later Epic and classical poets of Hinduism, states Witzel.<ref name=Witzel71/>
According to Nadkarni, several hymns of the ''Rigveda'' embed cherished virtues and ethical statements. For example, verses 5.82.7, 6.44.8, 9.113.4, 10.133.6 and 10.190.1 mention truthful speech, truthful action, self-discipline and righteousness.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nadkarni |first=M.V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT205 |title=Ethics for our Times: Essays in Gandhian Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-908935-2 |edition=2nd |pages=205{{ndash}}206 |access-date=8 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143810/https://books.google.com/books?id=aoM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT205 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nadkarni |first=M.V. |title=Ethics For Our Times: Essays in Gandhian Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-807386-4 |pages=211{{ndash}}239 |chapter=Ethics in Hinduism |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198073864.003.0010}}</ref> Hymn 10.117 presents the significance of charity and of generosity between human beings, how helping someone in need is ultimately in the self-interest of the helper, its importance to an individual and the society.<ref name=chatterjee3/>{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=1586{{ndash}}1587}} According to Jamison and Brereton, hymns 9.112 and 9.113 poetically state, "what everyone [humans and all living beings] really want is gain or an easy life", even a water drop has a goal{{snd}}namely, "simply to seek Indra". These hymns present the imagery of being in heaven as "freedom, joy and satisfaction", a theme that appears in the Hindu Upanishads to characterize their teachings of self-realization.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=1363{{ndash}}1366}}
==== Monism debate ==== While the older hymns of the ''Rigveda'' reflect [[sacrifice|sacrificial]] ritual typical of [[polytheism]],<ref name="fowler38">see e.g. Jeaneane D. Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex University Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-93-6}}, pp. 38{{ndash}}45</ref> its younger parts, specifically mandalas 1 and 10, have been noted as containing [[monism|monistic]] or [[henotheism|henotheistic]] speculations.<ref name=fowler38/> {{Quote box |width=26em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right |quote=[[Nasadiya Sukta]] ([[Mandala 10|10]].129):
There was neither non-existence nor existence then;<br /> Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond;<br /> What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
There was neither death nor immortality then;<br /> No distinguishing sign of night nor of day;<br /> That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse;<br /> Other than that there was nothing beyond.
Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden;<br /> Without distinctive marks, this all was water;<br /> That which, becoming, by the void was covered;<br /> That One by force of heat came into being;
Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?<br /> Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?<br /> Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.<br /> Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;<br /> Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not;<br /> Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows,<br /> Only He knows, or perhaps He does not know. |source =—''Rigveda'' 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian)<ref name="3translations">*Original Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९ Rigveda 10.129] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525145645/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%3A_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF |date=25 May 2017 }} Wikisource; * '''Translation 1''': {{Cite book |last=F. Max Müller |url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/564/mode/2up |title=A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature |date=1859 |publisher=Williams and Norgate, London |pages=559{{ndash}}565 |ref=none |author-link=Max Müller}} * '''Translation 2''': {{cite book|author=Kenneth Kramer|title=World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions|url=https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram|url-access=registration|date=1986|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/worldscripturesi0000kram/page/21 21] |ref=none}} * '''Translation 3''': {{cite book|author=David Christian|title=Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History|url=https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-95067-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n45 17]{{ndash}}18 |ref=none}} * '''Translation 4''': {{cite book |author=Robert N. Bellah |title=Religion in Human Evolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTDKxrLRzp8C |year=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-06309-9 |pages=510{{ndash}}511 |ref=none}}</ref> This hymn is one of the roots of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, [[Princeton University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-691-60441-1}}, pp. 5{{ndash}}6, 109{{ndash}}110, 180</ref>}}
A widely cited example of such speculations is hymn 1.164.46: {{blockquote| <poem> They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. </poem> |Rigveda 1.164.46|Translated by Ralph Griffith<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2012 |title=The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164 – Wikisource, the free online library |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506235352/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_164 |archive-date=6 May 2019 |access-date=10 March 2017 |website=En.wikisource.org}}</ref><ref name=phillipshenoth/>}}
[[Max Müller]] notably introduced the term "[[henotheism]]" for the philosophy expressed here, avoiding the connotations of "monotheism" in Judeo-Christian tradition.<ref name="phillipshenoth">Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-14485-8}}, p. 401</ref><ref>Garry Trompf (2005), In Search of Origins, 2nd Edition, Sterling, {{ISBN|978-1-932705-51-5}}, pp. 60{{ndash}}61</ref> Other widely cited examples of [[monism|monistic]] tendencies include hymns 1.164, 8.36 and 10.31,<ref>Thomas Paul Urumpackal (1972), Organized Religion According to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Georgian University Press, {{ISBN|978-88-7652-155-3}}, pp. 229{{ndash}}232 with footnote 133</ref><ref>Franklin Edgerton (1996), The Bhagavad Gita, Cambridge University Press, Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1149-2}}, pp. 11{{ndash}}12</ref> Other scholars state that the ''Rigveda'' includes an emerging diversity of thought, including monotheism, polytheism, henotheism and pantheism, the choice left to the preference of the worshipper.<ref>Elizabeth Reed (2001), Hindu Literature: Or the Ancient Books of India, Simon Publishers, {{ISBN|978-1-931541-03-9}}, pp. 16{{ndash}}19</ref> and the [[Nasadiya Sukta]] (10.129), one of the most widely cited Rigvedic hymns in popular western presentations.
Ruse (2015) commented on the old discussion of "monotheism" vs. "henotheism" vs. "monism" by noting an "[[atheism|atheistic]] streak" in hymns such as [[:wikisource:The Hymns of the Rigveda/Book 10/Hymn 130|10.130]].<ref name="michaelruse">a "strong traditional streak that (by Western standards) would undoubtedly be thought atheistic"; hymn 10.130 can be read to be in "an atheistic spirit". Michael Ruse (2015), Atheism, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-933458-2}}, p. 185.</ref>
Examples from [[Mandala 1]] adduced to illustrate the "metaphysical" nature of the contents of the younger hymns include: 1.164.34: "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?"; 1.164.34: "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?"; 1.164.5: "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?"; 1.164.6: "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?"; [[s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164|1.164]].20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.".<ref name=metaphysics/>
==Reception in Hinduism==
===Shruti=== The Vedas as a whole are classed as "[[shruti]]" in Hindu tradition. This has been compared to the concept of [[divine revelation]] in Western religious tradition, but Staal argues that "it is nowhere stated that the Veda was revealed", and that ''shruti'' simply means "that what is heard, in the sense that it is transmitted from father to son or from teacher to pupil".<ref name=fritsstaal/> The ''Rigveda'', or other Vedas, do not anywhere assert that they are [[apauruṣeyā]], and this reverential term appears only centuries after the end of the Vedic period in the texts of the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hindu philosophy.<ref name=fritsstaal/><ref>D Sharma (2011), Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-13399-9}}, pp. 196{{ndash}}197</ref><ref>Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-538496-3}}, p. 290</ref> The text of the ''Rigveda'' suggests it was "composed by poets, human individuals whose names were household words" in the Vedic age, states Staal.<ref name="fritsstaal">Frits Staal (2009), ''Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights'', Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-14-309986-4}}, pp. xv{{ndash}}xvi</ref>
The authors of the [[Brahmanas|{{IAST|Brāhmana}}]] literature discussed and interpreted the Vedic ritual.
===Sanskrit grammarians=== {{main|Vyākaraṇa}} [[Yaska]] (4th c. BCE), a [[Lexicography|lexicographer]], was an early commentator of the ''Rigveda'' by discussing the meanings of difficult words. In his book titled ''[[Nirukta]]'' Yaska asserts that the ''Rigveda'' in the ancient tradition can be interpreted in three ways – from the perspective of religious rites (''adhiyajna''), from the perspective of the deities (''adhidevata''), and from the perspective of the soul (''adhyatman'').{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=106}} The fourth way to interpret the ''Rigveda'' also emerged in the ancient times, wherein the gods mentioned were viewed as symbolism for legendary individuals or narratives.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=106}} It was generally accepted that creative poets often embed and express double meanings, ellipses and novel ideas to inspire the reader.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=106}}
===Medieval Hindu scholarship=== By the period of [[Puranic Hinduism]], in the medieval period, the language of the hymns had become "almost entirely unintelligible", and their interpretation mostly hinged on [[mysticism|mystical]] ideas and [[sound symbolism]].<ref>Frederick M. Smith (1994), "Purāņaveda", in Laurie L. Patton (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z8CGJBo3z4C&pg=PA99 ''Authority, Anxiety, and Canon: Essays in Vedic Interpretation''], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143810/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Z8CGJBo3z4C&pg=PA99 |date=7 September 2023}} SUNY Press p. 99.</ref><ref>Arthur Llewellyn Basham (1989), in Kenneth G. Zysk, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC&pg=PA7 ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism''], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143810/https://books.google.com/books?id=2aqgTYlhLikC&pg=PA7 |date=7 September 2023}} Oxford University Press, p. 7</ref><ref>Ram Gopal (1983), [https://books.google.com/books?id=evY93w240isC&pg=PA7 ''The History and Principles of Vedic Interpretation''], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143907/https://books.google.com/books?id=evY93w240isC&pg=PA7 |date=7 September 2023}} Concept Publishing Company, ch.2 pp. 7{{ndash}}20</ref>
According to the Puranic tradition, Ved Vyasa compiled all the four Vedas, along with the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Vyasa then taught the ''Rigveda'' samhita to Paila, who started the oral tradition.<ref name=dalalpt16/> An alternate version states that Shakala compiled the ''Rigveda'' from the teachings of Vedic rishis, and one of the manuscript recensions mentions Shakala.<ref name="dalalpt16">{{cite book |last=Roshen Dalal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 |title=The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2014 |isbn=978-81-8475-763-7 |pages=16{{ndash}}17, See also the glossary on Vyasa |access-date=6 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907143811/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Madhvacharya]], a Hindu philosopher of the 13th century, provided a commentary of the first 40 hymns of the ''Rigveda'' in his book ''Rig Bhashyam''.{{refn|group=note|See [http://www.tatvavada.org/eng/works/pdf/rgb.pdf Rig Bhashyam].}} In the 14th century, [[Sayana|{{IAST|Sāyana}}]] wrote an exhaustive commentary on the complete text of the ''Rigveda'' in his book ''Rigveda Samhita''.{{refn|group=note|See [https://archive.org/details/RgVedaWithSayanasCommentaryPart1 Rigveda Samhita].}} This book was translated from Sanskrit to English by [[Max Müller]] in the year 1856. [[H.H. Wilson]] also translated this book into English as ''Rigveda Sanhita'' in the year 1856. Sayanacharya studied at the [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Sringeri]] monastery.
A number of other commentaries (''{{IAST|bhāṣya}}s'') were written during the medieval period, including the commentaries by Skandasvamin (pre-Sayana, roughly of the [[Gupta period]]), [[Udgatr|Udgitha]] (pre-Sayana), Venkata-Madhava (pre-Sayana, {{circa|10th}} to 12th centuries) and [[Mudgala Purana|Mudgala]] (after Sayana, an abbreviated version of Sayana's commentary).<ref>edited in 8 volumes by Vishva Bandhu, 1963{{ndash}}1966.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=December 2015}}
Some notable commentaries from Medieval period include:
{| class="wikitable" |+ !Title !Commentary !Year !Language !Notes |- |Rig Bhashyam |[[Madhvacharya]] |1285 |Sanskrit |Commentary on the first 40 hymns of the ''Rigveda''. The original book has been translated into English by Prof.K.T. Pandurangi accessible [http://www.tatvavada.org/eng/works/pdf/rgb.pdf here] |- |Rigveda Samhita |[[Sāyaṇa|Sāyaṇācārya]] |1360 |Sanskrit |Sāyaṇācārya, a Sanskrit scholar, wrote a treatise on the Vedas in the book ''Vedartha Prakasha'' (meaning "of Vedas made as a manifest"). The ''Rigveda'' Samhita is available here. This book was translated from Sanskrit to English by Max Müller in the year 1856. H. H. Wilson also translated this book into English as ''Rigveda Sanhita'' in the year 1856. |}
===Arya Samaj and Aurobindo movements=== In the 19th and early 20th centuries, reformers like [[Swami Dayananda Saraswati]] (founder of the [[Arya Samaj]]) and [[Sri Aurobindo]] (founder of [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]]) discussed the philosophies of the Vedas. According to Robson, Dayananda believed "there were no errors in the Vedas (including the ''Rigveda''), and if anyone showed him an error, he would maintain that it was a corruption added later".<ref name="salmond">{{Cite book |last=Salmond, Noel A. |title=Hindu iconoclasts: Rammohun Roy, Dayananda Sarasvati and Nineteenth-Century Polemics Against Idolatry |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-88920-419-5 |pages=114{{ndash}}115 |chapter=Dayananda Saraswati}}</ref>
According to Dayananda and Aurobindo the Vedic scholars had a monotheistic conception.<ref name=vpvarma/> [[Sri Aurobindo]] gave commentaries, general interpretation guidelines, and a partial translation in ''The secret of Veda'' (1946).{{refn|group=note|See [https://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Of-The-Veda-Aurobindo.pdf]}} Sri Aurobindo finds Sayana's interpretation to be ritualistic in nature, and too often having inconsistent interpretations of Vedic terms, trying to fit the meaning to a narrow mold. According to Aurobindo, if Sayana's interpretation were to be accepted, it would seem as if the Rig Veda belongs to an unquestioning tradition of faith, starting from an original error.{{sfn|Sri Aurobindo|1998|p=20-21}} Aurobindo attempted to interpret hymns to Agni in the ''Rigveda'' as mystical.<ref name=vpvarma/> Aurobindo states that the Vedic hymns were a quest after a higher truth, define the ''Rta'' (basis of [[Dharma]]), conceive life in terms of a struggle between the forces of light and darkness, and sought the ultimate reality.<ref name="vpvarma">''The Political Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo'' by V. P. Varma (1960), Motilal Banarsidass, p. 139, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0686-3}}</ref>
===Contemporary Hinduism=== [[File:1500-1200 BCE, Vivaha sukta, Rigveda 10.85.16-27, Sanskrit, Devanagari, manuscript page.jpg|thumb|The hymn 10.85 of the ''Rigveda'' includes the Vivaha-sukta (above). Its recitation continues to be a part of Hindu wedding rituals.<ref>N Singh (1992), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24764135 The Vivaha (Marriage) Samskara as a Paradigm for Religio-cultural Integration in Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024193736/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24764135 |date=24 October 2018 }}, Journal for the Study of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 31{{ndash}}40</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Swami Vivekananda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pJjXAAAAMAAJ |title=Prabuddha Bharata: Or Awakened India |publisher=Prabuddha Bharata Press |year=2005 |isbn=9788178231808 |pages=362, 594 |access-date=24 October 2018 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144317/https://books.google.com/books?id=pJjXAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>]] The ''Rigveda'', in contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and point of pride for Hindus, with some hymns still in use in major [[sanskara (rite of passage)|rites of passage]] ceremonies, but the literal acceptance of most of the textual essence is long gone.<ref name="pinkney">Andrea Pinkney (2014), Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia (Editors: Bryan Turner and Oscar Salemink), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-63503-5}}, pp. 31{{ndash}}32</ref><ref>Jeffrey Haines (2008), Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-60029-3}}, p. 80</ref> Musicians and dance groups celebrate the text as a mark of Hindu heritage, through incorporating Rigvedic hymns in their compositions, such as in ''Hamsadhvani'' and ''Subhapantuvarali'' of [[Carnatic music]], and these have remained popular among the [[Hindu]]s for decades.<ref name=pinkney/>
According to Axel Michaels, "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<ref>Axel Michaels (2004), ''Hinduism: Past and Present'', Princeton University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA18 p. 18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504223606/https://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA18 |date=4 May 2023 }}; see also Julius Lipner (2012), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qv3fCgAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA77 p.77] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504223534/https://books.google.com/books?id=qv3fCgAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA77 |date=4 May 2023 }}; and Brian K. Smith (2008), ''Hinduism'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=RIZLAwAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA101 p. 101] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513104317/https://books.google.com/books?id=RIZLAwAAQBAJ&dq=vedas+authority+lipservice&pg=PA101 |date=13 May 2023 }}, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), ''Sacred Texts and Authority'', Wipf and Stock Publishers.</ref> According to [[Louis Renou]], the Vedic texts are a distant object, and "even in the most orthodox domains, the reverence to the Vedas has come to be a simple raising of the hat".<ref name=pinkney/> According to Andrea Pinkney, "the social history and context of the Vedic texts are extremely distant from contemporary Hindu religious beliefs and practice", and the reverence for the Vedas in contemporary Hinduism illustrates the respect among the Hindus for their heritage.<ref name=pinkney/>
====Hindu nationalism==== {{see also|10,000 years of Hinduism}} The Rig Veda plays a role in the modern construction of a Hindu identity, portraying Hindus as the original inhabitants of India. The ''Rigveda'' has been referred to in the "[[Indigenous Aryans]]" and [[Out of India theory]]. Dating the Rig Veda as contemporaneous with (or even preceding) the [[Indus Valley civilisation]], an argument is made that the IVC was Aryan, and the bearer of the Rig Veda.<ref>Kazanas, N. (2002), "Indigenous Indo-Aryans and the Rigveda", ''Journal of Indo-European Studies'', Vol. 30, pp. 275{{ndash}}289;<br>Kazanas, N. (2000), "A new date for the Rgveda", in Pande, G. C. (ed.), ''Chronology and Indian Philosophy'', special issue of the ''JICPR'', Delhi;<br>Kazanas, N. D. (2001), "Indo-European Deities and the Rgveda", ''Journal of Indo-European Studies'', Vol. 30, pp. 257{{ndash}}264,<br>Kazanas, ND (2003), "Final Reply", ''Journal of Indo-European Studies'', Vol. 31, pp. 187{{ndash}}189</ref><ref>Bryant, Edwin (2004), ''The Quest for the Origins of the Vedic Culture'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-516947-8}}</ref> Indian nationalist [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], in his ''Orion: Or Researches Into The Antiquity Of The Vedas'' (1893) has concluded that the date of composition of the ''Rigveda'' dates at least as far back as 6000{{ndash}}4000 BCE based on his astronomical research into the position of the constellation [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Tilak |first=Bal Gangadhar |title=Orion: Or Researches Into The Antiquity Of The Vedas |date=2 June 2008 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-1-4365-5691-0}}</ref> These theories are controversial, and not accepted or propagated in mainstream scholarship.<ref>Agrawal, D. P. (2002), "Comments on 'Indigenous IndoAryans'", ''Journal of Indo-European Studies'', Vol. 30, pp. 129{{ndash}}135;<br>Parpola, A. (2002), "Comments on 'Indigenous Indo-Aryans'", ''Journal of Indo-European Studies'', Vol. 30, pp. 187{{ndash}}191</ref><ref>Witzel, Michael, "The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts", ''EVJS'' Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December);<br>{{cite book |last=Elst |first=Koenraad |author-link=Koenraad Elst |title=Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate |title-link=Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate |publisher=Aditya Prakashan |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-86471-77-7}};<br>Bryant, Edwin, and Patton, Laurie L. (2005), ''The Indo-Aryan Controversy'', Routledge/Curzon, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1463-6}}</ref>
==Translations==
The ''Rigveda'' is considered particularly difficult to translate, owing to its length, poetic nature, the language itself, and the absence of any close contemporary texts for comparison.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=3, 76}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Lowe |first=John J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ |title=Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-870136-1 |page=329 |access-date=13 October 2016 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144358/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7u6BwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><!--Second citation discusses the complexity of the language but I can't find where it specifically says translation is difficult.--> Staal describes it as the most "obscure, distant and difficult for moderns to understand". As a result, he says, it "is often misinterpreted" – with many early translations containing straightforward errors – "or worse: used as a peg on which to hang an idea or a theory."<ref>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-14-309986-4}}, p. 107</ref><ref name=fritsstaal/> Another issue is technical terms such as ''[[mandala]]'', conventionally translated "book", but more literally rendered "cycle".<ref name=fritsstaal/><ref>A. A. Macdonell (2000 print edition), ''India's Past: A Survey of Her Literatures, Religions, Languages and Antiquities'', Asian Educational Services, {{ISBN|978-81-206-0570-1}}, p. 15</ref> Karen Thomson, author of a series of revisionary word studies and editor of the Metrically Restored Text Online at the University of Texas at Austin,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Thomson |first1=Karen |title=The Decipherable Rigveda |url=https://www.rigveda.co.uk |access-date=20 February 2024}}</ref> argues, as linguists in the nineteenth century had done ([[Max Müller|Friedrich Max Müller]], [[Rudolf von Roth]], [[William Dwight Whitney]], [[Theodor Benfey]], [[John Muir (indologist)|John Muir]], [[Edward Vernon Arnold]]), that the apparent obscurity derives from the failure to discard a mass of assumptions about ritual meaning inherited from Vedic tradition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karen Thomson |date=2016 |title=Speak for itself: how the long history of guesswork and commentary on a unique corpus of poetry has rendered it incomprehensible |url=http://www.rigveda.co.uk/speak-for-itself.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Times Literary Supplement |volume=Jan 8 |page=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129154008/http://www.rigveda.co.uk/speak-for-itself.pdf |archive-date=29 January 2022 |access-date=29 January 2022}}(review of Jamison and Brereton, ''The Rigveda. The Earliest Religious Poetry of India''. OUP 2014)</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karen Thomson |date=2009 |title=A still undeciphered text: how the scientific approach to the Rigveda would open up Indo-European studies |url=http://www.rigveda.co.uk/asut1.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |volume=37 |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111133326/http://www.rigveda.co.uk/asut1.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2022 |access-date=30 January 2022}}</ref>
The first published translation of any portion of the ''Rigveda'' in any European language was into Latin, by [[Friedrich August Rosen]], working from manuscripts brought back from India by [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke|Colebrooke]]. In 1849, [[Max Müller]] published his six-volume translation into German, the first printed edition and most studied.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2006 |title=Rig – Veda – Sanhita – Vol.1 |url=http://dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080/xmlui/handle/10689/6323?show=full |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210211527/http://dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080/xmlui/handle/10689/6323?show=full |archive-date=10 February 2017 |access-date=10 March 2017 |website=Dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The birch bark text from which Müller produced his translation is held at the [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] in Pune, India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Collection Items – Rig-veda-Sanhita |url=https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/rig-veda-sanhita |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910163631/https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/rig-veda-sanhita |archive-date=10 September 2021 |access-date=10 September 2021 |website=[[British Library]]}}</ref>}} [[H. H. Wilson]] was the first to make a translation of the Rig Veda into English, published from 1850{{ndash}}88.<ref>Wilson, H. H. ''{{IAST|Ṛig-Veda-Sanhitā}}: A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns''. 6 vols. (London, 1850{{ndash}}88); reprint: Cosmo Publications (1977)</ref> Wilson's version was based on a commentary of the complete text by [[Sayana|{{IAST|Sāyaṇa}}]], a 14th-century Sanskrit scholar, which he also translated.{{refn|group=note|See [https://archive.org/details/RgVedaWithSayanasCommentaryPart1 Rigveda Samhita].}}
Translations have since been made in several languages, including French and Russian.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} [[Karl Friedrich Geldner]] completed the first scholarly translation into German in the 1920s, which was published after his death.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} Translations of shorter cherrypicked anthologies have also been published, such as those by [[Wendy Doniger]] in 1981 and Walter Maurer in 1986, although Jamison and Brereton say they "tend to create a distorted view" of the text.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} In 1994, Barend A. van Nooten and Gary B. Holland published the first attempt to restore the entirety of the ''Rigveda'' to its poetic form, systematically identifying and correcting sound changes and [[sandhi]] combinations which had distorted the original [[Metre (poetry)|metre]] and meaning.<ref>B. van Nooten and G. Holland, Rig Veda. A metrically restored text. Cambridge: Harvard Oriental Series 1994</ref><ref>Karen Thomson and Jonathan Slocum (2006). Online edition of van Nooten and Holland's metrically restored text, University of Texas. https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/books/rigveda/RV00 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704153945/https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/books/rigveda/RV00 |date=4 July 2022 }}</ref>
Translations of the ''Rigveda'' include:
{| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Title ! Commentary/Translation ! Year ! Language ! Notes |- | ''Rigvedae specimen'' | [[Friedrich August Rosen]]{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | 1830 | [[Latin]] | Partial translation with 121 hymns (London, 1830). Also known as ''Rigveda Sanhita, Liber Primus, Sanskrite Et Latine'' ({{ISBN|978-1-275-45323-4}}). Based on manuscripts brought back from India by [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke]]. |- | ''Rig-Veda, oder die heiligen Lieder der Brahmanen'' | [[Max Müller]]{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | 1849 | [[German language|German]] | Partial translation published by W. H. Allen and Co., London, and later [[Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus|F. A. Brockhaus]], Leipzig. In 1873, Müller published an [[editio princeps]] titled ''[https://archive.org/details/hymnsrigvedains00unkngoog The Hymns of the Rig-Veda in the Samhita Text]''. He also translated a few hymns in English (''[[Nasadiya Sukta]]''). |- | ''[https://archive.org/details/rigvedasanhita01wils Ṛig-Veda-Sanhitā: A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns]'' | [[H. H. Wilson]]{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | {{nowrap|1850{{ndash}}88}} | English | Published as 6 volumes, by N. Trübner & Co., London. |- | ''[[s:fr:Rig Véda ou Livre des hymnes|Rig-véda, ou livre des hymnes]]'' | A. Langlois | 1870 | [[French language|French]] | Partial translation. Re-printed in Paris, 1948{{ndash}}51 ({{ISBN|2-7200-1029-4}}). |- | [https://archive.org/details/derrigvedaoderd00ludwgoog Der Rigveda] | Alfred Ludwig | 1876 | German | Published by Verlag von F. Tempsky, Prague. |- | ''[https://archive.org/details/rigveda02grasgoog Rig-Veda]'' | [[Hermann Grassmann]] | 1876 | German | Published by F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig |- | ''[http://www.aryasamajjamnagar.org/rigvedabook.htm Rigved Bhashyam]'' | [[Dayananda Saraswati]] | {{nowrap|1877{{ndash}}9}} | [[Hindi]] | Incomplete translation. Later translated into [http://elibrary.thearyasamaj.org/elib/categories/14/Ved English] by Dharma Deva Vidya Martanda (1974). |- | ''[[s:The Rig Veda|The Hymns of the Rig Veda]]'' | [[Ralph T.H. Griffith]]{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | {{nowrap|1889{{ndash}}92}} | English | Revised as ''The Rig Veda'' in 1896. Revised by J. L. Shastri in 1973. Griffith's philology was outdated even in the 19th century and questioned by scholars.{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} |- | ''[https://archive.org/details/derrigvedainaus00geldgoog Der Rigveda in Auswahl]'' | [[Karl Friedrich Geldner]]{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | 1907 | German | Published by [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], Stuttgart. Geldner's 1907 work was a partial translation; he completed a full translation in the 1920s, which was published after his death, in 1951.{{Sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)| Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} This translation was titled ''[http://www.sanskritweb.net/rigveda/rigveda.pdf Der Rig-Veda: aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche Übersetzt]''. Harvard Oriental Studies, vols. 33{{ndash}}37 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1951{{ndash}}7). Reprinted by [[Harvard University Press]] (2003) {{ISBN|0-674-01226-7}}. |- | ''[https://archive.org/details/hymnsfromrigveda00macdiala/page/n8 Hymns from the Rigveda]'' | [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell|A. A. Macdonell]] | 1917 | English | Partial translation (30 hymns). Published by Clarendon Press, Oxford. |- | Series of articles in Journal of the University of Bombay | Hari Damodar Velankar{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | {{nowrap|1940s{{ndash}}1960s}} | English | Partial translation (Mandala 2, 5, 7 and 8). Later published as independent volumes. |- | ''[http://www.aurobindo.ru/workings/sa/11/hymns_to_the_mystic_fire_eng.pdf Rig Veda – Hymns to the Mystic Fire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908000134/http://www.aurobindo.ru/workings/sa/11/hymns_to_the_mystic_fire_eng.pdf |date=8 September 2014 }}'' | [[Sri Aurobindo]] | 1946 | English | Partial translation published by N. K. Gupta, Pondicherry. Later republished several times ({{ISBN|978-0-914955-22-1}}) |- |''[https://archive.org/details/RigvedaSamhithaAsthanaMahavidvanHPVenkataRao RigVeda Samhita]'' | Pandit H.P. Venkat Rao, LaxmanAcharya and a couple of other Pandits | 1947 | Kannada | Sources from Saayana Bhashya, SkandaSvami Bhashya, Taittareya Samhita, Maitrayini Samhita and other Samhitas. The Kannada translation work was commissioned by Maharaja of Mysore Jayachama Rajendra Wodeyar. The translations were compiled into 11 volumes. |- | ''[https://archive.org/details/RigVedaInHindi Rig Veda]'' | Ramgovind Trivedi | 1954 | Hindi | |- | ''Études védiques et pāṇinéennes'' | [[Louis Renou]]{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | {{nowrap|1955{{ndash}}69}} | [[French language|French]] | Appears in a series of publications, organized by the deities. Covers most of the ''Rigveda'', but leaves out significant hymns, including the ones dedicated to Indra and the Asvins. |- | ''[http://literature.awgp.org/hindibook/vedPuranDarshan/rigved/ ऋग्वेद संहिता]'' | [[Shriram Sharma]] | 1950s | Hindi | |- | ''Hymns from the Rig-Veda'' | Naoshiro Tsuji | 1970 | [[Japanese language|Japanese]] | Partial translation |- | ''Rigveda: Izbrannye Gimny'' | [[Tatyana Elizarenkova]]{{sfn|Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.)|Joel P. Brereton (tr.)|2014|pp=19{{ndash}}20}} | 1972 | [[Russian language|Russian]] | Partial translation, extended to a full translation published during 1989{{ndash}}1999. |- | ''Rigveda Parichaya'' | Nag Sharan Singh | 1977 | English / Hindi | Extension of Wilson's translation. Republished by Nag, Delhi in 1990 ({{ISBN|978-81-7081-217-3}}). |- | ''[http://www.vedicgranth.org/home/the-great-authors/mr-jambunathan/veda Rig Veda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908000106/http://www.vedicgranth.org/home/the-great-authors/mr-jambunathan/veda |date=8 September 2014 }}'' | M. R. Jambunathan | {{nowrap|1978{{ndash}}80}} | [[Tamil language|Tamil]] | Two volumes, both released posthumously. |- | ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20071005042338/http://www.forizslaszlo.com/irodalom/ind/irodalom_rigveda_himnuszok_en.html Rigvéda – Teremtéshimnuszok]'' (''Creation Hymns of the Rig-Veda'') | Laszlo Forizs ([[:hu:Fórizs László|hu]]) | 1995 | [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] | Partial translation published in Budapest ({{ISBN|963-85349-1-5}}) |- | ''The Rig Veda'' | [[Wendy Doniger|Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty]] | 1981 | English | Partial translation (108 hymns), along with critical apparatus. Published by Penguin ({{ISBN|0-14-044989-2}}). A bibliography of translations of the Rig Veda appears as an Appendix. |- |[https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/mandal-01/ Rigved Subodh Bhasya] |[[Shripad Damodar Satwalekar|Pandit Shripad Damodar Satwalekar]] |1985 |Hindi, Marathi |Given meaning of each word/words, then gave the bhava-arth. Published by Swadhyay Mandal. |- | ''Pinnacles of India's Past: Selections from the Rgveda'' | Walter H. Maurer | 1986 | English | Partial translation published by John Benjamins. |- | ''The Rig Veda'' | [[Bibek Debroy]], Dipavali Debroy | 1992 | English | Partial translation published by B. R. Publishing ({{ISBN|978-0-8364-2778-3}}). The work is in verse form, without reference to the original hymns or mandalas. Part of ''Great Epics of India: Veda'' series, also published as ''The Holy Vedas''. |- | ''The Holy Vedas: A Golden Treasury'' | Pandit Satyakam Vidyalankar | 1983 | English | |- | ''{{IAST|Ṛgveda Saṃhitā}}'' | H. H. Wilson, Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi | 2001 | English | 4-volume set published by Parimal ({{ISBN|978-81-7110-138-2}}). Revised edition of Wilson's translation. Replaces obsolete English forms with more modern equivalents (e.g. "thou" with "you"). Includes the original Sanskrit text in [[Devanagari]] script, along with a critical apparatus. |- | ''Ṛgveda for the Layman'' | Shyam Ghosh | 2002 | English | Partial translation (100 hymns). [[Munshiram Manoharlal]], New Delhi. |- | ''Rig-Veda'' | [[Michael Witzel]], Toshifumi Goto | 2007 | German | Partial translation (Mandala 1 and 2). The authors are working on a second volume. Published by Verlag der Weltreligionen ({{ISBN|978-3-458-70001-2}}). |- | ''ऋग्वेद'' | [[Govind Chandra Pande]] | 2008 | Hindi | Partial translation (Mandala 3 and 5). Published by Lokbharti, Allahabad |- | ''The Hymns of Rig Veda'' | Tulsi Ram | 2013 | English | Published by Vijaykumar Govindram Hasanand, Delhi |- | ''The Rigveda'' | [[Stephanie W. Jamison]] and Joel P. Brereton | 2014 | English | 3-volume set published by Oxford University Press ({{ISBN|978-0-19-937018-4}}). Funded by the United States' [[National Endowment for the Humanities]] in 2004.<ref>[http://www.neh.gov/news/awards/collaborative2004.html neh.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501123248/http://www.neh.gov/news/awards/collaborative2004.html |date=1 May 2008 }}, retrieved 22 March 2007.</ref> |- |Rigveda Samhita |Prasanna Chandra Gautam |2014, 2016 |English, Hindi |Sanskrit Text with Word To Word Meaning and English Translation and Hindi Translation (with Mahesh Chandra Gautam). Also contains Essence of a verse. |}
==See also== * [[Atri's Eclipse]] * {{annotated link|Keśin}} * {{annotated link|Mayabheda}}
==Notes== {{reflist|group=note|35em|refs= <!-- D --> <!-- "dating" --> {{refn|group=note|name="dating"|It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date [[Proto-Indo-Iranian|Indo-Iranian]] separation of {{circa|2000 BCE}} and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of {{circa}} 1400 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: * [[Max Müller]]: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."<ref>{{cite book |last=Müller |first=F. Max |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLQIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA202 |title=India: What Can It Teach Us? |date=1883 |publisher=[[Longmans, Green & Co.]] |location=London |page=202 |access-date=7 September 2023 |archive-date=7 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707163253/https://books.google.com/books?id=DLQIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA202 |url-status=live }}</ref> * The [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]] (s.v. [[Indo-Iranian languages]], p. 306) gives 1500{{ndash}}1000 BCE. * Flood and Witzel both mention {{circa}} 1500{{ndash}}1200 BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995|p=4}} * Anthony mentions {{circa}} 1500{{ndash}}1300 BCE.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}} * Thomas Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700{{ndash}}1100 BCE.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=158}} {{harvnb|Oberlies|1998|p=155}} gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=155}} * {{harvnb|Witzel|1995|p=4}} mentions {{circa}} 1500{{ndash}}1200 BCE. According to {{harvnb|Witzel|1997|p=263}}, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE to c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets) of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this 'snapshot' view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary 'tape recordings.' On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-Rgvedic hymns of the Atharvaveda."}} }}
==References== {{reflist|30em}}
==Bibliography== {{refbegin}} '''Editions''' * {{cite book |url={{Google books|1-PRAwAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-937018-4 |volume=1–3 |location=New York |translator-last=Stephanie W. Jamison |translator-last2=Joel P. Brereton}} ** {{cite book |last1=Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ |title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India |last2=Joel P. Brereton (tr.) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-937018-4 |series=3-volume set |access-date=6 October 2019 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907144356/https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} ** {{cite book |last1=Stephanie W. Jamison (tr.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-PRAwAAQBAJ |title=The Rigveda: The Earliest Religious Poetry of India |last2=Joel P. Brereton (tr.) |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014a |isbn=978-0-19-972078-1 |volume=1}} * editio princeps: [[Friedrich Max Müller]], ''The Hymns of the Rigveda, with [[Sayana]]'s commentary'', London, 1849{{ndash}}75, 6 vols., 2nd ed. 4 vols., Oxford, 1890{{ndash}}92. * [[Theodor Aufrecht]], 2nd ed., Bonn, 1877. * {{cite book |last=Sontakke |first=N. S. |title={{IAST|Rgveda-Samhitā: Śrimat-Sāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā}} |publisher={{IAST|Vaidika Samśodhana Maṇḍala}} |others=Sāyanachārya (commentary) |year=1933 |edition=First |editor-last3=Rājvade |editor-first3=V. K.}}. The editorial board for the First Edition included N. S. Sontakke (Managing Editor), V. K. {{IAST|Rājvade}}, M. M. {{IAST|Vāsudevaśāstri}}, and T. S. {{IAST|Varadarājaśarmā}}. * B. van Nooten und G. Holland, ''Rig Veda, a metrically restored text'', Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England, 1994. * Rgveda-Samhita, Text in Devanagari, English translation Notes and indices by H. H. Wilson, Ed. W. F. Webster, originally in 1888, Published Nag Publishers 1990, 11A/U.A. Jawaharnagar, Delhi-7.
'''Commentary''' * [[Sayana]] (14th century) ** ed. Müller 1849{{ndash}}75 (German translation); ** ed. Müller (original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit based on 24 manuscripts). ** ed. Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Pune (2nd ed. 1972) in 5 volumes. * Rgveda-Samhitā Srimat-sāyanāchārya virachita-{{IAST|bhāṣya}}-sametā, ed. by Sontakke et al., published by Vaidika Samśodhana Mandala, Pune-9, 1972, in 5 volumes (It is original commentary of Sāyana in Sanskrit based on over 60 manuscripts). * {{citation |last=Sri Aurobindo |title=The Secret of veda |url=https://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Of-The-Veda-Aurobindo.pdf |year=1998 |access-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922103348/https://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Of-The-Veda-Aurobindo.pdf |url-status=live |publisher=Sri Aurobindo Ashram press |archive-date=22 September 2020}} * [[Sri Aurobindo]], ''Hymns to the Mystic Fire'' (Commentary on the Rig Veda), Lotus Press, Twin Lakes, Wisconsin {{ISBN|0-914955-22-5}} [http://www.mountainman.com.au/rghmf_00.html Rig Veda – Hymns to the Mystic Fire – Sri Aurobindo – INDEX] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406165021/http://www.mountainman.com.au/rghmf_00.html |date=6 April 2016}} * Raimundo Pannikar (1972), ''The Vedic Experience'', University of California Press
'''Philology''' * {{cite book |last=Harold G. Coward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC |title=The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume 5 (Editor: Karl Potter) |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-81-208-0426-5}} * Vashishtha Narayan Jha, ''A Linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha'' Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi (1992). * Bjorn Merker, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024500/http://www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990c12.htm Rig Veda Riddles In Nomad Perspective], Mongolian Studies, Journal of the Mongolian Society XI, 1988. * {{cite book |last=Oberlies |first=Thomas |title=Die Religion des Rgveda |date=1998 |publisher=Institut für Indologie der Universität Wien |location=Wien}} * {{cite book |last=Oldenberg |first=Hermann |title=''Hymnen des Rigveda. 1. Teil: Metrische und textgeschichtliche Prolegomena.'' Berlin 1888 |publisher=(please add), Wiesbaden 1982 |year=1894}} * —''Die Religion des Veda''. Berlin 1894; Stuttgart 1917; Stuttgart 1927; Darmstadt 1977 * —''Vedic Hymns'', The [[Sacred Books of the East]] Vol l. 46 ed. [[Friedrich Max Müller]], Oxford 1897 * Adolf Kaegi, ''The Rigveda: The Oldest Literature of the Indians'' (trans. R. Arrowsmith), Boston, Ginn and Co. (1886), 2004 reprint: {{ISBN|978-1-4179-8205-9}}. * {{cite book |last=Mallory |first=J.P. |title=Indo-Iranian Languages in Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |title-link=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |year=1989 |publication-date=1997 |display-authors=etal}}
'''Historical''' * {{citation |last=Anthony |first=David W. |title=The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World |year=2007 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]}} * {{citation |last=Avari |first=Burjor |title=India: The Ancient Past |location=London |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-35616-9}} * {{cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |author-link=Edwin Bryant (author) |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513777-4}} * {{citation |last=Dwyer |first=Rachel |title=What Do Hindus Believe? |year=2013 |publisher=Granta Books |isbn=978-1-84708-940-3}} * {{citation |last=Flood |first=Gavin D. |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |author-link=Gavin Flood}} * {{cite book |last=George Erdosy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6ZRShEIFwMC |title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1995 |isbn=978-3-11-014447-5}} * {{citation |last=Hexam |first=Irving |title=Understanding World Religions: An Interdisciplinary Approach |year=2011 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |isbn=978-0-310-31448-6}} * {{cite book |last1=Gregory Possehl |title=Encyclopedia of Prehistory |last2=Michael Witzel |publisher=Springer |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-4684-7135-9 |editor-last=Peter N. Peregrine |chapter=Vedic |editor-last2=Melvin Ember}} * Lal, B.B. 2005. ''The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology'', New Delhi, Aryan Books International. * [[Shrikant G. Talageri|Talageri, Shrikant]]: ''[[The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis]]'', 2000. {{ISBN|81-7742-010-0}} * {{citation |last=Witzel |first=Michael |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |work=EJVS |volume=1 |issue=4 |year=1995 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 February 2012}} * {{citation |last=Witzel |first=Michael |title=Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas |volume=2 |pages=257{{ndash}}348 |year=1997 |editor-last=Michael Witzel |access-date=22 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804151138/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf |url-status=live |series=Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora |chapter=The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu |chapter-url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf |place=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |archive-date=4 August 2020 |author-link=Michael Witzel}} * {{cite book |last=Witzel |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwellcompani00floo |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-631-21535-6 |editor-last=Flood, Gavin |chapter=Vedas and Upanisads |author-link=Michael Witzel |url-access=limited}} * {{cite book |last=Witzel |first=Michael |title=Which of Us are Aryans?: Rethinking the Concept of Our Origins |date=2019 |publisher=Aleph |isbn=978-93-88292-38-2 |editor-last=Thapar |editor-first=Romila |editor-link=Romila Thapar |chapter=Beyond the Flight of the Falcon |author-link=Michael Witzel}} * {{citation |last=Wood |first=Michael |title=The Story of India Hardcover |year=2007 |publisher=[[BBC Worldwide]] |isbn=978-0-563-53915-5}} {{refend}}
==External links== {{wikisource|sa|ऋग्वेदः|Original Sanskrit text in Devanagari}} {{wikisource|The Rigveda|The Rigveda }} {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Rig Veda}} '''Text''' {{For|links to translations|#Translations}} * [https://holybooks.com/rig-veda/ The Rig Veda] The complete Rig Veda in English translation at holybooks.com * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/index.htm Devanagari and transliteration] experimental online text at: sacred-texts.com * [http://www.detlef108.de/Rigveda.htm ITRANS, Devanagari, transliteration] online text and PDF, several versions prepared by Detlef Eichler * [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/RV/index.html Transliteration, metrically restored] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124610/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/RV/index.html |date=4 March 2016}} online text, at: Linguistics Research Center, Univ. of Texas * ''[http://www.wilbourhall.org/index.html#veda The Hymns of the Rigveda]'', Editio Princeps by [[Friedrich Max Müller]] (large PDF files of book scans). Two editions: London, 1877 (Samhita and Pada texts) and Oxford, 1890{{ndash}}92, with Sayana's commentary. * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Rigveda}} * [https://vedaweb.uni-koeln.de/rigveda/ VedaWeb], online text of Rigveda with multiple translations and morphological glossing
'''Dictionary''' * [http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/GRAScan/2014/web/webtc2/index.php Rigvedic Dictionary by Hermann Grassmann] (online database, uni-koeln.de)
<!-- * [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/18195792 Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda, Op.26], Gustav Holst, 14 pieces in 4 groups, Piano with Violins, Romantic Movements, [https://urresearch.rochester.edu/institutionalPublicationPublicView.action;jsessionid=5D762A8F787F4E6A6052D24FF5A5460E?institutionalItemVersionId=21426 Vocal Scores], University of Rochester-->
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