{{Short description|Climate classification}} {{pp-move}} {{more citations needed|date=April 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}} [[File:Koppen World Map Cfb Cfc Cwb Cwc.png|thumb|260x260px|Regions where oceanic or subtropical highland climates (Cfb, Cfc, Cwb, Cwc) are found.]]
An '''oceanic climate''', also known as a '''marine climate''' or '''maritime climate''', is the [[temperate climate]] sub-type in [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen classification]] represented as '''''Cfb''''' or represented as '''''Do''''' under the [[Trewartha climate classification]], typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents, generally featuring warm summers and cool to mild winters (for their latitude), with a relatively narrow annual [[temperature]] range and few extremes of temperature under Köppen's system or mediocre growing seasons with mild winters under Trewartha's.<ref name="Arnfield">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=World distribution of major climatic types |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Koppen-climate-classification/World-distribution-of-major-climatic-types |last=Arnfield |first=A. John}}</ref><ref name="Oregon-State-University">{{Cite web |title=Appendix D: Koppen-Trewartha Climate Classification Descriptions |url=https://open.oregonstate.education/permaculturedesign/back-matter/koppen-trewartha-climate-classification-descriptions/ |website=Oregon State University}}</ref> Oceanic climates can be found in both hemispheres generally between 40 and 60 degrees latitude, with subpolar versions extending to 70 degrees latitude in some coastal areas and some hot-summer oceanic climates extending to just north of 35 degrees North latitude in North America and [[Honshu]] and just south of 35 degrees North latitude in [[Mainland China]] under the Trewartha classification. Other varieties of climates usually classified together with these under the Köppen system include '''subtropical highland climates''', represented as '''''Cwb''''' or '''''Cfb''''', and '''subpolar oceanic''' or '''cold subtropical highland climates''', represented as '''''Cfc''''' or '''''Cwc'''''. Subtropical highland climates occur in some mountainous parts of the [[subtropics]] or [[tropics]], some of which have [[monsoon]] influence, while their cold variants and subpolar oceanic climates occur near [[Polar regions of Earth|polar]] or [[Tundra climate|tundra]] regions.
==Precipitation==
Locations with oceanic climates tend to feature frequent cloudy conditions with precipitation, low-hanging clouds, and frequent fronts and storms. Thunderstorms are normally few except in the hot-summer ''Doak'' variety seen under the Trewartha climate classification system, since strong daytime heating and hot and cold air masses meet infrequently in the regions, but are more common in subtropical highland climates where these air masses meet more frequently due to the influence of hotter weather in the subtropics or tropics, especially in monsoon-influenced climates. In most areas with an oceanic climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. Most oceanic climate zones, however, experience at least one snowfall per year. Snowfall is more frequent and commonplace in the subpolar oceanic climates due to the colder weather in those locations.
==Temperature== ===Under the Köppen climate classification system=== Overall [[temperature]] characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature. In the [[Köppen climate classification]], oceanic climates have a mean temperature of {{convert|0|C|F}} or higher (or {{convert|-3|C|F}} or higher) in the coldest month, compared to [[continental climate]]s where the coldest month has a mean temperature of below {{convert|0|C|F}} (or {{convert|-3|C|F}}). Summers are warm but not hot, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below {{convert|22|C|F}}.<ref name="Arnfield" />
Poleward of the latter is a subtype of it, the subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfc''),<ref name="McKnight">{{cite book|author1=Tom L. McKnight|author2=Darrel Hess|name-list-style=amp|year=2000|title=Climate Zones and Types: The Köppen System. Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation|publisher=Prentice Hall|pages=[https://archive.org/details/physicalgeographmckn/page/226 226–235]|isbn=978-0-13-020263-5|url=https://archive.org/details/physicalgeographmckn/page/226}}</ref> with long but relatively mild (for their latitude) winters, and cool and short summers with average temperatures of at least {{convert|10|C|F}} for one to three months. Examples in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] include parts of coastal [[Iceland]], the coast of [[Norway]] north of [[Bodø]], the mountains of [[Scotland]], parts of [[Shetland]], and the [[British Columbia|British Columbian]] coast in [[Canada]]. In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], examples include extreme southern [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]] (such as [[Punta Arenas]] and [[Ushuaia]]), the [[Falkland Islands]], parts of southeastern [[Australia]], and much of [[New Zealand]].
===Under the Trewartha climate classification system=== Oceanic climates are defined very differently under the [[Trewartha climate classification]] system.<ref name="Oregon-State-University" />
In temperate areas, oceanic climates exist where four to seven months average at least {{convert|10|C|F}} regardless of summer heat or lack thereof, so long as the coldest month averages at least {{convert|0|C|F}}. This allows some places with hot summers, such as [[New York City]], the [[District of Columbia]], and [[Louisville, Kentucky]], to have oceanic climates under the Trewartha system, although these climates are considered [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] under the Köppen system due to summer heat instead of the length of the growing season being the trigger for Köppen.
In boreal/subpolar areas, Trewartha defines areas like [[Anchorage]] that have winters averaging over {{convert|-10|C|F}} as oceanic climates even if they are insufficiently mild to be classified as oceanic under Köppen too like [[Reykjavík]] is, as opposed to the freezing isotherm used in temperate climates. Nonetheless, Köppen and Trewartha concur on the summer temperature of a subpolar climate, with one to three months averaging over {{convert|10|C|F}} being the trigger for both.
==Cause == {{more citations needed|section|date=April 2022}} Oceanic climates are not necessarily found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels; however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans.{{clarify|date=March 2022}} The polar [[jet stream]], which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advances low pressure systems, storms, and fronts. In coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes (45–60° latitude), the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the cool ocean adjacent to them. In the autumn, winter, and early spring, when the polar jet stream is most active, the frequent passing of marine weather systems creates the frequent fog, cloudy skies, and light drizzle often associated with oceanic climates. They are typically found poleward of [[Mediterranean climate]]s, except in Australia where they are poleward of both such climates and [[humid subtropical climate]]s due to the shape of the continent.{{Citation needed|date=March 2025}} Only in Europe do they penetrate far inland, where they eventually transition into warm-summer [[humid continental climate]]s; in other continents, they are blocked by a large mountain range or limited by nearby oceans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Temperate Forest |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/temperate-forest |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=March 16, 2025}}</ref>
In some parts of central and eastern North America such as the [[Upland South]] and [[Mid-Atlantic States]] regions, ''Doak'' climates under the Trewartha climate classification system exist as a transition between the [[humid subtropical]] climates further south and the hot-summer [[humid continental climate]]s seen further north, with growing seasons insufficiently long for a subtropical classification but winters too mild for a continental classification. Notable examples of such climates are [[St. Louis]], [[Louisville]], the [[District of Columbia]] and [[New York City]]. A similar transition zone also exists in Japan.
The North Atlantic [[Gulf Stream]], a tropical oceanic current that passes north of the Caribbean and up the East Coast of the United States to [[North Carolina]], then heads east-northeast to the [[Grand Banks of Newfoundland]], is thought to greatly modify the climate of northwest Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-the-gulf-stream-1435328|first=Amanda |last=Briney |date=22 January 2020 |title=The Gulf Stream |work=ThoughtCo. |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> As a result of the [[North Atlantic Current]], west coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, and Norway have much milder winters (for their latitude) than would otherwise be the case. The lowland attributes of western Europe also help drive marine air masses into continental areas, enabling cities such as [[Dresden]], [[Prague]], and [[Vienna]] to have maritime climates in spite of being located well inland from the ocean.
==Locations==
=== Europe === {{more citations needed| section|date=March 2018}}<!--Some countries listed here, not on map, contoverse other article: humid continental climate. eg. South Sweden--> {{climate chart|[[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]|1.2|6.2|66.5|1.0|6.9|54.7|2.8|10.1|51.8|5.2|14.3|39.6|8.6|17.8|53.9|11.3|20.3|64.8|13.5|22.5|82.3|13.4|22.4|98.6|11.0|19.2|84.4|7.7|14.7|86.7|4.5|10.0|85.3|1.5|6.9|81.7|float=right|clear=right|source=[[Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Klimaattabel Schiphol, langjarige gemiddelden, tijdvak 1991–2020 |url=https://www.knmi.nl/klimaat-viewer/grafieken-tabellen/klimaattabellen-per-station/schiphol/klimaattabel_schiphol_1991-2020 |access-date=30 March 2022 |publisher=[[Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute]] |language=nl}}</ref>|date=June 2014}}Oceanic climates in Europe occupy a large stretch of land, from [[Norway]]'s Atlantic coast, the [[British Isles]] and southeast to some parts of northern [[Turkey]].
Western Europe is almost exclusively oceanic between 45°N to 54.913°N; including most of [[France]] (away from the Mediterranean), nearly all of [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Austria]], most of [[Luxembourg]], most of [[Denmark]], western [[Germany]], northwestern [[Switzerland]], south coast and western areas of [[Norway]] north to [[Skrova]] and extreme southern [[Sweden]].
While most of Southern Europe is climatically [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]], some parts of Southern Europe also have oceanic climates. However, these instances of the climate are highly variable, and often somewhat anomalous. The north coast of [[Spain]], the western [[Azores]] off the coast of [[Portugal]] are too wet in summer to be Mediterranean, and too mild in summer to be [[Humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]], though they often have winter means above {{Convert|9|C|F}}, unusual for European oceanic climates.
Another anomalous case can be found in northwestern Turkey, including [[Sarıyer|northern Istanbul]]. These places are, in a strict air-mass sense, not oceanic: they are affected by southerlies directly from the Mediterranean, and polar intrusions from Siberia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Klimatoloji-2 |url=https://www.mgm.gov.tr/FILES/iklim/klimatoloji2.pdf}}</ref> Yet their position near the Black Sea makes them too wet in summer to be [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]], too mild during winter to be [[Humid continental climate|humid continental]], and not hot enough in summer to be [[Humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]]; therefore [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] classifies them as oceanic. Despite their anomalous position, however, their temperatures, around {{Convert|4-5|C|F}} in winter and {{Convert|20-22|C|F}} in summer, are not wholly atypical for European oceanic climates.
Some Eastern European regions such as the north of [[Croatia]] and [[Serbia]] and some parts of the [[Czech Republic]], also have oceanic climates; these are generally near the boundary for being [[Humid continental climate|humid continental]].
The line between oceanic and [[continental climate]]s in Europe runs in a generally northwest to southeast direction. For example, western Germany is more impacted by milder Atlantic air masses than eastern Germany. Thus, winters across Europe become colder to the east, and (in some locations) summers become hotter. The line between oceanic Europe and [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] Europe normally runs west to east and is related to changes in precipitation patterns and differences to seasonal temperatures; although intrusions of polar air, remnants of marine air-masses, and higher summer precipitation can create oceanic climates in Eastern Europe and transcontinental regions as far south as 40°N.{{Cn|date=November 2023}} {{clear}}
Under the Trewartha climate classification system, [[Milan]] also has a temperate oceanic climate despite its hot summers due to its insufficient growing season length to be considered subtropical. [[Tromsø]] has a boreal oceanic ''Eolo'' climate due to Trewartha's lower winter temperature threshold in subpolar climates compared to Köppen.
===The Americas=== {{climate chart | [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]] | 2.7 | 6.8 | 178.8 | 3.4 | 8.4 | 183.8 | 4.6 | 10.6 | 155.8 | 6.5 | 13.5 | 117.9 | 9.5 | 16.8 | 86.7 | 12.2 | 19.6 | 69.9 | 14.1 | 22.0 | 53.4 | 14.4 | 22.3 | 50.8 | 11.6 | 19.0 | 73.3 | 8.2 | 13.9 | 147.8 | 4.8 | 9.3 | 239.2 | 2.8 | 6.8 | 231.3 |float=right |source=[http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_e.html?stnID=888 Environment Canada] }}
The oceanic climate exists in an arc spreading across the northwestern coast of North America from the [[Alaskan panhandle]] to northern [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. In addition, some east coast areas such as [[Block Island]], [[Cape Cod]], [[Martha's Vineyard]], and [[Nantucket, Massachusetts|Nantucket]] have a similar climate.<ref name="peel">{{cite journal|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/30/50/98/PDF/hess-11-1633-2007.pdf | doi = 10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007|pages=1638–1643|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=11| issue = 5|date=11 October 2007|access-date=30 January 2011|title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification|author1=M. C. Peel |author2=B. L. Finlayson |author3=T. A. McMahon | bibcode = 2007HESS...11.1633P|name-list-style=amp |doi-access=free}}</ref> And in the highlands of Central and South America with the variant Cfb. An extensive area of oceanic climates distinguishes the coastal regions of southern [[Chile]] and extends into bordering [[Argentina]].
Under the Trewartha climate classification system, the oceanic climate zone is far more broad in North America, with many areas of the [[Mid-Atlantic States]] such as [[New York City]], [[Philadelphia]], the [[District of Columbia]] and [[Roanoke, Virginia|Roanoke Va.]] being classified as temperate oceanic due to having insufficient growing seasons for a [[humid subtropical climate]] classification but winters too mild to be hot-summer [[humid continental climate]]s. North American transition zone also extends west of the [[Appalachia]] to include cities such as [[Louisville]], [[Murfreesboro]], [[St. Louis]] and [[Wichita, Kansas|Wichita Kan.]]. [[Anchorage]] has a boreal oceanic ''Eolo'' climate due to Trewartha's lower winter temperature threshold in subpolar climates compared to Köppen.
===Africa=== The only noteworthy area of maritime climate at or near sea-level within Africa is in South Africa from [[Mossel Bay, Western Cape|Mossel Bay]] on the [[Western Cape]] coast to [[Plettenberg Bay]] (the [[Garden Route]]), with additional pockets of this climate inland of the [[Eastern Cape]] and [[KwaZulu-Natal]] coast. It is usually warm most of the year with no pronounced rainy season, but slightly more rain in autumn and spring. The [[Tristan da Cunha]] archipelago in the South Atlantic also has an oceanic climate. {{clear}}
===Asia and Oceania=== {{climate chart | [[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]] | 11.7 | 22.7 | 37 | 11.6 | 22.3 | 41 | 9.7 | 20.3 | 41 | 6.8 | 17.8 | 55 | 4.5 | 14.6 | 56 | 1.8 | 11.9 | 61 | 1.2 | 11.4 | 57 | 2.5 | 12.6 | 51 | 3.9 | 15.0 | 36 | 5.5 | 16.9 | 49 | 7.7 | 19.2 | 41 | 10.5 | 21.0 | 52 |float=right |source=CliFlo<ref name= CliFlo>{{cite web |url = http://cliflo.niwa.co.nz |title = CliFlo – National Climate Database |publisher = NIWA |access-date = 23 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151127002612/http://cliflo.niwa.co.nz/ |archive-date = 27 November 2015 |url-status = live }}</ref> }}
Although oceanic climate is rare in Asia, subtropical highland climates and cold subtropical highland climates can be found in parts of [[Southwestern China]], and the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] regions of the northern [[Indian subcontinent]].
The oceanic climate is prevalent in the more southerly parts of [[Oceania]]. A mild maritime climate is in existence in New Zealand. In Australia, the climate is found in [[Tasmania]], southern half of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and southeastern [[New South Wales]] (southwards from [[Wollongong]]).
The hinterland of the northern coast of [[Turkey]], features this climate. Additionally, parts of the northeastern coast of [[Honshu]], such as [[Mutsu, Aomori]] in Japan, feature this climate, which is rare in Asia due to the lack of a west coast in the middle latitudes.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-09-18|title=Winter in Japan - a Complete Guide to Wintertime in Japan {{!}} Compathy Magazine|url=https://en.compathy.net/magazine/2016/09/18/winter-in-japan-a-complete-guide-to-wintertime-in-japan/|access-date=2020-08-08|website=Compathy Magazine （コンパシーマガジン）|language=en-US|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808055735/https://en.compathy.net/magazine/2016/09/18/winter-in-japan-a-complete-guide-to-wintertime-in-japan/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Under the Trewartha climate classification system, numerous cities in northern [[Honshu]] in Japan have a hot-summer version of oceanic climates due to winters being too mild to be continental but growing seasons not being long enough to be subtropical, although the transition zone is narrower than it is in North America due to Japan's higher [[seasonal lag]] pushing November over the {{convert|10|C|F}} threshold to be considered subtropical more readily. Examples of Japanese cities with a ''Doak'' climate include [[Sendai]] and some cooler neighborhoods in [[Niigata City]]. A similar transition zone exists in lowland regions of [[Mainland China]], including [[Shangqiu]] and [[Pingdingshan]].
===Indian Ocean=== [[Île Amsterdam]] and [[Île Saint-Paul]], both part of the [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]], are located in the subtropics and have an oceanic climate (akin to Tristan da Cunha; see above).
{{clear}}
==Varieties== === Marine west coast (Cfb) === [[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Cfb_1991–2020.svg|thumb|left|Cfb zone map 1991-2020]] {{climate chart | [[Plymouth]], [[United Kingdom]] |4.0|8.8|108 |3.6|8.8|84 |4.8|10.5|78 |5.9|12.6|67 |8.8|15.6|64 |11.2|18.0|57 |13.3|19.9|62 |13.4|20.0|67 |11.6|18.1|74 |9.3|14.8|113 |6.4|11.8|113 |4.5|9.5|119 |float=right |clear =right |source=[http://www.weather.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/europe/uk/plymouth_e.htm Hong Kong Observatory] }}
Temperate oceanic climates, also known as "marine mild winter" climates<ref>Michael Pidwirny, 2017, ''Appendix 3: Köppen Climate Classification: Single appendix from the eBook Understanding Physical Geography''. Kelowna BC, Canada; Our Planet Earth Publishing, pp. 8, 24.</ref> or simply oceanic climates, are found either at [[middle latitudes]]. They are often found on or near the west coast of continents; hence another name for Cfb, "marine west coast climates". In addition to moderate temperatures year-round, one of the characteristics is the absence of a dry season. Except for [[Europe]], this type of climate is confined to narrow bands of territory, largely in mid or high latitudes, although it can appear in elevated areas of continental terrain in low latitudes, e.g. [[plateau]]s in the [[subtropics]].<ref name="www.mindat.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/climate-Cfb.html|title=Temperate oceanic climate|website=www.mindat.org|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> It exists in both hemispheres between 35° and 60°: at low altitudes between [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]], [[humid continental climate|humid continental]], and [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] climates.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/marine-west-coast-climate|title=marine west coast climate {{!}} Characteristics & Facts|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-10-11|language=en}}</ref>
Western [[sea breeze]]s ease temperatures and moderates the winter, especially if warm [[Ocean current|sea currents]] are present, and cause cloudy weather to predominate. Precipitation is constant, especially in colder months, when temperatures are warmer than elsewhere at comparable latitudes. This climate can occur farther inland if no mountain ranges are present or nearby.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/climate_systems/marine_west_coast.html|title=Marine West Coast Climate|website=www.earthonlinemedia.com|access-date=2018-10-11|archive-date=24 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524040052/http://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/climate_systems/marine_west_coast.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> As this climate causes sufficient moisture year-round without permitting deep snow cover, [[vegetation]] typically prospers in this climate. Deciduous trees are predominant in this climate region. However, conifers such as [[spruce]], [[pine]], and [[Cedrus|cedar]] are also common in few areas, and fruits such as [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, and [[grape]]s can often be cultivated here.
In the hottest month, the average temperature is below {{cvt|22|C}}, and at least four months feature average temperatures higher than {{cvt|10|C}}. The average temperature of the coldest month must not be colder than {{cvt|-3|-|0|C}}, or the climate will be classified as continental.<ref name="www.mindat.org" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/land/ecosysmgmt/colorimagemap/images/220.html|title=Hot Continental Division|website=www.fs.fed.us|access-date=2018-10-11}}</ref> The average temperature variations in the year are between {{cvt|10|-|15|C}}, with average annual temperatures between {{cvt|6|-|13|C}}. [[Rain]] values can vary from {{cvt|50|-|500|cm}}, depending on whether mountains cause [[orographic precipitation]]. [[Extratropical cyclone|Frontal cyclones]] can be common in marine west coast regions, with some areas experiencing more than 150 rainy days annually, but strong storms are rare.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica"/>
[[File:Zennor, from Zennor Hill - geograph.org.uk - 633.jpg|thumb|[[Zennor]], [[United Kingdom]]]]
Cfb climates are predominant in most of Europe except the northeast, as the continental climate is more prominent further inland. They are the main climate type in [[New Zealand]] and the [[Australia]]n states of [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], and southeastern [[New South Wales]] (starting from the [[Illawarra]] region). In North America, they are found mainly in [[Vancouver Island]] and neighbouring parts of [[British Columbia]], as well as many coastal areas of [[southeast Alaska]]. There are pockets of this iteration of Cfb climates in South American countries, mostly in regions of southern Chile and Argentina, parts of the provinces of [[Chubut Province|Chubut]], [[Santa Cruz Province, Argentina|Santa Cruz]], and southeast [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires province]] in Argentina. In [[Western Asia]], the climate can be found on the [[Black Sea]] coast of northern [[Turkey]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], often transitional to [[Humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]]. While Cfb zones are rare in Africa, one dominates the coastline of the [[Eastern Cape]] in [[South Africa]].
The climate subtype can also be found in [[Nantucket]], [[Massachusetts]] (in the immediate west and northwest in transition for [[Humid continental climate|humid continental]], the remainder of [[Cape Cod]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://prism.oregonstate.edu/inc/images/graphics/normals/800m/tmean/viewable/PRISM_tmean_30yr_normal_800mM2_01.png?ts=20181016|title=Mean Temperature US in January - 30 yrs (normals)|access-date=11 February 2020|archive-date=4 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104180055/http://prism.oregonstate.edu/inc/images/graphics/normals/800m/tmean/viewable/PRISM_tmean_30yr_normal_800mM2_01.png?ts=20181016|url-status=dead}}</ref>)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Massachusetts_K%C3%B6ppen.png|title=Massachusetts Koppen Climate}}</ref> and the southern [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]] (a highland alteration of the lowland’s humid subtropical climate), both in the [[eastern United States]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Georgia_K%C3%B6ppen.png|title=Georgia US Koppen Climate}}</ref> It is also found in the highest portions of the [[States of Brazil|Brazilian state]] of [[Bahia]] and [[Roraima]] (in transition or strongly influenced for ''Cwb''), [[Brønnøy Municipality]] in [[Nordland]] at 65.28 °N ([[Norway]] north-central coast), the provinces of [[Sabah]] (northeastern [[Malaysia]]), and [[Balochistan|Baluchistan]], [[Pakistan]]. Although there are more or less rare places associated with relatively isolated mountainous regions (e.g., North [[Oceania]] islands and [[China]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/present.htm|title=World Maps of Köppen-Geiger climate classification|website=koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at|language=en|access-date=2018-10-16}}</ref>
These climates are classified as ''Dobk'' under Trewartha if their growing seasons aren't long enough for a [[humid subtropical climate]].<ref name="Ikonen-2007" /><ref name="Oregon-State-University" />
===Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb)<span class="anchor" id="Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb)"></span>===
{{climate chart |[[Bogotá]], Colombia |5.8|18.2|88.0 |7.1|18.9|100.3 |9.2|20.3|100.1 |10.8|22.6|100.9 |11.7|22.5|100.0 |12.2|22.6|134.8 |11.5|22.0|175.1 |11.6|21.3|169.2 |11.5|18.3|144.8 |9.8|18.3|101.9 |7.9|17.8|90.1 |6.6|17.8|90.0 |float=right|clear=right |source=[http://worldweather.wmo.int/179/c00279.htm WMO] }}[[File:SL Nuwara Eliya asv2020-01 img12 racecourse.jpg|thumb|[[Nuwara Eliya]], [[Sri Lanka]]]] The subtropical highland climate is a climate variety, often grouped together with oceanic climates, which exists in some mountainous or elevated portions of the world in either the subtropics or tropics. Despite the latitude, the higher [[elevation]]s of these regions mean that the climate shares characteristics with oceanic climates.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pacheco-Torgal |first1=Fernando |last2=Goran-Granqvist |first2=Claes |title=Adapting the Built Environment for Climate Change |date=30 January 2023 |isbn=9780323953375 |page=187 |publisher=Elsevier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q3qAEAAAQBAJ&dq=subtropical+highland+climate+oceanic&pg=PA187 |access-date=11 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Herminingrum |first1=Sri |last2=Hum |first2=M |title=Fisheries and Marine Science |date=November 2021 |publisher=Media Nusa Creative (MNC Publishing) |isbn=9786024620998 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lk9LEAAAQBAJ&dq=subtropical+highland+climate+oceanic&pg=PA17 |access-date=11 June 2023}}</ref>
Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (''Cfb'')<ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Ansar |last2=Niyogi |first2=Dev |last3=Fiorito |first3=Francesco |last4=Akbari |first4=Hashem |last5=Mithun |first5=Sk |title=Global Urban Heat Island Mitigation |date=15 June 2022 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=9780323897945 |page=253 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7JYEAAAQBAJ&dq=Subtropical+highland+climate+with+uniform+rainfall(Cfb)&pg=PA253 |access-date=21 June 2023}}</ref> usually have rainfall spread relatively evenly throughout the year, similar to other oceanic climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high [[diurnal temperature variation]] and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high elevation. Subtropical highland climates with [[monsoon]] influence (''Cwb'') have distinctive wet summers and dry winters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mindat.org |url=https://www.mindat.org/climate-Cwb.html |access-date=2023-06-11 |website=www.mindat.org}}</ref>
In locations outside the tropics, other than the drying trend in the winter, subtropical highland climates tend to be essentially identical to an oceanic climate, with mild summers and noticeably cooler winters, plus, in some instances, some snowfall. In the tropics, a subtropical highland climate typically features mild weather year-round. Temperatures there remain relatively constant throughout the year and snowfall is seldom seen due to warmer winters than most oceanic climates.
Areas with this climate feature monthly averages below {{convert|22|C|F}} but above either {{convert|0|C|F}} or {{convert|-3|C|F}} depending on isotherm used. At least one month's average temperature is below {{convert|18|C|F}}. Without their elevation, many of these regions would likely feature either [[Humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] or [[tropical climate|tropical]] climates.
This type of climate exists in parts of east, south and southeastern [[Africa]], interior southern Africa and elevated portions of eastern Africa as far north as [[Ethiopia]] and of western Africa (west region of Cameroon) up to the southwestern [[Angola]] highlands. It also exists in the exposed areas of the [[High Atlas]], some mountainous areas across [[southern Europe]], and mountainous sections of [[North America]], including parts of the southern [[Appalachians]] and the [[Central America Volcanic Arc]]. In [[South America]], it can be found mainly in temperate mountainous areas in the [[Tropical Andes]], the [[Venezuelan Coastal Range]], the highest elevations of [[Serra do Mar]] in [[Southeastern Brazil]] and the [[Brazilian Highlands]], the [[tepuis]] of the [[Guiana Shield]], and due to variations in rainfall and temperature patterns in some places of the [[Tropical Andes]] in Bolivia, Perú, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. Throughout Asia, most of [[Yunnan]] and the mountainous areas across [[Southeast Asia]], parts of the [[Himalayas]], parts of the [[Western Ghats]], parts of [[Sri Lanka]], and parts of the Hawaiian Islands of [[Maui]] and [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]] experience the climate as well. In the [[Caribbean]], only the peaks in the highest mountain ranges have this climate (including the [[Blue Mountains (Jamaica)|Blue Mountains]] in [[Jamaica]] and [[Cerro Maravilla]] in [[Puerto Rico]]), with only [[Hispaniola]]'s [[Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic|Cordillera Central]] and [[Chaîne de la Selle]] having significant urban settlements under this climate zone, such as cities like [[Kenscoff]] in [[Haiti]] and [[Constanza, Dominican Republic|Constanza]] in the [[Dominican Republic]].
These climates are classified as ''Dobk'' under Trewartha if their growing seasons aren't long enough for a [[humid subtropical climate]].<ref name="Ikonen-2007">{{Cite report |url=https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/43/063/43063333.pdf |title=Meteorological Data and Update of Climate Statistics of Olkiluoto 2005 – 2006 |last=Ikonen |first=Ari T.K. |date=October 2007}}</ref><ref name="Oregon-State-University" />
===Subpolar oceanic and cold subtropical highland varieties (Cfc, Cwc)<span class="anchor" id="Subpolar variety (Cfc, Cwc)"></span>===
{{climate chart | [[Punta Arenas, Chile]] | 6.8 | 14.3 | 41.7 | 6.6 | 14.0 | 31.2 | 5.2 | 12.3 | 38.1 | 3.4 | 9.7 | 40.2 | 1.2 | 6.5 | 41.2 | -0.9 | 4.1 | 27.0 | -1.1 | 3.7 | 29.1 | -0.1 | 5.2 | 29.8 | 1.2 | 7.7 | 26.5 | 3.0 | 10.2 | 27.2 | 4.7 | 12.2 | 30.0 | 6.0 | 13.5 | 33.3 | float = right | clear = right | source = Dirección Meteorológica de Chile<ref name=DMC>{{cite web |url = http://164.77.222.61/climatologia/publicaciones/Estadistica_ClimatologicaIII.pdf |title = Estadistica Climatologica Tomo III (pg 512–537) |access-date = 15 January 2013 |publisher = Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil |language = es |date = March 2001 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120417142500/http://164.77.222.61/climatologia/publicaciones/Estadistica_ClimatologicaIII.pdf |archive-date = 17 April 2012 |url-status = dead |df = dmy-all }}</ref> }} [[File:Glaciar_Martial_100_2981.JPG|thumb|[[Ushuaia]], [[Argentina]]]] Areas with subpolar oceanic climates feature an oceanic climate but are usually located closer to polar regions, with long but relatively mild winters and short, cool summers. As a result of their location, these regions tend to be on the cool end of oceanic climates, approaching [[Polar regions of Earth|polar regions]]. Snowfall tends to be more common here than in other oceanic climates. Subpolar oceanic climates are less prone to temperature extremes than [[humid continental climate]]s or [[subarctic climate]]s, featuring milder winters than these climates. Subpolar oceanic climates feature only one to three months of average monthly temperatures of at least 10 °C (50 °F). As with oceanic climates, none of its average monthly temperatures fall below -3.0 °C (26.6 °F) or 0 °C depending on the isotherm used. Typically, these areas in the warmest month experience daytime maximum temperatures below 17 °C (63 °F), while the coldest month features highs slightly above freezing and lows near or just below freezing while keeping the average warm enough. It typically carries a ''Cfc'' designation, though very small areas in [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]] have summers sufficiently short to be ''Cwc'' with fewer than four months over {{convert|10|C|F}}.<ref name="Peel 2007"/>
This variant of an oceanic climate is found in parts of coastal [[Iceland]], the [[Faroe Islands]], upland/mountainous parts of [[Scotland]] and [[Northern England]], northwestern coastal areas of [[Norway]] (most of [[Lofoten]], [[Vesterålen]], warmest part of [[Tromsø]] reaching to 71°N on some islands),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.yr.no/place/Norway/Finnmark/Hasvik/Hasvik~320932/statistics.html|title=Weather statistics for Hasvik (Finnmark)|access-date=5 August 2011|archive-date=18 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218153338/http://www.yr.no/place/Norway/Finnmark/Hasvik/Hasvik~320932/statistics.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> uplands/highlands in western Norway, the [[Aleutian Islands]] of [[Alaska]] and northern parts of the [[Alaskan Panhandle]], the southwest of [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]], and a few highland areas of [[Tasmania]], and the [[Australian Alps|Australian]] and [[Southern Alps (New Zealand)|Southern Alps]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tapper|first1=Andrew|last2=Tapper|first2=Nigel|title=The weather and climate of Australia and New Zealand|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Melbourne, Australia|isbn=978-0-19-553393-4|edition=First|editor=Gray, Kathleen|page=300}}</ref> This type of climate is even found in very remote parts of the [[New Guinea Highlands]]. The classification used for this regime is Cfc.<ref name="McKnight"/> Temperatures above {{convert|30|C|F}} and below {{convert|-20|C|F}} are rare. In the most marine areas under this regime, temperatures above {{convert|20|C|F}} are extreme weather events, even during summer.
Small areas in Yunnan, [[Sichuan]]; parts of [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]]; and parts of [[Mount Kilimanjaro]] in [[Tanzania]] have summers sufficiently short to be ''Cwc'' with fewer than four months over {{convert|10|C|F}}.<ref name="Peel 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Peel |first1=M. C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B. L. |last3=McMahon |first3=T. A. |title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |date=11 October 2007 |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=1633–1644 |doi=10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007 |bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P |s2cid=9654551 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/298818/filename/hessd-4-439-2007.pdf |access-date=5 December 2022 |language=en |doi-access=free }}</ref> This is the cold variant of the monsoon-influenced subtropical highland climate. [[El Alto]], [[Bolivia]] is one of the few confirmed cities that features this variation of a cold subtropical highland climate.
These climates are mostly classified as ''Eolk'' under Trewartha. However, a cold-winter ''Eolo'' variant including cities such as [[Anchorage]] and [[Tromsø]] also exists under Trewartha due to that system using a -10 degrees Celsius (14 degrees Fahrenheit) winter isotherm specifically for boreal climates.<ref name="Ikonen-2007" /><ref name="Oregon-State-University" />
===Hot-summer Temperate Oceanic Climates=== Although hot-summer climates with mild winters averaging above freezing are classified as [[humid subtropical climate]]s under Köppen, some of these in areas with lukewarm springs and autumns are considered ''Doak'' climates under Trewartha due to their mediocre growing season length, with only four to seven months averaging above 10 degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit). This transition zone between unequivocally subtropical climates and hot-summer [[humid continental climate]]s includes small areas in northern [[Honshu]], some lowland areas of [[Mainland China]], the city of [[Milan]] in Italy and some [[Mid-Atlantic States|Mid-Atlantic]] and [[Upland South]]ern North American areas such as [[New York City]], the [[District of Columbia]], [[Louisville]] and [[St. Louis]], even reaching into the [[Sun Belt]] in [[Murfreesboro]] and some [[Appalachia|Appalachian]] and [[Ozark]] plateau or mountain areas.<ref name="Ikonen-2007" /><ref name="Oregon-State-University" /> ==See also== * [[Temperate climate]] * [[Humid temperate climate]] * [[Subhumid temperate climate]] * [[Mediterranean climate]] * [[Köppen climate classification]] * [[Trewartha climate classification]] * [[Amann's Index of Hygrothermy]]
==References== {{Reflist|30em}}
==External links== * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20071220033946/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/marine_west_coast.html Marine (Humid) West Coast Climate]", June 21, 2007, ''The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography'', Michael Ritter, University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20100504012429/http://www.epic.noaa.gov/epic/ewb/ EPIC Web Browser]", NOAA, on-line ocean observational data collection * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060211015453/http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA "Dapper In-situ Ocean Data Viewer"], plot and download ocean observations * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20061206100140/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate/Older/Maritime_Climate.html Maritime Climate]", ''Encyclopedia of the Atmospheric Environment'', Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme
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[[Category:Köppen climate types]] [[Category:Climate of Europe]] [[Category:Climate of North America]] [[Category:Climate of Oceania]] [[Category:Climate of South America]]