Strategos

{{Short description|Greek military leader}} {{About||the genus of beetles|Strategus (genus)|the board game|Stratego|the wargame|Strategos (game)}} {{Italic title}} {{Use British English|date=February 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}} [[File:Pericles Pio-Clementino Inv269 n2.jpg|thumb|Bust of [[Pericles]], statesman and general during the [[Fifth-century Athens|Golden Age of Athens]]; [[Hadrian]]ic Roman copy of a Greek sculpture of {{circa|400}} BC]] '''''Strategos'''''{{efn|{{langx|el|στρατηγός}} {{IPA|el|stɾatiˈɣos̠|}}; [[Doric Greek]]: στραταγός, ''stratagós''; {{literal translation|army leader}}}} ({{plural form| '''''strategoi'''''}}),{{efn|{{langx|el|στρατηγοί}} {{IPA|el|stɾatiˈʝi|}}}} also known by its [[Linguistic Latinisation|Latinised]] form '''''strategus''''', is a [[Greek language|Greek]] term meaning 'military [[General officer|general]]'. In the [[Hellenistic world]] and in the [[Byzantine Empire]], the term also described a military governor. In the modern [[Hellenic Army]], it is the highest officer rank.

== Etymology == ''Strategos'' is a compound of two Greek words: ''stratos'' and ''agos''. ''Stratos'' (στρατός) means 'army',<ref>{{LSJ|strato/s|στρατός|ref}}.</ref> literally 'that which is spread out',<ref>{{OEtymD|strategy}}</ref> coming from the proto-Indo-European root *stere-, 'to spread'.<ref>{{OEtymD|*stere-}}</ref> ''Agos'' (ἀγός)<ref>{{LSJ|a)go/s1|ἀγός|shortref}}.</ref> means 'leader', from ''agein'' (ἄγειν), 'to lead',<ref>{{LSJ|a)/gw|ἄγειν|shortref}}.</ref> from the pelasgic root *ag-, 'to drive, draw out or forth, move'.<ref>{{OEtymD|*ag-}}</ref>

== Classical Greece == === Athens === In its most famous attestation, in [[Classical Athens]], the office of ''strategos'' existed already in the 6th century BC, but it was only with the reforms of [[Cleisthenes]] in 501 BC that it assumed its most recognisable form: Cleisthenes instituted a board of ten ''strategoi'' who were elected annually, one from each tribe (''[[phyle]]''). The ten were of equal status, and replaced the ''[[polemarchos]]'', who had hitherto been the senior military commander.<ref name="NP1">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Rhodes | first = Peter J. |year= 2015 | title = Strategos I. Classical Greece | encyclopedia = Brill's New Pauly | publisher = Brill Online | access-date = 15 January 2016 | url = http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/strategos-e1123850 }}</ref> At the [[Battle of Marathon]] in 490 BC (according to [[Herodotus]]) they decided strategy by majority vote, and each held the presidency in daily rotation. At this date the ''polemarchos'' had a [[casting vote]], and one view among modern scholars is that he was the commander-in-chief; but from 486 onwards the ''polemarchos'', like the other ''[[archon]]tes'', was appointed by lot. The annual election of the ''strategoi'' was held in the spring, and their term of office coincided with the ordinary Athenian year, from midsummer to midsummer. If a ''strategos'' died or was dismissed from office, a by-election might be held to replace him.

The strict adherence to the principle of a ''strategos'' from each tribe lasted until {{circa|440 BC}}, after which two ''strategoi'' could be selected from the same tribe and another tribe be left without its own ''strategos'', perhaps because no suitable candidate might be available.<ref name="NP1"/> This system continued at least until {{circa|356/7 BC}}, but by the time [[Aristotle]] wrote his ''[[Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)|Constitution of the Athenians]]'' in {{circa|330 BC}}, the appointments were made without any reference to tribal affiliation. Hence, during the [[Hellenistic period]], although the number of the tribes was increased, the number of ''strategoi'' remained constant at ten.<ref name="NP1"/>

In the early part of the 5th century, many ''strategoi'' combined their military office with a political role, with [[Themistocles]], [[Aristides]], [[Cimon]], [[Pericles]], [[Cleon]] among the most notable; nevertheless their power derived not from their office, but from their own personal political charisma. As political power passed to the civilian ''rhetores'' in the later 5th century, the ''strategoi'' were limited to their military duties.<ref name="NP1"/> Originally, the ''strategoi'' were appointed ''ad hoc'' to various assignments. On campaign, several—usually up to three—''strategoi'' might be placed jointly in command. Unlike other Greek states, where the ''[[nauarchos]]'' commanded the navy, the Athenian ''strategoi'' held command both at sea and on land.<ref name="NP1"/> From the middle of the 4th century, the ''strategoi'' increasingly were given specific assignments, such as the ''strategos epi ten choran'' ({{lang|grc|στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὴν χώραν}}) for the defence of [[ancient Attica|Attica]]; the ''strategos epi tous [[hoplite|hoplitas]]'' ({{lang|grc|στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τοὺς ὁπλίτας}}), in charge of expeditions abroad; the two ''strategoi epi ton Peiraia'' ({{lang|grc|στρατηγοὶ ἐπὶ τὸν Πειραιᾶ}}), responsible for the war harbour of [[Piraeus]]; and the ''strategos epi tas [[symmoria]]s'' ({{lang|grc|στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰς συμμορίας}}), responsible for the equipment of the warships.<ref name="NP1"/> This was generalised in Hellenistic times, when each ''strategos'' was given specific duties. In the [[Roman Greece|Roman Imperial period]], the ''strategos epi ta hopla'' ({{lang|grc|στρατηγὸς ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα}}) became the most prominent magistrate in Athens.<ref name="NP1"/> The other generals had disappeared by the end of the first century BC.

The Athenian people kept a close eye on their ''strategoi''. Like other magistrates, at the end of their term of office they were subject to ''[[euthyna]]'' and in addition there was a vote in the ''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ekklesia]]'' during every [[prytany]] on the question whether they were performing their duties well. If the vote went against anyone, he was deposed and as a rule tried by jury. Pericles himself in 430 was removed from office as ''strategos'' and fined, and in 406 six of the eight ''strategoi'' who commanded the fleet at the [[Battle of Arginusae]] were all removed from office and condemned to death.

=== Other Greek states === The title of ''strategos'' appears for a number of other Greek states in the Classical period, but it is often unclear whether this refers to an actual office, or is used as a generic term for military commander.<ref name="NP1"/> The ''strategos'' as an office is attested at least for [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] from the late 5th century BC, [[Erythrae]], and in the ''[[koinon]]'' of the [[Arcadia (region)|Arcadians]] in the 360s BC.<ref name="NP1"/>

The title of ''[[strategos autokrator]]'' was also used for generals with broad powers, but the extent and nature of these powers was granted on an ''ad hoc'' basis.<ref name="NP1"/> Thus [[Philip II of Macedon]] was elected as ''strategos autokrator'' (commander-in-chief with full powers) of the [[League of Corinth]].

== Hellenistic and Roman use == Under [[Philip II of Macedon]], the title of {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos}} was used for commanders on detached assignments as the quasi-representatives of the king, often with a title indicating their area of responsibility, e.g. {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos tes Europes}} ('general of Europe').<ref name="NP2">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Ameling | first = Walther |year= 2015 | title = Strategos II. Hellenistic states | encyclopedia = Brill's New Pauly | publisher = Brill Online | access-date = 15 January 2016 | url = http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/strategos-e1123850 }}</ref>

In several Greek city leagues the title {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos}} was reserved for the head of state. In the [[Aetolian League]] and the [[Achaean League]], where the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos}} was annually elected, he was the [[eponymous]] chief of civil government and the supreme military commander at the same time. Two of the most prominent leaders re-elected many times to the office in the Achaean League, were [[Aratus of Sicyon]] and [[Philopoemen|Philopoemen of Megalopolis]]. {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|Strategoi}} are also reported in the [[Arcadian League]], in the [[Epirote League]] and in the [[Acarnanian League]], whereas the leaders of the [[Boeotia|Boeotian League]] and the [[Thessalian League]] had different titles, [[Boeotarch]] and [[Tagus (title)|Tagus]] respectively.

In the [[Hellenistic]] empires of the [[Diadochi]], notably [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Lagid Egypt]], for which most details are known, {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos}} became a gubernatorial office combining civil with military duties.<ref name="NP2"/> In Egypt, the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategoi}} were originally responsible for the Greek military colonists ({{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|[[cleruchs|klerouchoi]]}}) established in the country. Quickly, they assumed a role in the administration alongside the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|nomarches}}, the governor of each of the country's [[Nome (Egypt)|nomes]], and the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|[[oikonomos]]}}, in charge of fiscal affairs. Already by the time of [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] ({{reign|283|246}} BC), the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos}} was the head of the provincial administration, while conversely his military role declined, as the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|klerouchoi}} were progressively demilitarised.<ref name="NP2"/> [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]] ({{reign|204|181}} BC) established the office of '''{{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|[[epistrategos]]}}''' ({{lang|grc|ἐπιστράτηγος}}, {{literally|over-general}}) to oversee the individual {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategoi}}. The latter had become solely civilian officials, combining the role of the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|nomarches}} and the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|oikonomos}}, while the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|epistrategos}} retained powers of military command. In addition, {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|hypostrategoi}} ({{singular}}: '''{{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|hypostrategos}}''', {{lang|grc|ὐποστράτηγος}}, 'under-general') could be appointed as subordinates.<ref name="NP2"/> The Ptolemaic administrative system survived into the [[Roman Egypt|Roman period]], where the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|epistrategos}} was subdivided in three to four smaller offices, and the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|procurator ad epistrategiam}} was placed in charge of the {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategoi}}. The office largely retained its Ptolemaic functions and continued to be staffed by the Greek population of the country.<ref name="NP2"/>

The [[Odrysian kingdom]] of [[Thrace]] was also divided into {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategiai}} ('generalships'), each headed by a {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos}}, based on the various [[Thracians|Thracian]] tribes and subtribes. At the time of the kingdom's annexation into the [[Roman Empire]] in 46 AD, there were 50 such districts, which were initially retained in the new [[Roman province]], and only gradually fell out of use. It was not until {{circa|136}} that the last of them were abolished.

Under the [[Roman Republic]] and later through the [[Principate]], Greek historians often used the term {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategos}} when referring to the Roman political/military office of {{lang|la|[[praetor]]}}. Such a use can be found in the [[New Testament]]: [[Acts of the Apostles]] 16:20 refers to the magistrates of [[Philippi]] as {{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|strategoi}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=%CE%A0%CE%A1%CE%91%CE%9E%CE%95%CE%99%CE%A3%20%CE%A4%CE%A9%CE%9D%20%CE%91%CE%A0%CE%9F%CE%A3%CE%A4%CE%9F%CE%9B%CE%A9%CE%9D%2016%3A20&version=WHNU|title=Bible Gateway passage: ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ ΤΩΝ ΑΠΟΣΤΟΛΩΝ 16:20 - 1881 Westcott-Hort New Testament|website=Bible Gateway}}</ref> Correspondingly, '''{{Transliteration|grc|engvar=gb|antistrategos}}''' ({{lang|grc|ἀντιστράτηγος}}, 'vice-general') was used to refer to the office of {{lang|la|[[propraetor]]}}.

== Byzantine use == {{Further|Byzantine bureaucracy}} The term continued in use in the Greek-speaking [[Byzantine Empire]]. Initially, the term was used along with ''[[stratelates]]'' and, less often, ''[[stratopedarches]]'', to render the supreme military office of ''[[magister militum]]'' (the general in command of a [[Late Roman army#Army structure|field army]]), but could also be employed for the regional ''[[dux|duces]]''. In the 7th century, with the creation of the [[Theme system]], their role changed: as the field armies were resettled and became the basis for the territorial themes, their generals too assumed new responsibilities, combining their military duties with the civil governance of the theme.<ref name="ODB">{{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium | title = Strategos | page=1964}}</ref> The first themes were few and very large, and in the 8th century, the provincial ''strategoi'' were in constant antagonism with the emperor at [[Constantinople]], rising often in rebellion against him. In response, the themes were progressively split up and the number of ''strategoi'' increased, diluting their power. This process was furthered by the conquests of the 10th century, which saw the establishment of several new and smaller frontier themes: while in {{circa|842}} the ''[[Taktikon Uspensky]]'' lists 18 ''strategoi'', the ''[[Escorial Taktikon]]'', written {{circa|971–975}}, lists almost 90.<ref name="ODB"/>

Throughout the middle Byzantine period (7th–12th centuries), the ''strategos'' of the [[Anatolic theme]] enjoyed precedence over the others and constituted one of the highest offices of the state, and one of the few from which [[Eunuch (court official)|eunuchs]] were specifically barred. At the same time, the Eastern (Anatolian) themes were senior to the Western (European) ones. This distinction was especially marked in the pay of their presiding ''strategoi'': while those of the Eastern themes received their salary directly from the state treasury, their counterparts in the West had to raise their—markedly lower—pay from the proceeds of their provinces.<ref name="Bury">{{citation |title=The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos |last=Bury |first=John B. |author-link=J. B. Bury |year=1911 |publisher=Oxford University Publishing | pages=39–41}}</ref> During the 11th century, the ''strategoi'' were gradually confined to their military duties, their fiscal and administrative responsibilities being taken over by the civil ''kritai'' ('judges'). Senior military leadership also devolved on the hands of a new class of officers titled ''[[Dux|doukes]]'' or ''[[katepano]]'', who were placed in control of regional commands combining several themes. By the 13th century, the term ''strategos'' had reverted to the generic sense of "general", devoid of any specific technical meaning.<ref name="ODB"/>

The Byzantines also used a number of variations of the title ''strategos'': '''''strategetes''''' (στρατηγέτης, 'army leader') was an infrequently used alternative term; the term '''''monostrategos''''' (μονοστράτηγος, 'single-general') designated a general placed in command over other ''strategoi'' or over the forces of more than one theme; the terms '''''strategos autokrator''''', '''''archistrategos''''' ({{lang|grc|ἀρχιστράτηγος}}, 'chief-general') and '''''protostrategos''''' (πρωτοστράτηγος, 'first-general') designated commanders vested with supreme authority; and the term '''''hypostrategos''''' ({{lang|grc|ὐποστράτηγος}}, 'under-general') denoted a second-in-command, effectively a [[lieutenant general]].<ref name="ODB"/>

== Kingdom of Sicily == {{lang|la|Strategus}} or {{lang|la|stratigotus}} was the title of certain local officials in the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] and its predecessor, the [[Duchy of Apulia]]. They were governors with command of the local militia and perhaps originally also local [[justiciar]]s. Appointed by the king, they answered to the royal {{lang|ar|[[Divan|dīwān]]}}. Duke [[Roger Borsa]] refers to his {{lang|la|stratigoti}} in a charter of 1092. Before his rise to prominence in the 1130s, [[George of Antioch]] served as {{lang|la|stratigotus}} in [[Monte Iato|Iato]]. In 1167, the chancellor [[Stephen of Perche]] had the {{lang|la|stratigotus}} of [[Messina]] removed for oppressive behaviour. The office is also attested in the [[Val Demone]] and in [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Matthew |title=The Norman Kingdom of Sicily |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=94, 137–138, 212, 223–224, 230, 242, 251}}</ref>

== Modern use == {{Further|List of Hellenic Army generals}} {{Unreferenced section|date=December 2024}} In the modern [[Hellenic Army]], a '''''stratigós''''' (the spelling remains [[:el:Στρατηγός|στρατηγός]]) is the highest officer rank. The superior rank of ''[[Stratarches|stratárchis]]'' ([[Field Marshal]]) existed under the [[Kingdom of Greece|monarchy]], but has not been retained by the current [[Third Hellenic Republic]]. Under the monarchy, the rank of full ''stratigós'' in active service was reserved for the King and a few other members of the royal family, with very few retired career officers promoted to the rank as an honorary rank. Since {{circa|1970}}, in accordance with NATO practice for the member nations' [[Chief of defence|chiefs of defence]], the rank is held in active service by the Chief of the [[Hellenic National Defense General Staff|General Staff of National Defence]], when he is an Army officer, and is granted to the retiring Chief of the [[Hellenic Army General Staff]].

All but one of the other Greek general officer ranks are derivations of this word: '''''antistrátigos''''' (Antistrategos) and '''''ypostrátigos''''' (Hypostrategos), for [[Lieutenant General]] and [[Major General]], respectively. A [[Brigadier General]] however is called ''[[taxiarch|taxíarchos]]'', after a ''táxis'' (in modern usage ''taxiarchía''), which means brigade. The ranks of ''antistrátigos'' and ''ypostrátigos'' are also used by the [[Hellenic Police]] (and the [[Greek Gendarmerie]] before), the [[Greek Fire Service]] and the [[Cypriot National Guard]], which lack the grade of full ''stratigós''.

{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;" |- style="text-align:center;" | rowspan=2| '''{{army|Cyprus}}'''<ref name="Cyprus">{{cite web |title=Βαθμοί |trans-title=Ranks |url=http://www.army.gov.cy/el/vathmoi |website=army.gov.cy |publisher=Cypriot National Guard |access-date=26 May 2021 |language=el}}</ref> (1964–today) | colspan=4 rowspan=2|  | colspan=2| [[File:Antistratigos Kypros.png|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:Ypostratigos Kypros.png|50px]] |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Αντιστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|Antistrátigos}} | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Υποστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|Ypostrátigos}} |- style="text-align:center;" | rowspan=2| '''{{army|Greece}}'''<ref name="Greece_ArmyOF">{{cite web |title=Επωμίδες Φ/Π Στολών |trans-title=Shoulders for PV Uniforms |url=http://www.army.gr/el/polymesa/diakritika |website=army.gr |publisher=Hellenic Army |access-date=26 May 2021 |language=el}}</ref> (1975–today) | colspan=2 rowspan=2|  | colspan=2| [[File:Army-GRE-OF-09.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:Army-GRE-OF-08.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:Army-GRE-OF-07.svg|50px]] |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Στρατηγός}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Strategos#Modern use|Stratigos]]}} | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Αντιστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Antistratigos]]}} | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Υποστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Ypostratigos]]}} |- style="text-align:center;" ! rowspan=2|'''{{army|Greece}}''' (1909–1937) | colspan=2 rowspan=2|  | colspan=2| [[File:GR-Army-OF9-1912.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:GR-Army-OF8-1912.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:GR-Army-OF7-1912.svg|50px]] |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Στρατηγός}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Strategos#Modern use|Stratigos]]}} | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Αντιστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Antistratigos]]}} | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Υποστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Ypostratigos]]}} |- style="text-align:center;" ! rowspan=2|'''{{flagicon image|blank.svg}} [[Hellenic Police]]''' (1984–today) | colspan=4 rowspan=2|  | colspan=2| [[File:GR-Police-OF8.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:GR-Police-OF7.svg|50px]] |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Αντιστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Antistratigos]]}} | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Υποστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Ypostratigos]]}} |- style="text-align:center;" ! rowspan=2|'''[[Hellenic Fire Service]]''' | colspan=4 rowspan=2|  | colspan=2| [[File:GR-Fireservice-OF8.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:GR-Fireservice-OF7.svg|50px]] |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Αντιστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Antistratigos]]}} | colspan=2| {{lang|el|Υποστράτηγος}} {{lang|el-Latn|[[Ypostratigos]]}} |}

== Notes == {{Notelist}}

== References == {{Reflist}}

== General sources == * [[Debra Hamel|Hamel, Debra]] (1998). ''Athenian Generals: Military Authority in the Classical Period''. Leiden. * Hansen, M. H. (1987). ''The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes''. Oxford. * {{Cite book|last=Krsmanović|first=Bojana|title=The Byzantine Province in Change: On the Threshold Between the 10th and the 11th Century|year=2008|location=Belgrade|publisher=Institute for Byzantine Studies|isbn=9789603710608 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjsjAQAAIAAJ}} * ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', 2nd edition. (1996). "strategoi". * Roberts, John (2005). ''Dictionary of the Classical World''. Oxford.

== External links == {{Wiktionary|στρατηγός}} * {{Cite EB1911|author=Mitchell, John Malcolm|wstitle=Strategus|volume=25|pages=985–986|short=1}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek military terminology]] [[Category:Ancient Greek titles]] [[Category:Byzantine military offices]] [[Category:Gubernatorial titles]] [[Category:Military ranks of ancient Greece]] [[Category:Military ranks of ancient Macedon]] [[Category:Military ranks of Greece]]