Spokane people

{{Short description|Native American tribe in Washington State, U.S.}} {{Multiple issues| {{Cleanup rewrite|the content is inconsistent in itself, and with given references (I made an emergency fix in one place, together with placing this template, but there likely is more)|date=January 2018}} {{Refimprove|date=January 2023}} {{Parenthetical referencing|date=May 2026}} }} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2024}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Spokane Tribe of the Spokane Reservation | native_name = Sqeliz<ref>{{Cite web |title=Names of Tribes |url=https://www.spokanelanguageculture.com/names-of-tribes |access-date=2024-12-28 |website=mysite |language=en}}</ref> | image = Spokane Tribe Logo BW.JPG | image_caption = Tribal logo (ca. 2006)<ref>[http://www.spokanetribe.com/ spokanetribe.com/] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20061004075746/http://spokanetribe.com/ October 2006]) </ref> | population = 2,900<ref>As of 2019, [http://www.spokanetribe.com/reservation " Spokane Tribe "] (retrieved March 16, 2015)</ref> | popplace = {{flagicon|United States}} [[United States]] ({{flagicon|Washington}} [[Washington (state)|Washington]]) | rels = [[Waashat Religion|Dreamer Faith]],<ref>Pritzker, 281</ref> traditional tribal religion, [[Christianity]] | langs = [[English language|English]], Spokane dialect of [[Kalispel-Pend d'Oreille language]]<ref>Pritzker, 280</ref> | related = [[Bitterroot Salish]], [[Coeur d'Alene people|Coeur d'Alene]], [[Kutenai]], [[Kalispel]], and other [[Interior Salish tribes]] }} [[File:3940R Spokane Reservation Locator Map.svg|thumb|Location of the Spokane Indian Reservation]]

The '''Spokan''' or '''Spokane''' people are an [[Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau]] from East [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and parts of Northern [[Idaho]] in the United States of America. They are enrolled in the '''Spokane Tribe of the Spokane Reservation''', a [[federally recognized tribe]] headquartered in [[Wellpinit, Washington]].

{{anchor|Spokane Indian Reservation}}The '''Spokane Indian Reservation''' is located in northeastern Washington state, centered at [[Wellpinit]] (Sčecuwe).<ref name="Places">{{cite web |title=Extra Lesson 5: Local Places |url=https://www.spokanelanguageculture.com/local-places |website=snxʷmeneʔ nqʷlqʷeltn |publisher=Spokane Nation |access-date=2 June 2024}}</ref> The reservation is located almost entirely in [[Stevens County, Washington|Stevens County]], but also includes two small parcels of land (totaling about {{Convert|1.52|acres|disp=sqbr}}) in [[Lincoln County, Washington|Lincoln County]], including part of the [[Spokane River]]. In total, the reservation is about {{Convert|615|km2|}}.

The city of [[Spokane, Washington]] (Sʎˈetkʷ)<ref name="Places"/> is named after the tribe. It developed along the Spokane River, within the historic ancestral land of the tribe, but not within the reservation (see map).

The [[Spokane language]] (Npoqínišcn{{cn|date=May 2021}}) belongs to the [[Interior Salish languages|Interior Salishan language family]] and is a dialect of [[Salish-Spokane-Kalispel language|Montana Salish]]. Therefore the Spokane are closely related by language and culture to the neighboring [[Bitterroot Salish]] (Tˈatˈʔayaqn)<ref name="Tribes">{{cite web |title=Extra Lesson 4: Names of Tribes |url=https://www.spokanelanguageculture.com/names-of-tribes |website=snxʷmeneʔ nqʷlqʷeltn |publisher=Spokane Nation |access-date=2 June 2024}}</ref> and [[Kalispel]].

The Spokane were in loose alliance with other Plateau tribes and sometimes the [[Kutenai]] (Sqlˈse),<ref name="Tribes"/> [[Crow Nation]] (Stemčiʔ)<ref name="Tribes"/> and [[Iron Confederacy|Cree-Assiniboine (Iron Confederacy)]] (Ncoʕʷaqs) joined in fights about against their common enemies, the [[Blackfoot Confederacy]] (Sčqˈʷišni) and later [[Lakota people]] (Hułnʔixʷtˈusm) on the east.

The precontact population of the Spokane people is estimated to be about 1,400 to 2,500 people. The populations of the tribe began to diminish after contact with Euro-American settlers and traders due to mortality from new infectious diseases endemic among the Europeans, and to which the Spokane had no acquired immunity. By 1829 a [[Hudson's Bay Company]] trader estimated there were about 700 Spokane people in the area. Since the early 20th century, their population has been steadily increasing: in 1985 tribal enrolled citizenship was reported as 1,961. In 2019, the tribe reported its population to be around 2,900 people.<ref name="Spokan">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History|date=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Gale Virtual Reference Library|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2442500575&v=2.1&u=puya65247&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=d7660e443a4d952124a9f416d2032ab7|access-date=May 23, 2016}}</ref>

== Name == The name ''Spokane'' is first recorded in 1807. According to [[George Gibbs (ethnologist)|George Gibbs]],{{cn|date=May 2021}} the name was used by the [[Coeur d'Alene people|Coeur d'Alene]] for one specific band of the Spokane, later transferred to all allied bands.

A number of possible interpretations of the name have been proposed. Most frequently, the name has been translated as "Sun children", "Children of the Sun",<ref>David C. Wynecoop, ''Children of the Sun: A History of the Spokane Indians'', 1969 p. 7.</ref> or "Muddy people". According to Pritzker (2011), these interpretations are most probably [[popular etymology|popular etymologies]] (or "faulty translations") derived from an actual self-designation of ''Spoqe'ind'',<ref>variously {{huh|date=May 2021}} ''Spoqe'ind'', ''Spoqín'', ''Sp'q'n'iʔ'', ''Sp'q'n'i''; [https://plateauportal.libraries.wsu.edu/community/spoqi%CC%81n-spokan Plateau People' Web Portal - Spoqín (Spokan)]</ref> meaning "round head."<ref name="Pritzker">{{cite book|last1=Pritzker|first1=Barry M.|title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History|date=2011|publisher=ABC_CLIO|location=Gale Virtual Reference Library|pages=752–753|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3301300695&v=2.1&u=puya65247&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=2f6971c49879639f8a6675cf11b4b5d1|access-date=May 23, 2016}}</ref> The interpretation of "children of the Sun" was reported by Thomas Symons (1882), who attributed it to [[Ross Cox]] (1831), who mentioned the name of a chief in the region as ''Illim-Spokanée'' "Son of the Sun".<ref>Thomas William Symons, ''Report of an Examination of the Upper Columbia River'', United States Army Corps of Engineers, 1882, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kuNFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA128 p. 128].</ref> The word for "Sun" is recorded as ''spukani'' for [[Bitterroot Salish]], but as ''sokemm'' in [[Okanagan language|Okanagan]], and as ''ałdarench'' in Coeur d'Alene, all members of the [[Interior Salish languages|Interior Salish]] branch of Salish.<ref>[http://www.native-languages.org/famsal_words.htm Vocabulary Words in the Salishan Language Family] (native-languages.org)</ref>

The word ''sqeliz'', meaning "people", is also recorded as an autonym.{{Cn|date=May 2021}}

== History == For thousands of years the Spokane people lived near the [[Spokane River]] in the territory of present-day eastern [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and northern [[Idaho]], surviving by hunting and gathering.<ref name="Ruby">{{cite book|last1=Ruby|first1=Robert H.|title=The Spokane Indians: Children of the Sun|url=https://archive.org/details/spokaneindiansch0000ruby|url-access=registration|date=1970|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=0-8061-0905-X}}</ref> Spokane territory once sprawled over three million acres (12,000 km²) of land. The Spokanes lived along the river in three bands known as the Upper, Middle and Lower Spokane Indians. The Spokane bands were [[semi nomadic]], following game and plants on a seasonal basis for nine months of the year, and settling in permanent winter villages for the other three.

The first Europeans whom the Spokane people had contact with were [[fur trader]]s and explorers. The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] encountered the Spokane tribe in 1805. Already the Spokane people were dwindling in population from introduced Eurasian diseases, such as [[smallpox]], which were endemic among Europeans.<ref name="Pritzker" /> Shortly after the encounter with the Lewis and Clark Expedition, fur traders and settlers arrived. In 1810, the [[North West Company]] opened the [[Spokane House]] near the confluence of the Spokane and [[Little Spokane River|Little Spokane]] (Nxweme'a'tkxy - "river where the [[Steelhead trout]] run") rivers as a trade post. The [[Pacific Fur Company]] established [[Fort Spokane]] (Čˈłyaqˈ) in 1811.<ref name="Spokan" /> Much later, the structure was used as an [[Indian boarding school]] for the Spokane children, from 1898 to 1906.<ref name="Pritzker" /> The Spokane took prominent part in the so called [[Coeur d'Alene War]] (Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Pend d'oreille-Paloos War) of 1858, a series of encounters between the allied Native American tribes of the Skitswish ("Coeur d'Alene"), Kalispell ("Pend'Oreille"), Spokane, Palouse and Northern Paiute against United States Army forces in Washington and Idaho which centered in ancestral Spokane territories.

A treaty for the Spokane people could not be established due to Governor [[Isaac Stevens]]' failure to return to the Tribe to negotiate the Treaty. This was due to the Yakama Wars between 1855 and 1858. By executive order by President Rutherford B Hayes, between the federal government and the tribe, the people ceded most of their territory, accepting removal to the [[Spokane Reservation]], which was established in 1881. In 1877, the [[Lower Spokane people]] (Scqesciłni) agreed to move to the Spokane Reservation. In 1887, the [[Upper Spokane people|Upper]] (Sntʔtʔúlixʷ) and [[Middle Spokane people]] (Snxʷme̓nʔey) agreed to move to the [[Colville Reservation]] predominately inhabited by the Colville people (Sxʷyelpetkʷ). Not all the Spokane people moved from their traditional territory, which caused some conflict with white settlers. In the [[Coeur d'Alene War]] of 1858, the Spokane had allied with the [[Coeur d'Alene people|Coeur d'Alene]] (Sčicwˈi), [[Yakama|Yakima]] (Yiʔaqmeʔ), [[Palouse]], and [[Northern Paiute|Paiute]] peoples against the European Americans. In the [[Nez Perce War]] of 1877, they remained neutral despite pleas from [[Nez Perce people|Nez Perce]] (Saʕaptni) chief [[Chief Joseph]] to join him in trying to expel the settlers.<ref name="Pritzker" /> Prior to colonization by European-Americans, Chewelah was home to a band of the Kalispel people. The band was known as the slet̓éw̓si, meaning "valley people". The Chewelah Band of Indians is currently part of the Spokane Tribe.

===Post–World War II history=== Around the 1950s, uranium was discovered on the reservation. With the development of nuclear weapons and other tools, it was considered highly valuable. It was mined (under leases arranged on behalf of the Spokane by the federal government) from 1956 to 1962 out of an [[open pit]]. This practice was ended, and from 1969 to 1982, uranium was mined at the [[Midnite Mine]]. The now [[inactive mine]] is on the list of [[Superfund]] cleanup sites, as the mining process left the grounds and underground water highly contaminated by metals, radionucleides and [[acid mine drainage|acidic drainage]].

The creation of dams on the Spokane and related waterways, to generate hydroelectric power and provide water for irrigation in the arid eastern part of the state, has also affected the Spokane people. Construction of the Little Falls dam resulted in the end of most of the salmon run at [[Spokane Falls]]. The [[Grand Coulee Dam]], on the Columbia River, blocked salmon from migrating upriver and ended all salmon runs on the Spokane River.<ref name="Spokan" />

The tribe owns the Mistequa Casino Hotel (previously known as the Chewelah Casino) in [[Chewelah, Washington|Chewelah]], which opened in 1993,<ref>{{Cite web |title=About |url=https://mistequa.com/about/ |access-date=2024-12-29 |website=Mistequa Casino Hotel |language=en-US}}</ref> and the Spokane Tribe Resort and Casino in [[Airway Heights, Washington|Airway Heights]], which opened in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spokane Tribe Casino {{!}} 2024 Updates |url=https://www.500nations.com/casinos/wa-spokane-tribe-casino.asp |access-date=2024-12-29 |website=www.500nations.com}}</ref>

The Spokane Tribe is one of several tribal governments in the [[northwestern United States]] to offer [[Free public transport|free bus service]] on its reservation.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.spokanetribe.com/resources/dnr/transit-services/ | title=TRANSIT SERVICES – Spokane Tribe of Indians }}</ref>

== Culture == === Organization === The Spokane tribe was divided into three geographic divisions, upper, lower, and middle. Each area was divided into bands, which were composed of groups of related families or kin groups.

The '''Upper Spokane''' or '''Sntʔtʔúlixʷ (Sntu't'ulixi)''' ("People of the Falls") resided along the Little Spokane River and all the country east of the Lower Spokane to within the borders of the Coeur d'Alene and Kalispel, sometimes their name is given as '''Sineka'lt''' ("[People] at the Rapids"). The '''Middle Spokane''' or '''Snxʷme̓nʔey (Snx'w'meney)''' ("People of the steelhead river, i.e. Little Spokane River") occupied the area near Spokane Falls to Hangman (Latah) Creek and Deep Creek to Tum Tum, Middle Spokane territory includes Spokane House, the site of the first permanent white settlement in Washington State, another variant of their name is '''Snxwemi'ne''' ("People of the steelhead trout place"). The '''Lower Spokane''' or '''Scqesciłni (Scqecioni)''' ("People of Little Falls") traditionally occupied the lower Spokane River from Little Falls to the confluence of the Columbia River, also known as '''Squasi'lni''' ("Fishers", after a settlement name).

Individual bands were led by a '''Ilmixʷm''' or chief and a sub chief, who were both selected to lead based on their leadership qualities. Decisions were made by consensus of the group.<ref name="Pritzker" />

The Spokane had a [[matrilocal]] custom, in which the husband of a Spokane woman, after marriage, would join her and her people as the site of their home together. Occasionally, the wife would move to the husband's people. There was mobility between bands, by which a person or family could spend one winter with a band and the next winter with another.<ref name="Ruby" />

===Lifestyle=== The Spokane diet consisted of fish, local game, and plants, including nuts and roots. The men hunted whitetail deer and mule deer, which provided essential protein and other nutrients in the winter. Individual hunters would track the deer and kill them using a bow and arrow. Fish, especially salmon, were a huge part of the Spokane diet and also a large part of the trade economy. The Spokane people also ate trout and whitefish. They would smoke or dry the fish for trade or for storage in winter. Fish eyes were considered delicacies. Plants gathered by women provided nearly half of the caloric intake for the Spokane tribe.<ref name="Spokan" />

=== Gender roles === Men of the Spokane tribe created tools, fished, and hunted. After the tribe acquired horses, the men cared for and trained these animals, and horses became a measure of wealth. The animals allowed the people to travel wider territories, and were used also to carry or pull their supplies. The men rode the horses during hunting and warfare.<ref name="Pritzker" /> Horses were introduced to the Spokane tribe from either the [[Nez Perce people|Nez Perce]], [[Kalispel]], or [[Bitterroot Salish|Flathead]] tribe. By about 1800, the Spokane tribe was acquiring herds, showing that they had fully embraced use of these animals.

Spokane women made coiled baskets out of birch bark (or from cedar roots). They wove wallets and bags from strips of processed animal hide. They would also sew mats and other items which were sometimes traded with other Native peoples and white traders and settlers.<ref name="Pritzker" /> Some of the plants they gathered were [[camassia|camas]] roots and local berries and barks. The women used digging sticks to uproot and gather their food. It was a fundamental tool for their lives, and it was a rite of passage for young girls to be given their first digging sticks. Women's graves were often marked with these sticks.<ref name="Spokan" />

=== Religion === A Spokane religion was the [[Dreamer Cult]],{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} also called ''Washani'', meaning "worship" or "dancers". It developed in the [[Plateau Indian|Columbia Plateau tribes]] and emerged from the pressures of colonization during the second half of the nineteenth century.<ref name="Fisher" />

The Dreamer Cult developed as a mix of traditional spirituality and aspects of Christianity. The Dreamer prophets rejected non-Native culture and belief systems. The prophets advocated returning to traditional ways of life. "[P]rior to contact, Plateau Indian spirituality revolved around a complex of Winter dances, personal vision quests, and seasonal feasts tied to the annual subsistence cycle and the acquisition of guardian spirit powers"(Fisher).<ref name="Fisher">{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Andrew H.|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History|date=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Gale Virtual Reference Library|pages=380–381|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2442500121&v=2.1&u=puya65247&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=596d771535782dab938e634f59c15982|access-date=May 23, 2016}}</ref>

A few examples of spiritual dances include the [[Prophet Dance]] and the [[Spirit Dance]], which took place in mid-January. Dancers sought to identify with the Prophet's spirit. In the Spirit Dance a [[shaman]] would call upon the spirit to visit an individual.<ref name="Ruby" />

It is believed the prophet [[Smohalla]] in a vision <blockquote>foresaw the disappearance of the whites, the resurrection of the Indian dead, and the restoration of the world to a pristine state. This millennial transformation required no acts of violence — indeed, most Dreamers counseled pacifism — but to achieve it, the Indians had to obey the instructions of the Creator as conveyed through the prophets[.] :—Andrew H. Fisher, ''Encyclopedia of American Indian History''<ref name="Fisher" /></blockquote>

The Dreamer Cult remained prominent within the Columbia Plateau peoples until the early 1890s, when the major prophets died and their followers began to lose faith in the promise of a world free of white people. The closest contemporary religion to the Washani is the [[Seven Drums Religion]].<ref name="Fisher" />

==Mythology== ===Stories=== * "Spokane Lake of Long Ago" told by Chief Lot<ref name="Clark">{{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Ella E. |date=1974 |orig-year=1953 |title=Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest |url=https://archive.org/details/indianlegendsofp00clar/ |url-access=subscription |edition=1971 reprint |others=Illustrations by Robert Bruce Inverarity |location=Berkeley, Calif. |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-00243-1 |oclc=1035713573}} 12th printing; year is approximate, and based on the [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/card%20page card page]'s list.</ref>{{Rp|pp=[https://archive.org/details/indianlegendsofp00clar/page/74 74–75]}} * "The Origin of the Spokane River"<ref name="Clark"/>{{Rp|pp=[https://archive.org/details/indianlegendsofp00clar/page/116 116–117]}}

=== Creation story === {{quote frame | quote = The Creator, Amotkan made light only after all the animals had congregated to create it for Woodpecker up it, but the pole was too hot for him. They next sent Coyote up the pole. But he was too noisy, all the time shouting down to his children. Bear volunteered, but he found it too cold atop the pole. The sound of thunder shattered their efforts then. It loosened a piece of red rock, which turned into a handsome red man. He wanted a brother, so Amotkan gave him one made from the root of an herb called spowaunch. The two brothers went to a lodge occupied by a witch, Lady Bullfrog. She became so enamored of the brother formed of the root that she leaped onto his face—and stuck there. In pulling loose, she tore out one of his eyes. He then volunteered to ascend into the sky to be light for the earth, for he did not want people to see his face, now missing one eye. Thus, he became the sun, and when people looked at him, they had to close one of their own eyes. The other man joined his lonely brother in the sky. But before he did so, Lady Bullfrog had jumped onto his face, too. He became the moon. Today, if one looks carefully at the moon, one can see Lady Bullfrog clinging to his face.

Because he was lonesome, Coyote, after several failures, made Spokane man… Coyote then mixed all these elements together [pitch, clay, hot rock, and reeds] and—adding berries, smoke, and fire—created the Spokane man. With these same elements, he created Spokane woman, and Amotkan, the Creator, gave her life. Man and woman soon became wild, caring little for the safety of the others who had sprung from them. A flood came then and covered the land, destroying all except a few people. The survivors banded together for safety, elected a leader, and multiplied. In time, the leader divided the people into small groups. They became the various tribes. | source = Spokane [[creation mythos]] as retold in ''The Spokane Indians: Children of the Sun'' (Ruby) <ref name="Ruby" /> }}

==Notable tribal citizens==   * [[Sherman Alexie]] (Spokane–[[Coeur d'Alene people|Coeur d'Alene]]), author and filmmaker * [[Gloria Bird]], poet and scholar * [[Betty David]], fashion designer * [[Chief Garry]] or [[Spokane Garry]], (Spokan name: Slough-Keetcha), 19th-century Middle Spokane tribal leader and later of the Upper Spokane tribe too, diplomat and spokesman * [[Charlene Teters]], artist and anti-mascot activist

==See also== * ''[[The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian]]'' (book) * [[Coeur d'Alene War]] (aka the Spokane War) * [[Spokane Indians]] (baseball team)

==Notes== {{Reflist|2}}

==References== * Clark, Ella (1953). ''Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest''. Berkeley: University of California Press. Print. * Fisher, Andrew H. (2008). "Dreamer Cult". Ed. Bruce E. Johansen and Barry M. Pritzker. ''Encyclopedia of American Indian History''. Vol. 2. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 380-381. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. May 23, 2016. * Pritzker, Barry M. (2000). ''A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-513877-1}}. * Pritzker, Barry M. (2011). "Spokanes". Ed. [[Spencer C. Tucker]], James Arnold, and Roberta Wiener, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History''. Vol. 2. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 752-753. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. May 23, 2016. * Ruby, Robert H., and Brown, John A. (1970). ''The Spokane Indians: Children of the Sun''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Print. * [https://www.census.gov Spokane Reservation, Washington]. [[United States Census Bureau]].{{Full citation needed|date=April 2026}}

==External links== * [http://www.spokanetribe.com/ Spokane Tribe of Indians], official site * [http://www.wellpinit.wednet.edu/salish/spokans.php History and Culture, presented in the Website of the Wellpinit School District] * [http://spokanelanguage.com/ Spokane Tribe of Indians Language Program] * {{CathEncy|wstitle=Spokan Indians}} * [http://www.ross.ws/Spokan ''The Spokan Indians''], by John Alan Ross, published 2011, {{ISBN|978-0-9832311-0-3}}, the definitive ethnography * [http://spokanesalish.wordpress.com/2012/04/25/inl%CA%94ew/ "nlʔew"]—''Spokane Language House'' (Spokane Salish blog)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Spokane People}} [[Category:Spokane people| ]] [[Category:American Indian reservations in Washington (state)]] [[Category:Culture of Spokane, Washington]] [[Category:Interior Salish]] [[Category:Native American tribes in Washington (state)]]