Restoration (Spain)

{{Short description|Period in the history of Spain, 1874–1931}} {{About|the Bourbon Restoration in Spain of 1874|the Bourbon Restoration in Spain of 1814|Absolutist Restoration|the Bourbon Restoration in Spain of 1975|Spanish transition to democracy}} {{ref improve|date=November 2023}} {{Merge portions from|Contemporary history of Spain|[[Contemporary history of Spain#Bourbon Restoration in Spain (1874–1931)|Bourbon Restoration in Spain (1874–1931)]]|date=May 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} {{Infobox former country | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Spain | native_name = {{lang|es|Reino de España}} | common_name = Spain | iso3166code = omit | era = | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]] *under an [[Anocracy|anocratic]] [[partitocracy]] ([[Turno|1881–1916]]) *under a [[military dictatorship]] ([[Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera|1923–1930]]; [[Dictablanda of Dámaso Berenguer|1930–1931]]) | event_start = [[Pronunciamiento]] | year_start = 1874 | date_start = 29 December | event_end = [[Second Spanish Republic|Second Spanish Republic formed]] | year_end = 1931 | date_end = 14 April | event1 = [[Spanish Constitution of 1876|Constitution adopted]] | date_event1 = 30 June 1876 | event2 = [[Spanish–American War]] | date_event2 = April–August 1898 | event3 = [[Second Melillan campaign]] | date_event3 = 1909–1910 | event4 = [[Rif War]] | date_event4 = 1920–1926 | p1 = First Spanish Republic | flag_p1 = Flag of the First Spanish Republic.svg | s1 = Second Spanish Republic | flag_s1 = Flag of Spain (1931–1939).svg | flag = Flag of Spain (1785–1873, 1875–1931) | image_flag = Flag of Spain (1785-1873 and 1875-1931).svg | symbol = Coat of arms of Spain | image_coat = Royal Greater Coat of Arms of Spain (1761-1868 and 1874-1931) Version with Golden Fleece and Order of Charles III Collars.svg | image_map = Spain in 1898.png | image_map_caption = The Kingdom of Spain and its [[Spanish Empire#Last territories in the Americas and the Pacific (1833–1898)|overseas colonies]] in 1898 | capital = [[Madrid]] | national_motto = {{Native name|la|[[Plus Ultra]]}} "Further Beyond" | national_anthem = {{Native name|es|[[Marcha Real]]}} "Royal March"<div class="center" style="margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Marcha Real (1915).ogg]]</div> | common_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]] | religion = [[Roman Catholicism]] ([[state religion]]) | currency = [[Spanish peseta]] | leader1 = [[Alfonso XII]] | year_leader1 = 1874–1885 | leader2 = [[Alfonso XIII]] | year_leader2 = 1886–1931 | title_leader = [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]] | representative1 = [[Maria Christina of Austria|Maria Christina]] | year_representative1 = 1885–1902 | title_representative = [[List of Spanish regents|Regent]] | deputy1 = [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo|Antonio Cánovas]] | year_deputy1 = 1874–1875 (first) | deputy2 = [[Juan Bautista Aznar Cabañas|Juan B. Aznar]] | year_deputy2 = 1931 (last) | title_deputy = [[List of Prime Ministers of Spain|Prime Minister]] | legislature = [[Cortes Generales]] | house1 = [[Senate of Spain|Senate]] | house2 = [[Congress of Deputies of Spain|Congress of Deputies]] | stat_year1 = | stat_area1 = | stat_pop1 = | footnotes = | demonym = [[Spaniards]] }}

The '''Restoration''' ({{langx|es|Restauración}}) or '''Bourbon Restoration''' ({{langx|es|Restauración borbónica|links=no}}) was the period in [[Spanish history]] between the [[First Spanish Republic]] and the [[Second Spanish Republic]] from 1874 to 1931. It began on 29 December 1874, after a ''[[pronunciamento]]'' by General [[Arsenio Martínez Campos]] in Valencia ended the First Spanish Republic and restored the [[Monarchy of Spain|Bourbon monarchy]] under [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]] [[Alfonso XII]], and ended on 14 April 1931 with the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.

After nearly a century of political instability and several civil wars, the Restoration attempted to establish a [[Political system of the Restoration (Spain)|new political system that ensured stability]] through the practice of ''[[turno]]'', an intentional rotation of liberal and conservative parties in leadership, often achieved through [[electoral fraud]]. Critics of the ''turnismo'' system included [[Republicanism in Spain|republicans]], [[Socialism|socialists]], [[Communism|communists]], [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchists]], [[Basque nationalism|Basque]] and [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan]] nationalists, and [[Carlism|Carlists]]. However, the relative stability to the ''turnismo'' system outlived its creator, the Conservative politician [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo]], and characterised the era with comparative peace, despite great social inequalities in the agricultural areas of Spain, and sporadic unrest relating to military defeats abroad.

During the [[interwar period]], the Bourbon monarchy [[Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera|tied itself to the dictatorship]] of General [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] in 1923, an event that succeeded by means of both a [[1923 Spanish coup d'état|military coup d'état]] and the acquiescence of [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]] [[Alfonso XIII]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera: A Political Reassessment|jstor=260237|author-link=Shlomo Ben-Ami|first=Shlomo|last=Ben-Ami|year=1977|issn=0022-0094|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]]|volume=12|issue=1|pages=65–84|doi=10.1177/002200947701200103|s2cid=155074826}}</ref> It took the protracted political turmoil in the wake of [[Economic history of World War I|economic depression]], caused by the [[Aftermath of World War I|aftermath of the First World War]], and the [[Battle of Annual|Spanish defeat at the Annual]] in [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco|Morocco]] for the restored monarchy to be [[Fall of the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera|swept away with Rivera's dictatorship]], ending with the general being forced to resign in 1930 and the king's voluntary dethronement and exile to [[Fascist Italy]] in 1931.

==Characteristics== The Restoration period was characterized by political instability, economic challenges, and social unrest. Key issues that defined the period include:<ref>Raymond Carr, ''Spain, 1808-1975'' (1982) pp. 347–602. [https://archive.org/details/spain1808197502edcarr online]</ref><ref>Stanley G. Payne, '' A History of Spain and Portugal. Vol. 2 After 1700'' (1973) pp 488-512, 578-629. [https://libro.uca.edu/payne2/index.htm online]. </ref> * '''[[Political conservatism]]:''' The Restoration was marked by a resurgence of [[Conservatism|conservative]] [[right-wing politics]] under the [[Conservative Party (Spain)|Conservative Party]], led by [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo]], and the [[Liberal Party (Spain, 1880)|Liberal Party]], led by [[Práxedes Mateo Sagasta]], both supporting the restoration of the [[Monarchy of Spain|Bourbon monarchy]]. The new [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]] [[Alfonso XII]] successfully restored stability after years of political upheaval and turmoil. However, this stability was often maintained through [[political repression]] and the silencing of [[Opposition (politics)|genuine opposition]]. * '''Economic struggles:''' During the Restoration, Spain faced several economic difficulties, such as [[Unemployment in Spain|high unemployment]] and [[inflation]]. The country also suffered from significant [[Economic inequality|wealth disparities]] and [[social inequality]], with a small but wealthy [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[elite]] controlling most of Spain's resources. * '''[[Social unrest]]:''' The period witnessed waves of social upheaval and the growth of [[Republicanism in Spain|republican]], [[Socialism|socialist]], [[Communism|communist]], and [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist]] movements. These political groups, along with [[labor unions]] such as the socialist [[Unión General de Trabajadores]] (UGT) and the anarchist [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (CNT), sought to address the social and economic inequalities within Spanish society, and often clashed with the [[Political system of the Restoration (Spain)|liberal–conservative government]] supporting the Bourbon monarchy. [[Wars of national liberation#Decolonization period|Wars of national liberation]] in the former colonies of the [[Spanish Empire]] continued to spread among its remaining [[Spanish Empire#Last territories in the Americas and the Pacific (1833–1898)|overseas territories]] after the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] (1808–1833). * '''Regional tensions:''' Spain has a long history of regional tensions, which further intensified during the Restoration. [[List of active separatist movements in Europe#Spain|Various independence movements in Spain]] emerged in different regions calling for greater administrative autonomy and self-governance, such as [[Catalonia]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], and the [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]]. * '''War:''' In 1898, Spain lost nearly all its remaining colonies in the [[Spanish–American War]], including [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]], [[History of Guam#Spanish colonization|Guam]], [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]], and [[Captaincy General of the Philippines|the Philippines]] (1833–1898). This defeat was a major blow to Spanish national pride and significantly impacted the country's economic and political decline. Conflict with the [[Kingdom of Morocco]], coming to a head in the [[Rif War]] (1920–1926), worsened economic conditions and morale. * '''Cultural revival:''' Despite political and economic challenges, [[Belle Époque|Spain experienced a cultural revival]] during this period. Spanish art, literature, and music experienced renewed interest, and many important cultural figures emerged.

==Alfonso XII and the Regency of Maria Christina (1874–1898)== {{Main|Reign of Alfonso XII}} {{Further|Manifesto of Sandhurst|Political system of the Restoration (Spain)|Regency of Maria Christina of Austria}} [[File:El rey Alfonso XII de España (Museo del Prado).jpg|left|thumb|200px|Portrait of [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]] [[Alfonso XII]]. Oil on canvas by Enrique Estevan y Vicente (1889), [[Teatro Real]], [[Madrid]], Spain.]]

On 29 December 1874, General [[Arsenio Martínez Campos]]'s ''[[pronunciamiento]]'' overthrew the [[First Spanish Republic]] by triumphal entry on behalf of Alfonso XII into Valencia, and thereby restored the monarchy, crowning [[Alfonso XII]], son of the exiled [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]], as [[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]]. Having returned from Paris where his mother had abdicated ''de jure'' in 1870 in exile, he was crowned early in 1875. Having been educated at the [[Theresianum]] in Vienna and [[Royal Military College, Sandhurst|Sandhurst]] in Britain, he was cosmopolitan and well groomed to reign.

The [[Spanish Constitution of 1876|Constitution of 1876]] was soon established; it remained in force throughout the Restoration. This constitution established Spain as a [[constitutional monarchy]] with a bicameral legislature ([[Cortes Generales]]) consisting of an upper house ([[Senate of Spain|Senate]]) and a lower house ([[Congress of Deputies of Spain|Congress of Deputies]]). The King held the power to appoint senators and to annul laws at his discretion. He was given the honorific title of [[Commander-in-chief|Commander-in-Chief]] of the army. The [[Liberal Party (Spain, 1880)|Liberal Party]], led by [[Práxedes Mateo Sagasta]], and the [[Conservative Party (Spain)|Conservative Party]], led by [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo]], alternated in power through the [[Political system of the Restoration (Spain)|controlled process of ''turnismo'']], or [[Turno|''el turno pacífico'']]. Local figures, known as [[Cacique|''caciques'']], manipulated the election results, fueling growing resentment of the system.<ref name="Luzon 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Luzón |first1=Javier Moreno |title=Political Clientelism, Elites, and Caciquismo in Restoration Spain (1875--1923) |journal=European History Quarterly |date=July 2007 |volume=37 |issue=3|page=417-441 |doi=10.1177/0265691407078445 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237967994 |access-date=7 May 2024 |location=Complutense University of Madrid}}</ref> This led to the formation of major nationalist movements and unions in [[Catalonia]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], and the [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]]. However the relative stability of this system after the upheavals of the [[Liberal Sexennial]] (1868–1874) gave him the nickname of ''El Pacificador'' ("the Peacemaker").

Alfonso XII had lost his first wife, [[Mercedes of Orléans|María de las Mercedes of Orléans]], in 1878, mourning her at the royal hunting lodge of the Palace of Riofrio, and then died in November 1885 from a recurrence of [[dysentery]].<ref>"Death of the King of Spain", ''[[The Times]]'' (26 November 1885): 7.</ref> At that time, his second wife [[Maria Christina of Austria|Maria Cristina]] was pregnant. Their son [[Alfonso XIII]] was born on 17 May 1886, and a Regency was formed, headed by the Queen Mother Maria Cristina.

==Reign of Alfonso XIII and crisis of the system (1898–1923)== {{Main|Reign of Alfonso XIII}} {{Further|Bolshevik triennium|Crisis of the Restoration|Spain during World War I}} [[File:Alfonso XIII, con uniforme de capitán general de Artillería (Museo del Prado).jpg|left|thumb|200px|Portrait of [[List of Spanish monarchs|King]] [[Alfonso XIII]] in uniform, displaying the badges of the [[Order of Santiago]] and [[Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand]]. Oil on canvas by Víctor Morelli Sánchez-Gil (1910), [[Museo del Prado]], [[Madrid]], Spain.]]

The [[Reign of Alfonso XIII|new reign]] was initially popular with the subjects of ''el rey niño'' ("the child-king"), and a ''[[Le Figaro]]'' article described [[Alfonso XIII]] in 1889 as "the happiest and best-loved of all the rulers on Earth".<ref>"The Happiest Living Monarch", ''The New York Times''. 14 August 1889.</ref> However, [[Wars of national liberation#Decolonization period|wars of national liberation]] fought by [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] [[Revolutionary|revolutionaries]] in the [[Caribbean]] ([[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]] and [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]) and [[Pacific Ocean]] ([[History of Guam#Spanish colonization|Guam]] and [[Captaincy General of the Philippines|the Philippines]]) against the [[Spanish Empire]] (1833–1898) continued to drain resources, and domestic discontent meant that [[Antonio Cánovas del Castillo]], architect of the ''[[turnismo]]'' [[Political system of the Restoration (Spain)|political system]], was assassinated by a [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish anarchist]] in 1897. Eventually, the [[Spanish–American War]] led to the loss of Spain's last major [[Spanish Empire#Last territories in the Americas and the Pacific (1833–1898)|overseas colonies]] in 1898. This rapid collapse devastated Spain and damaged the credibility of the government and its associated ideologies. It also nearly caused a military coup d'état led by General [[Camilo García de Polavieja]]. This event marked the beginning of the country's political and economic decline, giving rise to numerous conflicting opposition movements at local and national levels.<ref>Earl Ray Beck, ''Time of Triumph & Sorrow: Spanish Politics during the Reign of Alfonso XII, 1874–1885'' (1979)</ref> Alfonso XIII came of age in May 1902 and was crowned on 17 May 1902, ending the regency of the Queen Mother.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1902-03-29 |title=ALFONSO'S REIGN BEGINS MAY 17.; He Will Take the Oath on That Day -- Festivities to Last a Week. |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1902/03/29/archives/alfonsos-reign-begins-may-17-he-will-take-the-oath-on-that-day.html |access-date= |issn=}}</ref>

Spain began her international rehabilitation by selling her remaining colonial possessions to the [[German Empire]] in 1899, and being awarded the mainland of [[Spanish Guinea]], the [[Río Muni]], in a common agreement with [[French Third Republic|Republican France]] in 1900. This took off after the [[Algeciras Conference]] of 1906. Spain was accorded by common consent of the [[European imperialism|European]] [[Great Powers]] against the sabre rattling foreign policy of [[German Emperor|Kaiser]] [[Wilhelm II]], a [[Treaty Between France and Spain Regarding Morocco|Spanish sphere of influence in northern Morocco]] that became a formal protectorate in 1912 by the [[Treaty of Fez]], giving the Spanish military a new outlet after the loss of 1898 to expend itself upon and thus was born the [[Africanist (Spain)|"Africanist" ideology]], which Alfonso became a leading supporter of up until his abdication.<ref>Antonio Ñíguez Bernal .p. 94. [https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/QUCE/article/viewFile/QUCE8787120071A/1771 Las relaciones políticas, económicas y culturales entre España y los Estados Unidos en los siglos XIX y XX]</ref> In 1907, it signed the [[Pact of Cartagena]] with France and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]], a defensive alliance against the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]. The Spanish government was able to begin rebuilding its fleet and built the [[España-class battleship]] and the [[Reina Victoria Eugenia-class battleship]]. The last was named after Alfonso's new British wife, [[Victoria Eugenia of Battenberg]] (nicknamed Ena), granddaughter of [[Queen Victoria]]. Their marriage produced two haemophiliac sons, however, and Alfonso never forgave his wife, starting numerous affairs with other women.

In 1909, [[Second Melillan campaign|failed attempts to conquer Morocco]] led to domestic discontent, culminating in a revolt known as the ''[[Tragic Week (Catalonia)|Semana Tragica]]'' in [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]]. The rebellion, led mainly by lower-class citizens and supported by [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchists]], [[Communism|communists]], and [[Republicanism in Spain|republicans]], was a response to what they saw as unfair practices in recruiting soldiers. The government declared a state of war and sent in troops to put down the uprising, which resulted in more than a hundred deaths and the execution of the anarchist educator [[Francisco Ferrer]]. The socialist [[Unión General de Trabajadores]] (UGT) and the anarchist [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (CNT) attempted to organize a national general strike, but the unions were only able to mobilize urban workers.

When [[World War I]] broke out in 1914, [[Spain during World War I|Spain remained neutral]]; as a result, its economic and industrial growth largely derived from exporting arms to [[Allies of World War I|the Entente]] from the armaments sector in towns like [[Eibar]], [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]], located nearby the [[France–Spain border|Spanish–French border]].<ref>{{cite web |last=McEvoy |first=William P. |year=2003 |title=Spain During the First World War |url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/spain.htm |access-date=2009-07-16 |publisher=FirstWorldWar.com}}</ref>{{better source|date=January 2025}} Spain profited too by diplomatically taking over the consulates of warring nations and acting as an intermediary. Notwithstanding a brief war scare when the German high command resumed to [[Mediterranean U-boat campaign of World War I|unrestricted submarine warfare in Spring 1917]], which saw the [[American entry into World War I|United States enter the war]] (April 1917) and Spain nearly do the same, Alfonso XIII offered to mediate peace on several instances, offered the dispossessed [[Romanov family]] shelter in Spain after the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] (October 1917), established in the [[Royal Palace of Madrid]] an office for finding lost relatives that earned him a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] recommendation, and the [[List of diplomatic missions of Spain|Spanish Consul in Jerusalem]], Antonio de Ballobar, negotiated the [[British Mandate-era Jerusalem|handover of the Holy City to the British forces]] led by General Sir [[Edmund Allenby]] (December 1917). The [[Revolutions of 1917–1923|left-wing strikes of 1917–1918]] and the [[economic bubble]]'s bursting after the end of the war left Spain rocked by [[financial crisis]], while the [[1918–1920 flu pandemic]] resulted in the death of 200,000 [[Spaniards]] (1% of the population).<ref>{{cite journal|title=La gripe del siglo|url=https://www.laopiniondezamora.es/zamora/2008/12/22/gripe-siglo/322911.html|journal=La opinión de Zamora|date=22 December 2012|access-date=22 January 2022|archive-date=7 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607081543/https://www.laopiniondezamora.es/zamora/2008/12/22/gripe-siglo/322911.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Cien años de la pandemia de la "gripe española"|url=https://www.laopiniondezamora.es/zamora/2018/10/22/cien-anos-pandemia-gripe-espanola/1118555.html|journal=La opinión de Zamora|date=22 October 2018}}</ref>

The King and the conservatives shifted increasingly in reaction away from stability in ''turnismo'' after the entry of [[Liberalism and radicalism in Spain|radical republicans]] and [[Far-left politics|far-left groups]] into the ''[[Cortes Generales]]'', such as the creation of the [[Spanish Communist Party]] (1920–1921), and became more and more [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]]. In 1921, conflict in [[Spanish protectorate in Morocco|Spanish-ruled Morocco]] escalated, beginning the [[Rif War]] (1920–1926). A group of Moroccan militants from the [[Republic of the Rif]] launched a surprise attack on the [[Army of Africa (Spain)|Army of Spanish Morocco]]. Led by the Moroccan chieftain [[Abd el-Krim]], a coalition of [[Riffians]] and [[Jebala people|Jebala]] nearly annihilated the Spanish forces numbering some 10,000-13,000 men and pushed them back toward [[Melilla]] in the [[battle of Annual]]. The top military officers were blamed for the Spanish defeat due to poor planning. This led to lowered morale among the military, who felt misunderstood as they were ordered to advance inland without adequate resources to occupy the difficult terrain. A parliamentary inquiry was launched, and the purported role of the King in insisting on advance even in spite of advice to the contrary was seized upon by the [[Republican Party (Spain, 1913)|Republican Party]] as proof of his incompetence as late as 1931. Prime Minister [[Eduardo Dato]] was assassinated by motorcycle-riding gunmen in March as well, the third such minister to be so killed in three decades, and Spain reeled from one crisis after another crisis.

==Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923–1930)== {{Main|Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera}} {{Further|1923 Spanish coup d'état|Reign of Alfonso XIII}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-09414, Primo de Rivera.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Photograph of General [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] (March 1930). [[Berlin]], [[Bundesarchiv]], Germany.]]

Military and civil unrest grew, amplified by fears of anarchist terrorism or proletarian revolution and the rise of nationalist movements. On 13 September 1923, [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]], [[Captain General of Catalonia]], staged a [[1923 Spanish coup d'état|coup d'état]] and deposed Prime Minister [[Manuel García Prieto, Marquis of Alhucemas|Manuel García Prieto]] after issuing a manifesto blaming Spain's problems on the parliamentary system. [[Alfonso XIII]] supported the general and appointed him the new prime minister.

Primo de Rivera suspended the constitution and assumed absolute powers as a dictator. Despite his backing of abandonismo, he was the one who defeated Abd el-Krim after he attacked the French zone, obliging French marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] to enter into joint military operations with the Spanish at [[Al Hoceima|Alhucemas Bay]] in 1925 that led to the defeat of the [[Rif Republic]]. He created the [[Unión Patriótica Española]], the only recognized political party, and banned all others. He increased spending on businesses and public services, which led to the bankruptcy of his government. As a result of these actions, the military withdrew their support. Alfonso XIII did the same and forced him to resign in January 1930.<ref>Shlomo Ben-Ami, "The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera: A Political Reassessment," Journal of Contemporary History, Jan 1977, Vol. 12 Issue 1, pp 65–84</ref>

==Final years (1930–1931)== {{Main|Fall of the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera}} {{Further|1931 Spanish local elections|Dictablanda of Dámaso Berenguer}}

Alfonso XIII attempted to gradually restore the previous system and bolster his prestige by enlisting General [[Dámaso Berenguer]] as [[Prime Minister of Spain|Prime Minister]]. However, due to the king's perceived support of the dictatorship, this proved unsuccessful and led to growing calls for the establishment of a republic. On 17 August 1930, republican groups formed the [[Pact of San Sebastián]], forming a revolutionary committee that would later become the leadership of the [[Second Spanish Republic]].

Berenguer eventually resigned, and the king appointed Admiral [[Juan Bautista Aznar-Cabañas]] in his place. On 12 April 1931, Aznar called for [[1931 Spanish local elections|local elections]] to appease the democrats and republicans, replace the local governing bodies of the dictatorship, and gradually restore the restoration.

Although the monarchists still had some support, the republican and socialist parties won an overwhelming victory. Their victory led to street riots and demands for the abolition of the monarchy. On 14 April, the king fled Spain after the army announced it would not defend him. A provisional government led by [[Niceto Alcalá-Zamora]] immediately established the [[Second Spanish Republic]].

==See also== {{Portal|Caribbean|History|Spain}} * [[House of Bourbon]] * [[Contemporary history of Spain]] * [[Monarchism]] * [[Political system of the Restoration (Spain)]] * [[List of Spanish colonial wars in Morocco|Spanish–Moroccan conflicts]]

==References== <references/>

==Bibliography== * Barton, Simon. ''A History of Spain'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0230200125 excerpt and text search] * Beck, Earl Ray. ''Time of Triumph & Sorrow: Spanish Politics during the Reign of Alfonso XII, 1874–1885'' (1979) * Ben-Ami, Shlomo. "The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera: A Political Reassessment," ''Journal of Contemporary History,'' Jan 1977, Vol. 12 Issue 1, pp 65–84 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/260237 in JSTOR] * Carr, Raymond, ed. ''Spain: A History'' (2001) [https://archive.org/details/spain1808197502edcarr online] * Esdaile, Charles J. ''Spain in the Liberal Age: From Constitution to Civil War, 1808–1939'' (2000) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0631219137 excerpt and text search] * Hall, Morgan C. "Alfonso XIII and the Failure of the Liberal Monarchy in Spain, 1902–1923" (PhD dissertation, Columbia University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2003. 3095625) * Luengo, Jorge, and Pol Dalmau. "Writing Spanish history in the global age: connections and entanglements in the nineteenth century." ''Journal of global history'' 13.3 (2018): 425–445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1740022818000220 * Payne, Stanley G. ''A History of Spain and Portugal. Vol. 2 After 1700'' (1973) pp 488-512, 578-629. [https://libro.uca.edu/payne2/index.htm online] * Payne, Stanley G. "Spanish Conservatism 1834–1923," ''Journal of Contemporary History,'' Vol. 13, No. 4, (Oct. 1978), pp. 765–789 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/260083 in JSTOR] * Winston, Colin M. "The Proletarian Carlist Road to Fascism: Sindicalismo Libre," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' Vol. 17, No. 4 (Oct., 1982), pp. 557–585 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/260522 in JSTOR]

==External links== * {{cite magazine |last=Fayanás Escuer |first=Edmundo |date=19 August 2023 |title=Restauración borbónica en España: Alfonso XII |url=https://www.nuevatribuna.es/articulo/cultura---ocio/restauracion-borbonica-espana-alfonso-xii/20230818082041215665.html |url-status=live |magazine=Nuevatribuna |location=[[Madrid]] |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820082943/https://www.nuevatribuna.es/articulo/cultura---ocio/restauracion-borbonica-espana-alfonso-xii/20230818082041215665.html |archive-date=20 August 2023 |access-date=7 November 2025}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Restoration Spain}} [[Category:Restoration (Spain)| ]] [[Category:1874 establishments in Spain]] [[Category:1931 disestablishments in Spain]] [[Category:Modern history of Spain]] [[Category:Monarchism in Spain]] [[Category:Monarchy of Spain]] [[Category:Restorations (politics)|Spain]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1874]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1931]]