Sustainable fashion

{{Short description|Reduction of environmental impacts of the fashion industry}} {{Use American English|date=November 2021}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}} {{Multiple issues|{{tone |date=May 2020}}{{Original research|date=November 2020}}}} thumb|upright|Sustainable fashion displayed by Swedish models, 2020{{Clothing and the environment}}{{Green economics sidebar}} '''Sustainable fashion''' is a term describing efforts within the fashion industry to reduce its environmental impacts, protect workers producing garments and uphold animal welfare.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=2010 |title=Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change |journal=Fashion Practice |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.2752/175693810X12774625387594}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Niinimäki |first=Kirsi |date=2013 |title=Sustainable Fashion: New Approaches |publisher=Aalto University |isbn=978-952-60-5202-1}}</ref> Sustainability in fashion encompasses a wide range of factors, including cutting {{CO2}} emissions, addressing overproduction, reducing pollution and waste, supporting biodiversity and ensuring that garment workers are paid a fair wage and have safe working conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-19 |title=What Does 'Sustainable Fashion' Actually Mean? |url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/fashion/article/sustainable-fashion |access-date=2023-10-24 |website=British Vogue |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 2020, it was found that voluntary, self-directed reform of textile manufacturing supply chains by large companies to reduce the environmental impacts was largely unsuccessful.<ref name="destin">{{cite web |title=Destination Zero: seven years of Detoxing the clothing industry |url=https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4-international-stateless/2018/07/destination_zero_report_july_2018.pdf |publisher=Greenpeace |access-date=30 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Greenpeace Calls Out Nike, Adidas and Puma for Toxic Clothing |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUS191991010320110809 |access-date=30 September 2020 |work=Reuters |date=9 August 2011 |language=en}}</ref> Measures to reform fashion production beyond greenwashing require policies for the creation and enforcement of standardized certificates, along with related import controls, subsidies,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Niu |first1=Baozhuang |last2=Chen |first2=Lei |last3=Zhang |first3=Jie |title=Punishing or subsidizing? Regulation analysis of sustainable fashion procurement strategies |journal=Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review |date=November 2017 |volume=107 |pages=81–96 |doi=10.1016/j.tre.2017.09.010 |bibcode=2017TRPE..107...81N }}</ref> and interventions such as eco-tariffs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Increasing Green Credentials beyond Greenwash |url=https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/104378/Mikkonen_Mila.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dahl |first1=Richard |title=Green Washing: Do You Know What You're Buying? |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=June 2010 |volume=118 |issue=6 |pages=A246-52 |doi=10.1289/ehp.118-a246|doi-broken-date=January 25, 2026 |pmid=20515714 |pmc=2898878 |bibcode=2010EnvHP.118.a246D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neuman |first1=Salla |title=Sustainability in fashion production – How are the pioneers doing it? |website=www.theseus.fi |date=2019 |url=https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/170211}}</ref>

== Background and history == In the early 1990s, roughly coinciding with the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, popularly known as the Rio Earth Summit, 'green issues' (as they were called at the time) made their way into fashion and textile publications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anon|date=1991|title=Textiles and the Environment|journal=International Textiles |volume=726 |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anon|date=1993 |title=Rethinking Ecology|journal=Textile View |volume=24|pages=201–207}}</ref> These publications featured companies such as Patagonia and ESPRIT. Doug Tompkins and Yvon Chouinard noted that exponential growth and consumption are not sustainable.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Meadows, Donella H. |url=https://archive.org/details/limitstogrowthr00mead |title=The Limits to growth: a report for the Club of Rome's project on the predicament of mankind |date=1982 |publisher=Universe Books |isbn=0-87663-165-0 |oclc=977611718 |url-access=registration}}</ref> In the late 1980s, they commissioned research into the impact of fibers used in their respective companies. Fiber and fabric processing are still the norm in sustainable fashion 30 years on.<ref name="Fletcher-2008">{{Cite book|title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |edition=2nd |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |publisher=Earthscan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-64455-6 |location=London; Washington, DC}}</ref>

In 1992, the ESPRIT e-collection was developed by head designer Lynda Grose<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cenews.in/lynda-grose-pioneering-environmental-standards-for-the-clothing-industry/ |title=Lynda Grose – PIONEERING ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS FOR THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY – CE NEWS|work=CE NEWS|access-date=2017-03-11 |archive-date=2017-03-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312070350/http://www.cenews.in/lynda-grose-pioneering-environmental-standards-for-the-clothing-industry/|url-status=live}}</ref> and launched at retail. In parallel with industry, research around sustainable fashion has been in development since the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Fashion: Why Now?|editor1=Hethorn, Janet |editor2=Ulasewicz, Connie |publisher=Fairchild Books|year=2008}}</ref><ref name="Timo Rissanen-2011">{{Cite book |author1=Gwilt, Alison |title=Shaping Sustainable Fashion |author2=Timo Rissanen |publisher=Earthscan |year=2011 |edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sustainable Fashion in a Circular Economy|last=Niinimaki|first=Kirsi|publisher=Aalto ARTIS Books|year=2018}}</ref> The field includes technical projects that try to improve the efficiency of existing operations.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles|last=Gardetti, Migel Angel & Ana Laura Torres|publisher=Greenleaf|year=2013}}</ref><ref name="Fletcher-2016">{{Cite book |title=Craft of Use: Post Growth Fashion|last=Fletcher|first=Kate|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|location=London}}</ref>

Northwestern University Library's Art Collection staff began developing a research collection of fashion materials around 2005, motivated by widespread student and faculty interest and by the increasingly scholarly nature of many fashion-related titles appearing in catalogs and approval plans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Lindsay M. |last2=Clement |first2=Russell T. |date=2012 |title=Style and Substance: Fashion in Twenty-First-Century Research Libraries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/664912?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents |journal=Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=93–107 |doi=10.1086/664912 |jstor=10.1086/664912 |issn=0730-7187|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the European Union, the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulations required in 2007 that clothing manufacturers and importers identify and quantify the chemicals used in their products.<ref name="waste" /> In 2012, the world's largest summit on fashion sustainability was held in Copenhagen, gathering more than 1,000 key stakeholders in the industry.<ref>{{cite web |date=2012-05-03 |title=Copenhagen Fashion Summit |url=http://www.copenhagenfashionsummit.com/5steps |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524033610/http://www.copenhagenfashionsummit.com/5steps |archive-date=2012-05-24 |access-date=2012-05-19 |publisher=Copenhagen Fashion Summit}}</ref> The Sustainable Apparel Coalition also launched the Higg Index, a self-assessment standard for the apparel and footwear industries.<ref>Clark, Evan. [http://www.wwd.com/business-news/forecasts-analysis/sustainability-index-unveiled-6114358 "Sustainability Index Unveiled"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529065103/http://wwd.com/business-news/forecasts-analysis/sustainability-index-unveiled-6114358/|date=2016-05-29}}, ''Women's Wear Daily'', 25 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref><ref>Binkley, Christina. [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443570904577547610634945308 "Which Outfit Is Greenest? A New Rating Tool"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524142252/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10000872396390443570904577547610634945308.html|date=2013-05-24}}, ''Wall Street Journal'', 25 July 2012. Retrieved on 20 December 2012.</ref>

In 2019, the UK Parliament's Environment Audit Committee published a report and recommendations on the future of fashion sustainability, suggesting wide-ranging systemic change, such as lowered value-added tax for repair services.<ref name="publications.parliament.uk">{{Cite web |title=Fixing fashion: clothing consumption and sustainability – Report Summary – Environmental Audit Committee |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/report-summary.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312160931/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmenvaud/1952/report-summary.html |archive-date=12 March 2021 |access-date=26 February 2019 |website=publications.parliament.uk}}</ref>

== Purpose == Sustainable fashion followers believe the business sector can act more sustainably by pursuing profit and growth.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The sustainable fashion handbook |date=2013 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-29056-9 |editor=Black, Sandy |oclc=800642264}}</ref> The movement believes that clothing companies should incorporate environmental, social and ethical improvements on management's agenda.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Pulse of The Fashion Industry |url=http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf |journal=Global Fashion Agenda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322150525/http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf |archive-date=2019-03-22 |access-date=2018-10-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |url=https://earthlogic.info/ |title=Earth Logic Fashion Action Research Plan |last2=Tham |first2=Mathilda |publisher=JJ Charitable Trust |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-5272-5415-2 |location=London |access-date=2020-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226162546/https://earthlogic.info/ |archive-date=2020-02-26 |url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=April 2023}}</ref> This may include increasing the value of local production and products; prolonging the lifecycle of materials; and reducing waste. Another goal may be to educate people to practice environmentally friendly consumption by promoting the "green consumer".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Eco fashion |last=Brown|first=Sass |publisher=Laurence King|year=2010}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref><ref name="Gurova-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Gurova |first1=Olga |last2=Morozova |first2=Daria |title=A critical approach to sustainable fashion: Practices of clothing designers in the Kallio neighborhood of Helsinki |journal=Journal of Consumer Culture |date=August 2018 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=397–413 |doi=10.1177/1469540516668227 |s2cid=151351581 }}</ref>

Recent research shows that when fashion brands highlight how their products are made in environmentally friendly ways, people tend to think more positively about those brands. They are also more likely to buy from them and pay higher prices, especially if the brand is already familiar to them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jian |first1=Wenze |last2=Zhong |first2=Ziqi |title=Eco positioning drives sustainable fashion consumption through process related strategies and brand familiarity |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2025 |volume=15 |issue=1 |article-number=17600 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02233-2|pmid=40399442 |pmc=12095520 |bibcode=2025NatSR..1517600J }}</ref>

Critics doubt the effectiveness of this. The discussions following the Burberry report of the brand burning unsold goods worth around £28.6 million (about $37.8 million) in 2018,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://fashionista.com/2018/07/burberry-burning-clothes-thredup-resale|title=Burberry Under Attack for Burning $37.8 Million Worth of Unsold Products|last=Prant |first=Dara|website=Fashionista|access-date=2019-03-12}}</ref> which is an overproduction.<ref name="publications.parliament.uk" />

== Production models == [[File:Taller de textiles.jpg|thumb|Traditional textile manufacturing in Teotitlán del Valle. Clothes made with techniques like this are considered more sustainable than fast fashion.]] Aesthetic and social preferences of fashion change over time, leading to some items becoming obsolete and affecting garment lifespans.<ref name="KF_1">{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |date=November 2012 |title=Durability, Fashion, Sustainability: The Processes and Practices of Use |journal=Fashion Practice |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=221–238 |doi=10.2752/175693812X13403765252389 |s2cid=110677145}}</ref> The fast fashion business model became dominant in the 21st century, leading to an increase in the consumption of inexpensive garments.<ref name="Bick-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Bick |first1=Rachel |last2=Halsey |first2=Erika |last3=Ekenga |first3=Christine C. |date=2018-12-27 |title=The global environmental injustice of fast fashion |journal=Environmental Health |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |page=92 |bibcode=2018EnvHe..17...92B |doi=10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7 |issn=1476-069X |pmc=6307129 |pmid=30591057 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This model can disincentivize companies from making durable products.<ref name="KF_1" /> It also has significant health and environmental risks impacting developing countries and garment workers.<ref name="Bick-2018" /> The "slow" movement, particularly slow food, has been proposed as an alternative to improve the sustainability of fashion.<ref name="Clark-2008">{{Cite journal|last=Clark|first=Hazel|date=2008-12-01|title=SLOW + FASHION—an Oxymoron—or a Promise for the Future ...?|journal=Fashion Theory|volume=12|issue=4|pages=427–446|doi=10.2752/175174108X346922|s2cid=194180788|issn=1362-704X}}</ref>

=== Fast fashion === {{Main|Fast fashion}} [[File:Fast Fashion killt das Klima.jpg|thumb|Protesters holding a placard linking fast fashion to climate change]] The current condition of the fashion system is related to the temporal aspects of fashion; the continuous stream of new goods onto the market, or what is popularly called "fast fashion". As a way to conform to the latest fashion styles, current fast fashion trends presuppose selling clothing in large quantities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willett |first1=Joanie |last2=Saunders |first2=Clare |last3=Hackney |first3=Fiona |last4=Hill |first4=Katie |title=The affective economy and fast fashion: Materiality, embodied learning and developing a sensibility for sustainable clothing |journal=Journal of Material Culture |date=September 2022 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=219–237 |doi=10.1177/13591835221088524 |doi-access=free |s2cid=247823706 |url=https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/630120/8/13591835221088524.pdf}}</ref> The quality of a garment does not necessarily translate to a slower pace of consumption and waste.<ref>{{cite web |title=COMMON OBJECTIVE- Fashion and Waste: An Uneasy Relationship |url=https://www.commonobjective.co/article/fashion-and-waste-an-uneasy-relationship |access-date=2018-06-08}}</ref> These releases are exacerbated by the acceleration of fashion trends. As microtrends are only lasting an average of 3 years, the demand for clothes has also accelerated.<ref>Nelson, Mariel. "Micro-Trends: The acceleration of fashion cycles and the rise in waste". Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production, May 17, 2021</ref>

Consumption has risen to 62 million tonnes annually and is projected to reach 102 million tonnes by 2030.<ref name="FF_1">{{cite web| title=Fast Fashion Pollution and Climate Change| author=Shukla, N.| url=https://earth.org/fast-fashion-pollution-and-climate-change| publisher=Earth.Org| date=21 February 2022| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> Shein alone is responsible for over 6 million tons of greenhouse gases a year from the production of polyester textiles, and uses hundreds of gallons of water per garment.<ref name="SI_1">{{cite web| title=Shein Is the World's Most Popular Fashion Brand—at a Huge Cost to Us All| author=Astha Rajvanshi| url=https://time.com/6247732/shein-climate-change-labor-fashion| publisher=Time| date=17 January 2023| access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> The fashion industry has a value of three trillion dollars. It is two percent of the world's gross domestic product.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-07-20|title=Fashion Industry Waste Statistics|url=https://edgexpo.com/fashion-industry-waste-statistics/|access-date=2021-05-04|website=E D G E|language=en}}</ref>

Most factories that produce "fast" clothing employ workers on low wages. Workers from Shein are reported to make as little as 4 cents per garment produced, as well as operating on 18-hour workdays with 1 day off per month.<ref name=BIS_1>{{cite web| title=Shein factory employees are working 18-hour days for pennies per garment and washing their hair on lunch breaks because they have so little time off, new report finds| author=Sarah Jackson| url=https://www.businessinsider.com/shein-factory-workers-18-hour-shifts-paid-low-wages-report-2022-10?r=US&IR=T| publisher=Insider Inc.| date=16 October 2022| access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> Exploitative fast fashion production is prevalent in countries like China, Bangladesh and Vietnam.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Story Map Journal|url=https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid=74b6302912a948ebb1a98eaecb02d5f3#:~:text=As%20mentioned%20previously,%20some%20of,strict%20environmental%20and%20labour%20regulations.|access-date=2021-05-04|website=www.arcgis.com}}</ref>

Fast fashion is interrelated with the issue of climate change as the resources used to make them (the companies where the clothing items are manufactured) release many fossil fuels to produce them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mathew |first=Bindiya |date=2026-01-10 |title=The Biggest Barriers to Sustainable Fashion and What It Takes to Overcome Them - NatNavi |url=https://natnavi.com/the-roadblocks-in-sustainable-fashion/ |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=natnavi.com |language=en-US}}</ref> With fast fashion comes the talk of socioeconomic status, creating a divide between who can afford sustainable clothing and those who can't. Companies target marginalized groups to sell fast fashion to, knowing these groups are more willing to buy clothes to fit into the society that advertisements and media sell to them.<ref name="Ray-2023">{{cite journal |last1=Ray |first1=Subhasis |last2=Nayak |first2=Lipsa |title=Marketing Sustainable Fashion: Trends and Future Directions |journal=Sustainability |publisher=MDPI AG |volume=15 |issue=7 |date=2023-04-04 |issn=2071-1050 |doi=10.3390/su15076202 |doi-access=free |page=6202}}</ref> It doesn't help that many companies that sell fast fashion (under greenwashing pretenses) use broad and ambiguous statements to keep up with their sales goals, entering a grey area into what their business is truly selling and promoting.<ref name="Ray-2023" />

=== Slow fashion === {{Main|Slow fashion}}

Slow fashion is a proposed sustainable alternative to fast fashion.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |date=2010 |title=Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change |journal=Fashion Practice |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=259–265 |doi=10.2752/175693810X12774625387594 |s2cid=110000414}}</ref> The term was coined by Kate Fletcher of the Centre for Sustainable Fashion and inspired by "slow food".<ref name="Archived copy3">{{cite web |title=What is Slow Fashion? - Good on You |url=https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202034555/https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-slow-fashion/ |archive-date=2 December 2020 |access-date=4 March 2021 |website=Goodonyou.eco}}</ref> It intends to challenge fast fashion's focus on mass-production and globalized style.<ref>Fletcher, K., & Grose, L. (2012). Fashion and sustainability: design for change. Laurence King.</ref>

A slow-fashion garment often consists of durable materials, traditional production techniques, or design concepts that are seasonless or will last for more than a season. From an environmental point of view, advocates claim it leads to less industrial waste following transient trends.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |title=Sustainable Fashion and Textiles- Design Journeys |publisher=Earthscan}}</ref> The Anglo-Japanese brand People Tree was the first fashion company to receive the World Fair Trade Organization product label in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 10, 2013 |title=People Tree is first clothing brand to receive the new WFTO Fair Trade product mark! |url=http://blog.peopletree.co.uk/people-tree-is-first-clothing-brand-to-receive-the-new-wfto-product-label/ |website=The Thread |ref=55}}</ref>

The concept of slow fashion has been criticized. To stop consuming "fast fashion" strikes against low-income consumers whose only means to access trends is through cheap and accessible goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=von Busch |first=Otto |date=2022-12-09 |title="What is to be sustained?": Perpetuating systemic injustices through sustainable fashion |journal=Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=400–409 |bibcode=2022SSPP...18..400V |doi=10.1080/15487733.2022.2069996 |issn=1548-7733 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Those who are already in a high position in society can afford to slow down and cement their status and position, while those on their way up resent being told to stay at the lower rungs of the status hierarchy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Busch |first=Otto |title="The chronopolitics of slow fashion" in S. Kipoz (ed) Slowness in Fashion |publisher=Dixi Books |year=2020 |location=London |pages=169–177}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=von Busch |first=Otto |title=The Chronopolitics of Fashion, in S. Kipoz (ed) Slowness in Fashion |publisher=Dixi Books |year=2020 |location=London |page=175}}</ref>

In recent years, resale platforms such as '''Depop''', '''The RealReal''', and '''Vestiaire Collective''' have accelerated consumer interest in circular fashion by promoting the resale and reuse of clothing among Gen Z shoppers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McMillen |first=Jenn |title=Are ThredUp, The RealReal And Depop Gentrifying The Thrift Store? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jennmcmillen/2023/09/19/are-thredup-the-realreal-and-depop-gentrifying-the-thrift-store/ |access-date=2025-10-19 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

=== Garment use and lifespan === {{Further|Textile performance}} The environmental impact of fashion also depends on how much and how long a garment is used. With the fast fashion trend, garments tend to be used half as much as compared to 15 years ago. It has been estimated that each year around $172 million worth of garments is expected to be discarded, many of them after being worn only once.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Claudio José Galdino da Silva Jr |author2=Alexandre D'Lamare Maia de Medeiros |author3=Julia Didier Pedrosa de Amorim |author4=Helenise Almeida do Nascimento |author5=Attilio Converti |author6=Andrea Fernanda Santana Costa |author7=Leonie Asfora Sarubbo |title=Bacterial cellulose biotextiles for the future of Sustainable Fashion: A Review |journal=Environmental Chemistry Letters |date=August 2021 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=2967–2980 |doi=10.1007/s10311-021-01214-x|bibcode=2021EnvCL..19.2967D |s2cid=232215342 }}</ref> There has been a 7.1&nbsp;kg increase in global per-capita textile production from 1975 to 2018.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kirsi Niinimäki |author2=Greg Peters |author3=Helena Dahlbo |author4=Patsy Perry |author5=Timo Rissanen |author6=Alison Gwilt |title=The environmental price of fast fashion|journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment|date= April 2020|volume=1|issue=4 |pages=189–200|doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9|bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |url=https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/handle/123456789/112926 |url-access=subscription |hdl=1959.4/unsworks_66986 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Typically, a garment used daily over years has less impact than a garment used once to then be quickly discarded. Studies have shown that the washing and drying process for a pair of classic jeans is responsible for almost two-thirds of the energy consumed through the whole of the jeans' life, and for underwear, about 80% of total energy use comes from laundry processes.<ref name="Fletcher-2008" /> The dyeing process also contributes around 15–20% of wastewater. For this reason, techniques are being introduced to reduce energy and water consumption, such as using {{CO2}} in the dyeing process,<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal |last1=Centobelli |first1=Piera |last2=Abbate |first2=Stefano |last3=Nadeem |first3=Simon |last4=Reyes |first4=Jose |date=20 September 2022 |title=Slowing the fast fashion industry: An all-round perspective |journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry |volume=38 |article-number=100684 |bibcode=2022COGSC..3800684C |doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2022.100684 |s2cid=251697285 |doi-access=free}}</ref> where heat and pressure turn liquid {{CO2}} into a sustainable solvent for the dye (supercritical CO₂).<ref>{{cite web |title=Waterless Dyeing of Textiles Using {{CO2}} |website=Global Opportunity Explorer |date=6 May 2019 |url=https://goexplorer.org/waterless-dyeing-of-textiles-using-co2}}</ref>

Low-quality products that deteriorate rapidly are not as suitable to be "enchanted" with emotional bonds between user and product.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emotionally durable design objects, experiences and empathy|last=Chapman, Jonathan|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-73880-2|oclc=1086535559}}</ref> According to a study done by Irene Maldini, keeping garments longer does not translate into lower volumes of purchased units.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maldini|first=Irene|date=2019|title=From speed to volume: reframing clothing production and consumption for an environmentally sound apparel sector|journal=PLATE. Product Lifetimes and the Environment Conference Proceedings|via=PLATE 2019 Berlin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Maldini|first=Irene|title=Can design confront consumerism? A critical study of clothing volumes, personalization, and the wardrobe.|publisher=VU University Amsterdam|year=2019|isbn=978-90-830024-1-5|location=Amsterdam}}</ref>

== Concerns == === Environmental === {{Main|Environmental impact of fashion}} The fashion industry has significant environmental impacts, particularly in relation to greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, chemical pollution, and waste.<ref>{{cite web |title=The environmental costs of fast fashion |url=https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/environmental-costs-fast-fashion |website=United Nations Environment Programme |date=24 November 2022 |access-date=13 January 2026}}</ref>

Globalization has made it possible to produce clothing at increasingly lower prices that many consumers consider fashion to be disposable.<ref name="Timo Rissanen-2011" />{{Page needed|date=August 2024}} Developing countries typically produce the textiles and clothing for developed countries.<ref name="Niinimäki-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |last2=Peters |first2=Greg |last3=Dahlbo |first3=Helena |last4=Perry |first4=Patsy |last5=Rissanen |first5=Timo |last6=Gwilt |first6=Alison |date=2020-04-07 |title=The environmental price of fast fashion |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=189–200 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..189N |s2cid=215760302 |issn=2662-138X|url-access=subscription |hdl=1959.4/unsworks_66986 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In 2021, the Changing Markets Foundation released a report on the fashion industry's dependence on oil extraction. The report suggested that synthetic fibers in the textile industry account for 1.35% of global oil consumption.<ref name="Changing Markets Foundation-2021">{{Cite web |author=Changing Markets Foundation |date=February 2021 |title=Fossil Fashion |url=https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217122335/https://changingmarkets.org/portfolio/fossil-fashion/ |archive-date=2021-02-17 |access-date=2021-02-26 |website=Changing Markets}}</ref>{{rp|p=8}} Fast fashion's model leads to significant over-production, textile waste, and heavy reliance on synthetic materials produced in fossil-fuel high factories. Research has pointed out that the need for constant new inventory puts strain on manufacturers, resulting in low pay and high population output.<ref name="Yan-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Yan |first1=Ruoh-Nan |last2=Diddi |first2=Sonali |last3=Bloodhart |first3=Brittany |date=2021-12-01 |title=Predicting clothing disposal: The moderating roles of clothing sustainability knowledge and self-enhancement values |journal=Cleaner and Responsible Consumption |volume=3 |article-number=100029 |doi=10.1016/j.clrc.2021.100029 |bibcode=2021CResC...300029Y |issn=2666-7843|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<!-- Removed "Cotton requires approximately 15,000 liters of water to grow for a pair of jeans." The number varies a lot, and this article (the reference) is not even the most reliable one.

^ https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/5a1a43b5-cbae-4a42-8271-48f53b63bd07 -->The usage level of fashion materials is 79 billion cubic meters annually.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title=Pulse of the Fashion Industry |url=https://www.greylockglass.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf |journal=Pulse of the Fashion Industry |publisher=Global Fashion Agenda and The Boston Consulting Group |page=11}}</ref> Only around 20% of clothing is recycled or reused; huge amounts of fashion products end up as waste.<ref name="Yan-2021" /> It has been estimated that in the UK alone, around 350,000 tons of clothing end up in landfills every year. The average American throws away nearly 70 pounds of clothing per year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/thrift-stores-sell-damaged-items-to-textile-recyclers/article_21a785fc-08df-11e4-ad94-001a4bcf6878.html|title=Thrift stores sell damaged items to textile recyclers|last=Culp|first=Alice|date=11 July 2014|newspaper=South Bend Tribune|access-date=2016-04-25|archive-date=2019-11-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107185018/https://www.southbendtribune.com/news/local/thrift-stores-sell-damaged-items-to-textile-recyclers/article_21a785fc-08df-11e4-ad94-001a4bcf6878.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Around 5% of the total waste worldwide stems from the textile industry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stanescu |first=Michaela Dina |date=2021-03-01 |title=State of the art of post-consumer textile waste upcycling to reach the zero waste milestone |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=14253–14270 |doi=10.1007/s11356-021-12416-9 |pmid=33515405 |bibcode=2021ESPR...2814253S |s2cid=231746977 |issn=1614-7499}}</ref>

Microfibers are tiny threads that are shed from fabric. One study found that 34.8% of microplastics found in oceans come from the textile and clothing industry, and the majority of them were made of polyester, polyethylene, acrylic and elastane;<ref>{{cite web |last1=Boucher |first1=D. |last2=Friot |first2=D. |title=Primary microplastics in the oceans: a global evaluation of sources |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-002.pdf |website=Primary micro plastics in the oceans: a global evaluation of sources |publisher=gland, Switzerland: IUCN. |access-date=2018-02-28 |ref=43 pp. |archive-date=2017-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301095550/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-002.pdf }}</ref> but a study off the coast of the UK and U.S. by the Plymouth Marine Laboratory in May 2020 suggested there are at least double the number of particles as previously thought.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |title=Microplastic pollution in oceans vastly underestimated – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/22/microplastic-pollution-in-oceans-vastly-underestimated-study |work=The Guardian |date=22 May 2020 }}</ref> Microfibers are also shed during wear and disposal.<ref name="Changing Markets Foundation-2021" />{{rp|p=8}} If no progress is made to reverse the effect, it has been calculated that there will be an increase of 850 metric tons of plastic debris in the ocean by 2050.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Rojalin |title=Synthetic microfibers: Pollution toxicity and remediation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653520313928#bib7 |journal=Chemosphere |year=2020 |volume=257 |article-number=127199 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127199 |pmid=32480092 |bibcode=2020Chmsp.25727199S |s2cid=219172281 |access-date=2023-04-28|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Research has also shown that natural textile fibres shed microfibers during washing, wear, and disposal, contributing to fibre pollution in aquatic and terrestrial environments. While synthetic microfibers persist as microplastics, natural fibre microfibers differ in composition and degradation pathways.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zambrano |first1=M. C. |last2=Paez |first2=M. |last3=Farré |first3=M. |title=Release and environmental fate of natural and synthetic textile microfibers |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |year=2024 |volume=58 |issue=29 |pages=12763–12766 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.4c05126 |pmid=38986138 |pmc=11270977 }}</ref>

=== Social and ethics === One of the main social issues related to fashion concerns labor. Whilst the majority of fashion and textiles are produced in Asia, Central America and North Africa, there is still production across Europe where exploitative working conditions are also found, such as in Leicester<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2015/february/new-report-published-on-working-conditions-in-leiceser-garment-sector|title=New report published on working conditions in Leicester garment sector — University of Leicester|website=www2.le.ac.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226234156/https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/press/press-releases/2015/february/new-report-published-on-working-conditions-in-leiceser-garment-sector|url-status=live}}</ref> and Central and Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Roeland |first1=Paul |url=https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/europe/intro|title=Living Wage in Eastern Europe and Turkey|date=2017|website=Clean Clothes Campaign|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060212/https://cleanclothes.org/livingwage/europe/intro}}</ref> The fashion industry has racial, class and gender inequalities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The fashioned body|last=Entwistle|first=J|publisher=Polity Press|year=2000|location=Cambridge}}</ref> Local production is engaged in global sourcing of labor exploitation.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-sweatshop-insight-idUKBRE9BS04A20131230|title=Insight – Italy's Chinese garment workshops boom as workers suffer|date=2013-12-30|work=Reuters|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060355/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-italy-sweatshop-insight-idUKBRE9BS04A20131230}}</ref> At least 25 million people, the majority of whom are women, work in garment manufacture.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|title=Cotton farmers {{!}} Fairtrade Foundation|website=www.fairtrade.org.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226150444/http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Cotton|url-status=live}}</ref> Women and workers in the garment manufacturing industry face serious occupational hazards. Worker exposure to hazardous substances can affect health and lead to long-term occupational diseases, posing major challenges to worker well-being and industry regulation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kalia |first1=Prateek |last2=Singla |first2=Meenu |last3=Kaushal |first3=Robin |date=2023-01-01 |title=Human resource management practices and employee retention in the Indian textile industry |journal=International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management |volume=73 |issue=11 |pages=96–121 |doi=10.1108/IJPPM-01-2022-0057 |issn=1741-0401|doi-access=free }}</ref> Employees in their working conditions can be exposed to toxic substances.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geiger |first1=Sonja |title=Shopping for Clothes and Sensitivity to the Suffering of Others: The Role of Compassion and Values in Sustainable Fashion Consumption |journal=Environment and Behavior |year=2018 |volume=50 |issue=10 |pages=1119–1144 |doi=10.1177/0013916517732109 |bibcode=2018EnvBe..50.1119G |s2cid=148956057 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0013916517732109|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Not only is there unethical practices in the production of textiles, but while in the marketing process they will promote their products as sustainable and green even though they use many polluting products.<ref name="adamkiewwicz 2022"/> To combat this issue, Europe has developed a program called REACH that regulates what inputs are being used as well as providing consumers with the proper information about these fashion products.<ref name="adamkiewwicz 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Adamkiewicz |first1=Julia |last2=Kochańska |first2=Ewa |last3=Adamkiewicz |first3=Iwona |last4=Łukasik |first4=Rafał M. |title=Greenwashing and sustainable fashion industry |journal=Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry |date=December 2022 |volume=38 |article-number=100710 |doi=10.1016/j.cogsc.2022.100710|bibcode=2022COGSC..3800710A |doi-access=free |hdl=10400.9/3986 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Over the last years, over 150 major brands have publicised information about their factories online. Every year, Fashion Revolution publishes a Fashion Transparency Index.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 April 2019 |title=The Fashion Transparency Index: 2019 report ranks world's biggest brands |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/apr/24/the-fashion-transparency-index-2019-report-ranks-worlds-biggest-brands |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920145519/https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2019/apr/24/the-fashion-transparency-index-2019-report-ranks-worlds-biggest-brands |archive-date=2019-09-20 |access-date=2019-09-20 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> The high place of several fast fashion retailers caused controversy regarding the parameters used for such rankings.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Farmbrough|first=Heather|title=H&M Is Pushing Sustainability Hard, But Not Everyone Is Convinced |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2018/04/14/hm-is-pushing-sustainability-hard-but-not-everyone-is-convinced/ |access-date=2021-02-14|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=2021-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128200127/https://www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2018/04/14/hm-is-pushing-sustainability-hard-but-not-everyone-is-convinced/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Research on fashion supply chains indicates that social and ethical issues such as low wages, unsafe working conditions, and limited labor protections are closely linked to the structure of global production networks. Studies have found that cost pressures, power imbalances between brands and suppliers, and a lack of transparency across supply chains often constrain suppliers' ability to improve labor standards. As a result, efforts to address labor rights in the fashion industry are frequently incorporated into broader corporate social responsibility and supply chain governance strategies rather than addressed solely at the factory level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Macchion |first1=Laura |last2=Da Giau |first2=Alessandro |last3=Caniato |first3=Federico |last4=Caridi |first4=Maria |last5=Danese |first5=Pamela |last6=Rinaldi |first6=Rinaldo |last7=Vinelli |first7=Andrea |date=2018-01-02 |title=Strategic approaches to sustainability in fashion supply chain management |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09537287.2017.1374485 |journal=Production Planning & Control |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=9–28 |doi=10.1080/09537287.2017.1374485 |issn=0953-7287|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== In Asia ==== {{Further|Impact of fast fashion in China}} China has emerged as the largest exporter of fast fashion, accounting for 30% of world apparel exports.<ref name=waste>{{Citation|title=Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry|last=Luz|first=Claudio|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|publication-date=September 2007|year=2007|volume=115|issue=9|pages=A448-54|doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a449|doi-broken-date=January 25, 2026 |pmid=17805407|pmc=1964887 |bibcode=2007EnvHP.115.a449C }}</ref> The country exports over approximately US$159 billion worth of clothing garments annually.<ref name="Niinimäki-2020" /> However, some Chinese workers make as little as 12–18 cents per hour working in poor conditions.<ref name=waste /> Each year, Americans purchase approximately 1 billion garments made in China.

The opening up of China and Vietnam in the 1980s to private and foreign capital and investments is part of an effort to boost living standards and capitalism.<ref name="Benjamin, 274">{{Cite book|title=Behemoth: a history of the factory and the making of the modern world |last=Freeman |first=Joshua Benjamin |year=2018|isbn=978-0-393-24631-5|edition= First|location=New York, NY|publisher=WW Norton|page=274|oclc=988280720}}</ref> The retail revolution within the U.S. (example Wal-Mart, Target and Nike) and Western Europe, where companies no longer manufactured but rather contracted out their production and transformed, introducing many different product lines manufactured in foreign-owned factories in China.<ref name="Benjamin, 274" /> Countries such as Cambodia and Bangladesh export large amounts of clothing into the United States every year.<ref name="waste" />

== Business models == There is a multitude of emerging business models. Patagonia: The gold standard for many in corporate responsibility. They are a certified B-Corp, repair clothing through their Worn Wear program, use recycled materials extensively, and are vocal activists for environmental causes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Todeschini |first1=Bruna |title=Innovative and sustainable business models in the fashion industry: Entrepreneurial drivers, opportunities, and challenges |journal=Business Horizons |date=2017 |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=759–770 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2017.07.003 |hdl=11311/1060972 |s2cid=158529625 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681317301015|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Research on fashion and luxury business models has highlighted tensions between sustainability objectives and prevailing industry practices.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akrout |first1=Houcine |last2=Guercini |first2=Simone |year=2022 |title=Sustainability in Fashion and Luxury Marketing: Results, Paradoxes and Potentialities |journal=Journal of Global Fashion Marketing |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=91–100 |doi=10.1080/20932685.2021.2017320}}</ref> Studies note that while sustainability is increasingly integrated into corporate strategies, it often conflicts with business models based on rapid product turnover, exclusivity, or constant novelty. In both fast fashion and luxury contexts, sustainability initiatives are frequently shaped by marketing considerations, creating gaps between public commitments and operational changes within supply chains.<ref name="Tsan-Ming-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=Tsan-Ming |last2=Li |first2=Yongjian |date=November 2015 |title=Sustainability in Fashion Business Operations |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=15400–15406 |doi=10.3390/su71115400 |bibcode=2015Sust....715400C |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free|hdl=10397/44161 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> As a result, scholars argue that sustainability in fashion functions not only as a material or design concern but also as a strategic business decision that requires alignment between branding, production practices, and long-term value creation.

=== Circular models === Some business models go under the name of "circular fashion," inspired by the idea of a circular economy. Much of the work on circular fashion builds on initiatives in the 1990s and onwards by scholars such as Lynda Grose,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cernansky |first=Rachel |date=18 March 2021 |title=Can an end-to-end sustainability standard change fashion? |url=https://www.voguebusiness.com/sustainability/can-an-end-to-end-sustainability-standard-change-fashion |work=Vogue Business}}</ref> Kate Fletcher,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=2014 |title=Sustainable Fashion and Textiles: Design Journeys |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-01282-0}}</ref> Rebecca Earley,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Earley |first=Rebecca |date=Jan 4, 2021 |title=Circular Fashion 2070: Clothing and Textile Cycles, Systems, and Services |url=https://www.nae.edu/244942/Circular-Fashion-2070-Clothing-and-Textile-Cycles-Systems-and-Services |journal=National Academy of Engineering |volume=50}}</ref> Mathilda Tham and Timo Rissanen,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rissanen |first=Timo |title="Zero Waste Fashion Design", in J. Hethorn & C. Ulasewicz (eds.) Sustainable Fashion: What's Next? |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2015 |location=London |pages=179–203}}</ref> especially the thinking around the "metabolism" of garments and wardrobes, "zero waste" production, and the focus on the whole life cycle of garments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Von Busch |first=Otto |title=Vistas of Vitality: Metabolisms, Circularity, Fashion-abilities |publisher=SelfPassage |year=2021 |location=New York}}</ref>

In a circular economy, all forms of waste are returned to the economy or reused efficiently, i.e., the value of the materials is maintained as long as possible. In a circular fashion economy, products are consumed as long as their maximum value is retained. Products are designed for durability, and once discarded, they become raw material for new manufacturing, closing the loop through methods like rental, repair, recycling, and second-hand sales.<ref name="Ray-2023" />

The "cradle-to-cradle" model, a circular system named after the 2002 book with the same name by Michael Braungart and William McDonough, has been a popular proponent of circular fashion. Most textile fibers in consumer fashion are amalgamations of various materials to achieve flexible or aesthetic properties, and thus not optimal for circular reproduction. Although all work with textile waste as their raw material, it is often from pre-consumer origins as it is easier to sort and process. On March 30, 2022, the European Commission published the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 8, 2022 |title=The EU Textiles Strategy in Motion - What does it mean for the future of this sector? |website=European Circular Economy Stakeholder Platform |url=https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/news-and-events/all-events/eu-textiles-strategy-motion-what-does-it-mean-future-sector |access-date=2022-08-30}}</ref>

Closed-loop supply chain management has become a central element of sustainable fashion operations. Instead of disposing of unsold or damaged products, these systems aim to reuse, remanufacture, and recycle items to regenerate value and reduce environmental harm.<ref name="Tsan-Ming-2015" />

Research also indicates that fast-fashion brands have adopted some of the models in response to consumer pressure and environmental regulations, incorporating remanufacturing and carbon-reduction strategies into their production and sourcing decisions.<ref name="Tsan-Ming-2015" />

=== Sharing models === Fashion rental and clothing swapping are models that are also known as ''collaborative fashion consumption''; their environmental impact and mitigation of pollution are debated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iran |first1=Samira |last2=Schrader |first2=Ulf |title=Collaborative fashion consumption and its environmental effects |journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management |date=11 September 2017 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=468–482 |doi=10.1108/JFMM-09-2016-0086 }}</ref><ref name="Levänen-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Levänen |first1=Jarkko |last2=Uusitalo |first2=Ville |last3=Härri |first3=Anna |last4=Kareinen |first4=Elisa |last5=Linnanen |first5=Lassi |title=Innovative recycling or extended use? Comparing the global warming potential of different ownership and end-of-life scenarios for textiles |journal=Environmental Research Letters |date=1 May 2021 |volume=16 |issue=5 |page=054069 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/abfac3 |bibcode=2021ERL....16e4069L |s2cid=235289414 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Transportation between users and storage, dry-cleaning, and repackaging causes more environmental impact than reselling or hand-me-downs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Elan |first=Priya |date=6 July 2021 |title=Renting clothes is 'less green than throwing them away' |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2021/jul/06/renting-clothes-is-less-green-than-throwing-them-away}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Courier |date=December 27, 2021 |title=Inside fashion's rental market |work=Courier |url=https://mailchimp.com/courier/article/fashion-rental-market/}}</ref> As noted by Levänen et al. (2021), the lowest global warming impacts are achieved by reducing consumption, followed by reusing and recycling.<ref name="Levänen-2021" /> Tailored couture is another approach, with the idea being that tailored clothing can reduce mass-production.<ref name="DG_1">{{cite book |last1=Maynard |first1=Margaret |url=https://biblio.co.uk/9780719063893 |title=Dress and Globalization |date=3 June 2004 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-6389-3 |access-date=26 January 2024}}</ref> Open-source content is a concept that builds on the sharing of patterns of clothing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Farra |first=Emily |date=Jan 15, 2021 |title=Open Source Fashion Cookbook Is Sharing 'Recipes' for Upcycling at Home, With Patterns by Raeburn, Chromat, and More |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/adiff-open-source-fashion-cookbook-upcycling-diy-fashion-patterns |work=Vogue}}</ref> Examples of open-source fashion range from exchanging production techniques to materials, patterns and makerspaces.<ref>{{Cite web |author=((Danielepasi_38178)) |date=Dec 15, 2015 |title=5 Projects Leading the Open Source Revolution in Fashion |url=https://www.shareable.net/5-projects-leading-the-open-source-revolution-in-fashion/ |website=Sharable}}</ref>

=== Resale models === {{Main|Global trade of secondhand clothing}}

[[File:Recycled_clothing_sold_at_a_farmers'_market.jpg|thumb|People browsing a booth selling recycled vintage clothing at a local farmers market.]] The most sustainable fibers in fashion are the ones many people already have. Thus, to recirculate existing garments, new business models engage the resale, revival, and recirculation of used, second-hand or vintage clothing.<ref name="Trend report">{{Cite web |title=Trend report: Future of Sustainable Fashion |url=https://www.accenture.com/t20170410T044051Z__w__/us-en/_acnmedia/Accenture/Conversion-Assets/DotCom/Documents/Global/PDF/Consulting/Accenture-HM-Global-Change-Award-Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321132817/https://www.accenture.com/t20170410T044051Z__w__/us-en/_acnmedia/Accenture/Conversion-Assets/DotCom/Documents/Global/PDF/Consulting/Accenture-HM-Global-Change-Award-Report.pdf |archive-date=2018-03-21}}</ref> Other resale models also contain elements of upcycling and repairs.<ref name="Henninger2016">{{cite journal |last1=Henninger |first1=Claudia E. |last2=Alevizou |first2=Panayiota J. |last3=Oates |first3=Caroline J. |date=3 October 2016 |title=What is sustainable fashion? |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/99507/1/PDF_Proof%20of%20accepted%20JFMM%20article%209%20May%202016.PDF |journal=Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=400–416 |doi=10.1108/JFMM-07-2015-0052}}</ref>

Some of these businesses have also shifted towards the circular model in the form of digital platforms that cater to the e-consumer population. These sites allow for e-consumers to donate or re-sell their clothing items by putting up listings for other consumer to purchase.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hellström |first1=Daniel |last2=Olsson |first2=John |date=2024-01-01 |title=Let's go thrift shopping: Exploring circular business model innovation in fashion retail |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |volume=198 |article-number=123000 |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.123000 |issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free }}</ref> "Thrift" fashion has been influential towards the purchases of second hand goods on these online platforms, encouraging sustainable fashion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yadav |first1=Nidhi |last2=Sijoria |first2=Charu |date=2024-05-29 |title=Consumer Shift from Fast Fashion to Thrift Fashion: An Application of Goal Framing Theory |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/22785337241255832 |journal=Business Perspectives and Research |language=EN |article-number=22785337241255832 |doi=10.1177/22785337241255832 |issn=2278-5337|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Processes == {{see also|Global trade of secondhand clothing|Environmental sustainability of vintage fashion|}}

A large amount of clothing purchased annually is discarded and eventually ends up in landfill.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Matilda |date=6 February 2009 |title=What's the Most Sustainable Fabric |url=http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/268798/whats_the_most_sustainable_fabric.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023045847/http://www.theecologist.org/green_green_living/clothing/268798/whats_the_most_sustainable_fabric.html |archive-date=23 October 2017 |access-date=30 April 2019 |work=The Ecologist}}</ref><ref name="Beall-2020">{{Cite web |last=Beall |first=Abigail |title=Why clothes are so hard to recycle |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200710-why-clothes-are-so-hard-to-recycle |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=BBC Future |date=July 13, 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Charity shops keep a small proportion of donated clothing received.<ref name="abc">{{cite web |last=Lee |first=Mike |date=21 December 2006 |title=The Truth About Where Your Donated Clothes End Up |url=https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=2743456&page=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116034802/http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=2743456&page=1 |archive-date=16 November 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=ABC News}}</ref> Some efforts have been made to recycle textiles and clothing, as the technology to do this has existed for centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Santi |first=Ana |title=Can clothes ever be fully recycled? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230227-how-to-recycle-your-clothes |access-date=2023-10-25 |website=BBC Future |date=February 28, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> However, only around 1% of recycled clothes are turned into new items, primarily due to the difficulty and high cost of separating mixed and blended textiles.<ref name="Beall-2020" /> Most discarded clothing is recycled for other uses, such as building insulation or carpet.<ref name="Beall-2020" />

Textile recycling firms process about 70% of the donated clothing into industrial items such as rags or cleaning cloths.<ref name="abc" /> However, 20–25% of the second-hand clothing is sold into an international market.<ref name="abc" /> Where possible, used jeans collected from America, for example, are sold to low-income customers in Africa for modest prices, yet most end up in landfills as the average U.S.-sized customer is several sizes bigger than the global average.<ref>{{cite web |last=Chapman |first=Dan |date=24 December 2006 |title=Your Cast-Offs, Their Profits: Items donated to Goodwill and Salvation Army often end up as part of a $1 billion-a-year used-clothing business |url=http://www.gciatl.com/media.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122153800/http://www.gciatl.com/media.html |archive-date=22 November 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |work=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution |publisher=gciatl.com}}</ref>

Upcycling in fashion is the process of reusing the unwanted and discarded materials into new materials or products without compromising the value and quality of the used material. The definition of textile waste can be production waste, pre-consumer waste and post-consumer waste.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://issuu.com/runnel/docs/reet-aus|title=Trash to Trend|last1=Aus|first1=Reet|website=Issuu|date=November 30, 2011 |access-date=26 February 2019|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807205123/https://issuu.com/runnel/docs/reet-aus|url-status=live}}</ref> Biomimicry suggests a perspective emphasizing the "Wisdom of Nature", where the industry looks into materials in tune with natural cycles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biomimicry Institute |date=2020 |title=The Nature of Fashion |work=Biomimicry Institute |url=https://biomimicry.org/thenatureoffashion/}}</ref> Biomimicry replicates the cycles of nature. Materials should be biocompatible, combining biodegradable fibers with processes of fermentation and gasification.<ref name="Trend report" /> Biofabrication refers to the process of using microorganisms to produce materials used by humans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jewell |first=Catherine |date=May 2023 |title=Designing with life: Biofabricate's Suzanne Lee envisions a "new material world" |url=https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine_digital/en/2023/article_0017.html |website=WIPO Magazine}}</ref>

== Consumption and communication strategies == For some products, the environmental impact can be greater at the use phase than material production,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/insights/sustainability/well-dressed/|title=Well dressed? The present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom|website=www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk|access-date=2019-02-26|archive-date=2019-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060315/https://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/insights/sustainability/well-dressed/|url-status=live}}</ref> leading, for instance, to the suggestion to wash clothes less. Consumers typically have little incentive to be active with their garments—to repair, swap and learn.<ref name="Fletcher-2016" /> There are many ways designers are trying to experiment with new models, often in relation to Alvin Toffler's notion of the "prosumer" (a blend of ''producer'' and ''consumer'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Busch|first=Otto |editor1-last=Yelavich |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last=Adams |editor2-first=Barbara |date=2014 |chapter=Fashion Hacking |title=Design as Future-Making |pages=47–57 |doi=10.5040/9781474293907-0009 |isbn=978-1-4742-9390-7}}</ref> Novel technologies for virtual try-ons of clothes sold via e-commerce may enable more sustainable fashion and reduce wasted clothes and related transportation and production expenses.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wills |first1=Jennifer |title=Saying farewell to a throwaway fashion industry |language=en |work=Horizon: The EU Research Innovation Magazine |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-farewell-throwaway-fashion-industry.html |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fadelli |first1=Ingrid |title=DeepDraper: A technique that predicts how clothes would look on different people |language=en |work=Tech Xplore |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2021-10-deepdraper-technique-people.html |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>

Recent research indicates that fashion brands adopting eco-positioning strategies — by clearly communicating their sustainable practices and enhancing brand credibility while reducing consumers' perceived risk — significantly increase willingness to purchase eco-friendly fashion products.<ref name="SciRep2025">{{cite journal |last1=Jin |first1=Xinyi |last2=Lee |first2=Hojin |year=2025 |title=Eco-positioning drives sustainable fashion consumption through brand credibility and reduced perceived risk |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=21233 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02233-2 |pmid=40399442 |pmc=12095520 |bibcode=2025NatSR..1517600J }}</ref>

Additionally, a comparative study of university teachers and students found notable differences in their attitudes toward sustainable fashion, with teachers generally reporting stronger commitments to long-term garment use and ethical purchasing practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stankevičiūtė |first1=Živilė |last2=Jarmalavičiūtė |first2=Ieva |date=2025-02-14 |title=The perspectives of women on sustainable fashion consumption: Comparative study of university teachers and students |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=20 |issue=2 |article-number=e0314532 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0314532 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=11828377 |pmid=39951475 |bibcode=2025PLoSO..2014532S }}</ref>

No brand is considered by environmental experts to be fully sustainable, and controversy exists over exactly how the concept of sustainability can be applied in relation to fashion, if it can be used at all, or if labels such as "slow" and "sustainable" fashion are inherently an oxymoron.<ref name="Clark-2008" /> Some comparison websites exist that compare fashion brands on their 'sustainability record'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top brands failing on cotton sustainability {{!}} WWF |url=http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?269811/Top-brands-failing-on-cotton-sustainability |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213174623/https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?269811%2FTop-brands-failing-on-cotton-sustainability |archive-date=2020-02-13 |access-date=2019-07-16 |website=wwf.panda.org}}</ref>

==Materials== In 2013, cotton and polyester accounted for almost 85% of all fibers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |last=Fletcher|first=Kate|year=2014|isbn=978-0-415-64455-6 |edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Routledge|oclc=846847018}}</ref> Also, many fibers in the finished garments are mixed to acquire desired drape, flexibility or stretch.

===Cellulose fibers=== Natural fibers are fibers which are found in nature and are not petroleum-based. Natural fibers can be categorized into two main groups, cellulose or plant fiber and protein or animal fiber. Uses of these fibers can be from buttons to eyewear such as sunglasses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cefashion.net/go-wood-sunglasses-for-a-new-wave|title=Go wood: sunglasses for sustainable living|last=Capulet|first=Ian|date=12 February 2015|website=CEFashion.net|access-date=9 December 2015|archive-date=11 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211150451/http://www.cefashion.net/go-wood-sunglasses-for-a-new-wave|url-status=live}}</ref> Other than cotton, the most common plant-based fiber, cellulose fibers include: jute, flax, hemp, ramie, abaca, soy, maize, banana, pineapple. Bacterial cellulose is currently being tested and developed as a new fiber alternative.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=Soon Mo |last2=Kummara |first2=Madhusudana Rao |last3=Zo |first3=Sun Mi |last4=Shin |first4=Eun Joo |last5=Han |first5=Sung Soo |title=Bacteria Cellulose and Its Applications |year=2022 |journal=Polymers |volume=14 |issue=6 |page=1080 |doi=10.3390/polym14061080 |pmid=35335411 |pmc=8949969 |bibcode=2022Polys..14.1080C |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==== Cotton ==== {{Main|Cotton}}

thumb|Textile worker using a bare loom in a Vietnam factory, weaving natural cotton fabrics, 2022|left Cotton is a major source of apparel fiber. Cotton accounts for over 50% of all clothing produced worldwide. This makes cotton the most widely used clothing fiber.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://knol.google.com/k/cotton-fabric#|title=Cotton Fabric|year=2009|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=24 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824032733/http://knol.google.com/k/cotton-fabric|url-status=live}}</ref> Up to 1 billion people worldwide depend on the cotton industry, including 100 million smallholder farmers.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Voora, V. |author2=Larrea, C. |author3=Bermudez, S.|date=2020|title=Global Market Report: Cotton |url=https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/cotton-coverage/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212071020/https://www.iisd.org/ssi/commodities/cotton-coverage/|archive-date=2021-02-12|website=State of Sustainability Initiatives}}</ref> Cotton is one of the most chemical-intensive crops in the world, but growers in California have reduced their dependence on these chemicals.<ref name="SC_1">{{cite web| title=Sustainable Cotton Project - About| url=http://www.sustainablecotton.org/about.html| publisher=Sustainable Cotton Project| date=2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214090311/http://www.sustainablecotton.org/html/who_we_are.html |archive-date=14 February 2005|access-date=1 November 2023}}</ref> Conventionally grown cotton uses approximately 25% of the world's insecticides and more than 10% of the world's pesticides.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.organicitsworthit.org/get/cotton-and-environment|title=Cotton and the environment|publisher=Organic Trade Association|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416011200/http://www.organicitsworthit.org/get/cotton-and-environment|archive-date=16 April 2015|access-date=9 December 2015}}</ref> For every pound of cotton harvested, a farmer uses up 1/3&nbsp;lb of chemical, synthetic fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sayitgreen.com/organic/fairtrade.html|title=Your Grandkids Will Thank You|date=6 April 2009 |publisher=sayitgreen.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=31 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131080845/http://www.sayitgreen.com/organic/fairtrade.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Cotton is naturally grown in a variety of colors. Typically, cotton color can come in mauve, red, yellow and orange hues.<ref name="peruna" /> The use of naturally colored cotton has been historically suppressed, mainly due to the Industrial Revolution.<ref name="peruna" /> Back then, it was cheaper to have uniformly white cotton.<ref name="peruna" /> The color of fabrics made from naturally colored cotton is harder to fade away compared to synthetically dyed cotton fabrics.<ref>{{citation |last1=Dickerson |first1=Dianne K. |title=Naturally Colored Cotton: Resistance to changes in color and durability when refurbished with selected laundry aids |date=October 1999 |page=5 |url=http://cati.csufresno.edu/ip/rese/99/990901.pdf |access-date=7 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181721/http://cati.csufresno.edu/ip/rese/99/990901.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 |publisher=California Agricultural Technology Institute |last2=Lane |first2=Eric |last3=Rodriguez |first3=Dolores}}</ref> Though manufacturers prefer cotton to be white so that cotton can easily be synthetically dyed to any shade of color.<ref name="peruna">{{cite web|url=http://www.perunaturtex.com/scientif.htm|title=The Revival of Colored Cotton|last=Vreeland|first=James M. Jr.|date=April 1999|work=Scientific American |publisher=perunaturtex.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=15 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715064850/http://www.perunaturtex.com/scientif.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> During processing, manufacturers may add bleach and various other chemicals and heavy metal dyes to make cotton pure white.<ref name="savvy">{{cite web|url=http://savvybrown.com/health/whats-the-problem-with-cotton-part-1/ |title=What's the Problem With Cotton? Part I|date=10 May 2010|publisher=savvybrown.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=10 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710044257/http://savvybrown.com/health/whats-the-problem-with-cotton-part-1/|url-status=live}}</ref> Formaldehyde resins would be added in as well to form "easy care" cotton fabric.<ref name="savvy" />

{{Clear left|left}}

Some cotton may be grown without the use of any genetic modification to the crops, fertilizers, pesticides or other agrochemicals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable Ag Q & A |url=http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623021024/http://www.vineyardteam.org/resources/sustainableag.php |archive-date=23 June 2009 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=Central Coast Vineyard Team}}</ref> All cotton marketed as organic in the United States is required to fulfill strict federal regulations regarding how the cotton is grown.<ref>{{cite web |title=Production and Handling&nbsp;– Preamble |url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3003494&acct=noprulemaking |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614175508/http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3003494&acct=noprulemaking |archive-date=14 June 2012 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=USDA}}</ref> Organic cotton uses 88% less water and 62% less energy than conventional cotton.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mankus |first1=Modestas |date=13 May 2020 |title=Sustainable Fashion: What is Organic Cotton? |url=https://ourculturemag.com/2020/05/13/sustainable-fashion-what-is-organic-cotton/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808050404/https://ourculturemag.com/2020/05/13/sustainable-fashion-what-is-organic-cotton/ |archive-date=8 August 2020 |access-date=13 May 2020 |website=Our Culture}}</ref>

Companies have also produced genetically modified (GMO) cotton plants that are resistant to pest infestations. Among the GMO are cotton crops inserted with the Bt (''Bacillus thuringiensis'') gene.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/gmo.html|title=Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=5 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205060853/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/gmo.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Bt cotton crops do not require insecticide applications. Insects that consume cotton containing Bt will stop feeding after a few hours and die.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html|title=How Does Bt Work?|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=9 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209003125/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result, the cost of pesticide applications decreased between $25 and $65 per acre.<ref name="bt">{{cite web|url=http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_cotton.html|title=Bt Cotton Data|publisher=University of San Diego|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=13 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213074115/http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/bt_cotton.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Bt cotton crops yield 5% more cotton on average compared to traditional cotton crops.<ref name="bt" /> Bt crops also lower the price of cotton by 0.8&nbsp;cents per pound.<ref name="bt" /> However, insects are predicted to eventually develop resistance to the Bt strain. Researchers have found that members of a cotton bollworm species, ''Helicoverpa zea'', were Bt-resistant in some crop areas of Mississippi and Arkansas during 2003 and 2006.<ref name="science">{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080207140803.htm|title=First Documented Case Of Pest Resistance To Biotech Cotton|date=8 February 2008|publisher=Science Daily|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=12 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212214258/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080207140803.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Though the vast majority of other agricultural pests remain susceptible to Bt.<ref name="science" />

[[File:Organiccotton.jpg|Organic cotton yarn|thumb]]

==== Soy ==== {{Main|Soy}}

Soy fabrics are derived from the hulls of soybeans—a manufacturing byproduct. Soy fabrics can be blended (i.e. 30%) or made entirely out of soy fibers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/soy-clothing.html|title=Soy Clothing: The Latest In Eco-Friendly Style|year=2010|publisher=Natural Living for Women|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=3 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103021114/http://www.natural-living-for-women.com/soy-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Soy clothing is largely biodegradable. Although not as durable as cotton or hemp fabrics, soy clothing has a soft, elastic feel.<ref name="soy">{{cite web|url=http://www.the-eco-market.com/soy-fabric.html|title=Soy Fabric|year=2009|publisher=the-eco-market.com|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=3 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203092355/http://www.the-eco-market.com/soy-fabric.html|url-status=usurped}}</ref> Soy clothing is known as vegetable cashmere for its light and silky sensation.<ref name="soy" /> Soy fabrics are moisture-absorbent, antibacterial and UV-resistant.<ref name="soy" /> However, soy fabrics fell out of public knowledge during World War II, when rayon, nylon and cotton sales rose sharply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cool-organic-clothing.com/soy-clothing.html|title=Soy Clothing: Superior Softness Feels Like Your Second Skin|year=2008|publisher=Cool Organic Clothing|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=21 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121093911/http://www.cool-organic-clothing.com/soy-clothing.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Bamboo ==== {{Main|Bamboo textile}}

Bamboo fabrics are made from heavily pulped bamboo grass. Making clothing and textiles needs less pesticide control and agrochemicals.<ref name="versus">{{cite web|url=http://www.d6clothing.com/d6/green-info-bamboo-vs-cotton/|title=Bamboo vs. Cotton|year=2010|publisher=D6 Clothing|access-date=7 December 2010|archive-date=11 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411220028/http://www.d6clothing.com/d6/green-info-bamboo-vs-cotton/|url-status=live}}</ref> Like cotton fibers, bamboo fibers are naturally yellowish in color and are bleached white with chemicals during processing. Prior to a regulatory change in 2010, the majority of fiber and textile marketed as bamboo on the market was actually viscose rayon derived from bamboo. Now manufacturers need to label such products as rayon from bamboo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 1, 2010 |title=Bamboo textiles no more 'natural' than rayon |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/bamboo-textiles-no-more-natural-than-rayon-1.938759 |access-date=October 30, 2023 |website=CBC}}</ref>

Hemp, like bamboo, is considered a sustainable crop. It requires little water to grow, and it is resistant to most pests and diseases.<ref name="earth">{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Hemp Clothing |url=http://eartheasy.com/wear_hemp_clothing.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710164024/http://eartheasy.com/wear_hemp_clothing.htm |archive-date=10 July 2011 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=eartheasy.com}}</ref> Hemp fiber comes in two types: primary and secondary bast fibers. Hemp fibers are considered strong enough for construction uses.<ref name="bin">{{cite web |title=Hemp Fibres |url=http://www.binhaitimes.com/hemp.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127051011/http://www.binhaitimes.com/hemp.html |archive-date=27 November 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=Natural Fibers}}</ref> Compared to cotton fiber, hemp fiber is approximately 8 times the tensile strength and 4 times the durability.<ref name="bin" />

==== Kombucha (SCOBY) ==== {{main|SCOBY}}

Furnished by a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, associate professor Young-A Lee and her team had grown vats of gel-like film composed of cellulose fiber, a byproduct of the same symbiotic colonies of bacteria and yeast (abbreviated SCOBY) found in kombucha. Once harvested and dried, the resulting material has a look and feel much like leather.<ref name="Iowa State University-2016">{{Cite web|url=http://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2016/04/26/sustainableclothing|title=Clothing made from tea byproduct could improve health of fashion industry|date=April 2016|website=Iowa State University|access-date=2019-04-30|archive-date=2019-04-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421094133/https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2016/04/26/sustainableclothing|url-status=live}}</ref> The fibers are biodegradable and can foster a cradle-to-cradle cycle of reuse and regeneration. This material takes about three to four weeks under lab-controlled conditions to grow. Tests revealed that moisture absorption from the air softens this material, which makes it less durable. Researchers also discovered that cold conditions make it brittle.<ref name="Iowa State University-2016" />

===Protein fibers=== Protein fibers originate from animal sources and are made up of protein molecules. The basic elements in these protein molecules are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|title=Classification and general properties of textile fibres|last=Haung|first=HC|date=1994|access-date=March 1, 2018|archive-date=March 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328160048/http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/CGTPaperII.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Pesticides are conventionally used in the cultivation of wool, although quantities are smaller. Most commercially produced silk involves feeding worms a carefully controlled diet of mulberry leaves grown under special conditions. The fibers are extracted by steaming to kill the silk moth chrysalis and then washed in hot water. Its use in textiles is limited due to its high cost.<ref>{{Cite web |last=truents|date=2010-10-27|title=Natural Protein Fibres|url=https://www.textileschool.com/419/natural-protein-fibers/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Textile School|language=en-US|archive-date=2020-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108210540/https://www.textileschool.com/419/natural-protein-fibers/|url-status=live}}</ref> The silk industry also employs millions of people in rural China.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-03|title=Material Guide: Is Silk Sustainable?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/is-silk-sustainable/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Good On You|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104001011/https://goodonyou.eco/is-silk-sustainable/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Cashmere is obtained from the fine, soft hairs of a cashmere goat's underbelly coat. Four goats are needed to produce enough cashmere for one sweater. The cashmere industry has been questioned for the working conditions of goat herders and the underpaying of farmers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-11|title=Material Guide: How Ethical Is Cashmere?|url=https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-how-ethical-is-cashmere/|access-date=2020-10-31|website=Good On You|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106060026/https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-how-ethical-is-cashmere/|url-status=live}}</ref> Oxfam reported in Spring 2021 on a project in Afghanistan being undertaken jointly with the Burberry Foundation and PUR Projet,<!-- Not "Project" --> working with goat farmers to promote sustainable cashmere production.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oxfam, Burberry Foundation and PUR Projet partner on sustainable cashmere in Afghanistan |url=https://www.oxfam.org.uk/oxfam-in-action/oxfam-blog/sustainable-cashmere-afghanistan/ |website=Oxfam |date=2021 |access-date=2024-01-15}}</ref>

===Manufactured fibers=== Manufactured fibers sit within three categories:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Annie |first=Gullingsrud |title=Fashion fibers: designing for sustainability |date=2017-02-09 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-5013-0664-8 |location=New York, United States |oclc=915250289}}</ref> cellulosic fibers, synthetic fibers and protein fibers (e.g., azlon). Manufactured cellulosic fibers include rayon made from bamboo and wood, lyocell (also known under the brand name Tencel) and polylactic acid. Lyocell has gained popularity in sustainable fashion due to its closed-loop production process, which recycles water and solvents.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matthews |first=L |date=April 27, 2025 |title=What is Lyocell |url=https://goodonyou.eco/what-is-lyocell/}}</ref>Manufactured synthetic fibers include polyester, nylon, spandex, acrylic fiber, polyethylene and polypropylene.

Other alternative biodegradable fibers being developed by companies include: leather alternative using pineapple leaves;<ref name="ecowatch">{{cite web |date=12 March 2015 |title=Look Out Cotton, These 3 Fruits Are Shaking Up the Textile Industry |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/look-out-cotton-these-3-fruits-are-shaking-up-the-textile-industry-1882021787.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119122633/https://www.ecowatch.com/look-out-cotton-these-3-fruits-are-shaking-up-the-textile-industry-1882021787.html |archive-date=19 January 2019 |access-date=18 January 2019}}</ref> biocomposites, fabrics,<ref name="ecowatch" /> and leather alternative<ref>{{Cite web |title=Designers Create Vegan Leather from Coconut Water |url=https://vegnews.com/2018/5/designers-create-vegan-leather-from-coconut-water |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119174319/https://vegnews.com/2018/5/designers-create-vegan-leather-from-coconut-water |archive-date=2019-01-19 |access-date=2019-04-23 |website=VegNews.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 20, 2018 |title=Vegan Leather Made From Coconut Water Launches To Reduce Animal Cruelty |url=https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/vegan-leather-made-from-coconut-water-launches-to-reduce-animal-cruelty |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119120909/https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/vegan-leather-made-from-coconut-water-launches-to-reduce-animal-cruelty |archive-date=2019-01-19 |access-date=2019-04-23 |website=www.plantbasednews.org |language=en}}</ref> using various parts of coconut; and fabric and paper made from banana plant stalks and stems.<ref name="ecowatch" /> Rayon is a fiber made out of cellulose sometimes used in fast fashion as it is cheaply manufactured.<ref name="MG_1">{{cite web |author=Robertson, L. |date=12 January 2023 |title=Material Guide: What Is Viscose and Is It Sustainable? |url=https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-viscose-sustainability/#:~:text=It%20is%20estimated%20that%20around,land%20grabbing%20from%20Indigenous%20communities |access-date=13 January 2024 |publisher=Good On You}}</ref>

==== PET plastic ==== {{Main|PET plastic}}

{{See also|Synthetic fiber|Plastic clothing}}

Clothing can be made from plastic. Seventy percent of plastic-derived fabrics come from polyester, and the type of polyester most used in fabrics is polyethylene terephthalate.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 July 2009 |title=Why is Recycled Polyester Considered a Sustainable Textile? |url=http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824203859/http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/ |archive-date=24 August 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=O Ecotextiles}}</ref> PET plastic clothing comes from reused plastics, often recycled plastic bottles.<ref name="env">{{cite web |title=What is Recycled Polyester? |url=http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230015304/http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/ |archive-date=30 December 2010 |access-date=7 December 2010 |publisher=Natural Environment}}</ref> PET plastics have the recycling code of one. These plastics are usually beverage bottles (i.e., water, soda and fruit juice bottles). Generally, this method is as follows: plastic bottles are compressed, baled and shipped into processing facilities, where they will be chopped into flakes and melted into small white pellets. Then, the pellets are processed again and spun into yarn-like fiber, where it can be made into clothing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html|title=Clothing Made of Recycled Plastic|date=8 May 2008|publisher=yesboleh.blogspot.com|access-date=7 December 2010 |archive-date=8 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708072720/http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Transfer Station Recyclables, Gainesville, FL 7054.JPG|Recyclables at transfer station, Gainesville, Florida|thumb]] ===Fungal species=== Alexander Bismarck and Mitchell Jones from the University of Vienna have conducted research on the possibility of using fungal species to create sustainable leather alternatives. Leather alternatives can be produced by using byproducts of agricultural products such as sawdust. After a few weeks, the fungal mycelium can be processed and chemically treated into a leather-like material. The process is carbon neutral.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Mitchell |last2=Gandia |first2=Antoni |last3=John |first3=Sabu |last4=Bismarck |first4=Alexander |title=Leather-like material biofabrication using fungi |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=January 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00606-1 |s2cid=221522085 }}</ref>

'''Mycelium Leather'''

Mycelium<ref>{{Cite web |last=Webb |first=Bella |date=2022-01-13 |title=Mushroom leather just got one step closer to the mainstream |url=https://www.voguebusiness.com/sustainability/mushroom-leather-just-got-one-step-closer-to-the-mainstream-mycoworks-hermes |access-date=2025-10-01 |website=Vogue Business |language=en-US}}</ref> leather, also known as "Mushroom Leather," is a bio-based material that originates from the root system of fungi, referred to as mycelium. It has gained the attention of many fashion brands such as Stella McCartney and Hermès, using the substitute as a sustainable alternative to animal leather because it is biodegradable, cruelty-free, and requires fewer resources. Mycelium is often grown in controlled environments using agricultural waste, which allows for rapid production without the large use of water and energy it would take to process traditional leather. Because of its adaptability, mycelium can be altered to recreate several different textures, thicknesses, and colors.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cartner-Morley |first=Jess |date=2021-12-02 |title=Californian firm touts 'mushroom leather' as sustainability gamechanger |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/dec/02/californian-firm-touts-mushroom-leather-as-sustainability-gamechanger |access-date=2025-10-01 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== Development == Zero-waste design in fashion is a concept that aims to reduce material waste throughout the textile and fashion production process. The concept has existed for a number of years.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rissanen, Timo |title=Zero waste fashion design |date=2018-09-06 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-09483-3 |oclc=1040994499}}</ref> Zero-waste pattern making designs patterns for a garment so that when the pattern pieces are cut, no fabric is wasted.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rosenbloom |first1=Stephanie |title=Fashion Tries on Zero Waste Design |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/15/fashion/15waste.html |work=The New York Times |date=13 August 2010 }}</ref> One of the approaches is using an alternative method to traditional water dyeing; one example of such is supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing. Different names for this process are Drydye and Colordry.<ref>Fortunake, J., & Blackburn, R. (2017). ''Sustainability Challenges of Textiles, Dyeing and Finishing Industries: Opportunities for Innovation.'' Lecture presented at ACS Webinars.</ref>

3D seamless knitting is a technology that allows an entire garment to be knit. 3D seamless knitting creates the entire garment. The garments are designed using 3D software. Shima Seiki and Stoll are currently the two primary manufacturers of the technology. The technology is produced through the use of solar energy, and they are selling to brands like Max Mara.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mutha |first=Subramaniam |title=SUSTAINABILITY IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY |publisher=Singer |year=2017}}</ref>

==Controversies== {{Criticism section|date=October 2023}}

=== Marketing controversies === The increase in western consumers' environmental interest is motivating companies to use sustainable and environmental arguments solely to increase sales. Because environmental and sustainability issues are complex, it is also easy to mislead consumers. Companies can use sustainability as a "marketing ploy", which is something that can be seen as greenwashing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Niinimäki |first1=Kirsi |title=Ethical foundations in sustainable fashion |journal=Textiles and Clothing Sustainability |date=December 2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |article-number=3 |doi=10.1186/s40689-015-0002-1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Greenwashing is the deceptive use of an eco-agenda in marketing strategies.<ref name="Gurova-2018" /> It refers mostly to corporations that make efforts to clean their reputation because of social pressure or for the purpose of financial gain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furlow |first1=Nancy E. |title=Greenwashing in the New Millennium |journal=The Journal of Applied Business and Economics |volume=10 |issue=6 |date=March 2010 |pages=22–25 |id={{ProQuest|506504964}} |url=http://m.www.na-businesspress.com/JABE/jabe106/FurlowWeb.pdf }}</ref>

==== Greenwashing ==== {{Main|Greenwashing}}

A major controversy on sustainable fashion concerns how the "green" imperative is used as a cover-up for systemic labor exploitation, social exclusion and environmental degradation, what is generally labelled as "greenwashing". In this, market-driven sustainability addresses sustainability to a certain degree, as brands still need to sell more products in order to be profitable. Thus, almost any initiative towards addressing ecological and social issues still contributes to the damage. In a 2017 report, the industry projects that the overall apparel consumption will rise by 63%, from 62 million tons today to 102 million tons in 2030.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf|title=Pulse Fashion Report 2017|date=2017|website=Global Fashion Agenda, Pulse Report|access-date=2019-05-14|archive-date=2019-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004220838/http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf}}</ref>

=== Materials controversies === Though some designers have marketed bamboo fiber as an alternative to conventional cotton, citing that it absorbs greenhouse gases during its life cycle and grows quickly without pesticides, the conversion of bamboo fiber to fabric is the same as rayon and is highly toxic. The Federal Trade Commission ruled that the labeling of bamboo fiber should read "rayon from bamboo". Bamboo fabric can cause environmental harm in production due to the chemicals used to create a soft viscose from hard bamboo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Ray A. |date=24 May 2008 |title=Shades of green: decoding eco fashion's claims |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711 |access-date=2016-04-25 |archive-date=2016-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428161022/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry|title=Waste is so last season: recycling clothes in the fashion industry|last=Gould|first=Hannah|date=2015-02-26|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=2018-03-01|archive-date=2018-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180302103909/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Second-hand controversies === In Tanzania, used clothing is sold at ''Mitumba'' markets (Swahili for "bundles"). Most of the clothing is imported from the United States.<ref name="waste" /> However, there are concerns that trade in secondhand clothing in African countries decreases development of local industries even as it creates employment in these countries.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Well dressed?: the present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom|last=Allwood|first=Julian M.|author1-link=Julian Allwood|date=2006|publisher=Univ. of Cambridge Inst. for Manufacturing|isbn=978-1-902546-52-0|oclc=441247814}}</ref> While the reuse of materials brings resource savings, there are some concerns that the influx of cheap secondhand clothing can undermine local textile and garment industries.<ref>Fletcher, K. (2013). Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys. Routledge.{{page needed|date=November 2022}}</ref>

==See also== {{col-start}}{{col-1-of-2}} * Bamboo textiles * Biodegradable athletic footwear * Digital fashion * Ecodesign * Environmental impact of fashion * Ethical consumerism * Fashion activism{{col-2-of-2}} * Green consumption * Green textile * Pollution in the fashion industry * Product tracing systems, which allow consumers to see the source factory of a product * Reusable shopping bag * Textile recycling * Trashion{{col-end}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== {{Commons category}} * Black, Sandy (2008). ''Eco-chic : the fashion paradox''. London: Black Dog. {{ISBN|1-906155-09-7}}. {{OCLC|966078563}}. * Black, Sandy (2013). ''The sustainable fashion handbook''. New York: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|9780500290569}}. {{OCLC|939743661}}. * {{cite book |editor1-last=Choi |editor1-first=Tsan-Ming |editor2-last=Cheng |editor2-first=T. C. Edwin |date=2015 |title=Sustainable fashion supply chain management: from sourcing to retailing |series=Springer series in supply chain management |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-12702-6 |oclc=907012044 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-12703-3 }} * {{cite book |last1=Farley |first1=Jennifer |last2=Hill |first2=Colleen |date=2015 |title=Sustainable fashion: past, present, and future |location=New York |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-85785-185-7 |oclc=860754344 }} * {{cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Kate |date=2014 |orig-date=2008 |title=Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys |edition= 2nd |location=London; Washington, DC |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-0-415-64455-6 |oclc=846847018 }} * {{cite book |last1=Fletcher |first1=Kate |last2=Grose |first2=Lynda |date=2012 |title=Fashion & sustainability: design for change |location=London |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |isbn=978-1-85669-754-5 |oclc=778610112 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Fletcher |editor1-first=Kate |editor2-last=Tham |editor2-first=Mathilda |date=2015 |title=Routledge handbook of sustainability and fashion |series=Routledge international handbooks |location=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-82859-8 |oclc=820119510 }} * {{Cite news |last=Friedman |first=Vanessa |date=2022-05-07 |title=Redefining 'Sustainable Fashion' |language=en-US |work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/07/style/redefining-sustainable-fashion.html |access-date=2023-10-03 |issn=0362-4331}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Gardetti |editor1-first=Miguel Ángel |editor2-last=Torres |editor2-first=Ana Laura |date=2013 |title=Sustainability in fashion and textiles: values, design, production and consumption |location=Sheffield, UK |publisher=Greenleaf Publishing |isbn=978-1-906093-78-5 |oclc=827952084 }} * {{cite book |last1=Gwilt |first1=Alison |last2=Rissanen |first2=Timo |date=2010 |title=Shaping sustainable fashion: changing the way we make and use clothes |location=London; Washington, DC |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-1-84971-241-5 |oclc=656849440 }} * Shell, Hanna Rose (2020). ''Shoddy : From Devil's Dust to the Renaissance of Rags''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|9-780226-698-22-9}}.

== External links == * [https://unfashionalliance.org/ UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion] {{Fashion}} {{Sustainability}} {{Environmental humanities}}

Category:Fashion Category:Clothing and the environment Fashion Category:Slow movement Category:Sustainable development Category:Sustainability Category:Environmental economics Category:Sustainable business