{{Short description|Weather-controlling wizards in Romanian folklore}} The '''Solomonar''' or '''Șolomonar''' (German phonetization: ''Scholomonar''; plural '''Solomonari''') is a wizard believed in Romanian folklore to ride a dragon (zmeu{{Efn|Ismeju is the German phoneticization of zmeu.}} or a balaur) and control the weather, causing rain, thunder, or hailstorm.
They are recruited from common folk and taught their magic at the Solomonărie or Şolomanţă <!--Şolomanţâ--> (German phonetization: Scholomance).<ref name=saineanu1895-p0871>{{cite book|last=Șăineanu |first=Lazăr |title=Basmele Române |place=Bucuresci |publisher=Lito-tip. C. Göbl |year=1895 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nA2gAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA871 |page=871}}</ref>
==General description== The Solomonars are said to be tall, red-haired, wearing long white robes of peasants,<ref name=majuru/> sometimes woolen,<ref name=ramsland/> or clad in ragged attire made from patches,<ref name=majuru/> a small version of a Semantron, which serves to summon the Vântoase (alternatively the winds are contained in a little wooden jar). When not helping the Devil, they are most often seen around begging for alms, and the collected coins are then thrown into rivers, as offerings to the water spirits.<ref>{{harvp|Martin|Laplantine|Introvigne|1994|p=142}}: "comme un mendiant".</ref> The contents of their magic bag are instruments such as an iron axe used as lightning rod (also as a wand to summon them or his mount), birchbark reins or a golden bridle, and a book of wisdom which contained all their knowledge, and is the source of their power.<ref name=majuru/> A branch that has killed a snake is included in some lists.{{sfnp|Martin|Laplantine|Introvigne|1994|p=142}} Once they are in the guise of beggars (often crippled or blindfolded beggars), they blend in with the populace so they cannot be distinguished as wizards.<ref name=gaster-287&8>{{harvp|Marian|1878|pp=54–56}}; German tr., {{harvp|Gaster|1884|pp=287–288}}</ref> However, they apparently have the knowledge and memory of which peasant's farm deserves his retribution when he acts as a dragon-rider sending down his hailstorm.<ref name=gaster-286&7>{{harvp|Marian|1878|pp=54–56}}; German tr., {{harvp|Gaster|1884|pp=286–287}}</ref>
===Schooling=== {{Further|Scholomance}} The Solomonari, by some accounts, are recruited from the people.<ref name=majuru/> They are taught their magic and the speech of beasts at the school (Scholomance),<ref name=ramsland/>{{sfnp|Martin|Laplantine|Introvigne|1994|p=143}} and become capable of riding the dragons. Tradition says they became the Devil's students, either being instructed by him, or becoming a servant to his commands.<ref name=gerard/><ref name=schmidt/><ref name=gaster-285>Marian (1879), pp. 54–56; German tr., {{harvp|Gaster|1884|p=285}}</ref>
An additional belief was that the students were taught at the Devil's school which was situated underground, and that the students avoided the rays of the sun for the seven-year duration of their study.<ref name=gaster-285/> They were in fact a type of Strigoi or Vampire, according to S. F. Marian, who collected the folklore from the field.<ref>Marian (1879), pp. 54–56; German tr., {{harvp|Gaster|1884|p=285}}: "''Die Solomonari sind bösartige Leute, eine Art »Strigoi« (Vampyre)''".</ref>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Marian adds here the belief that the strigoi, like the vampire avoided eating garlic or having contact with it. And had to be buried faced down with garlic in its mouth to prevent him resurrecting and causing mischief.<ref name=gaster-287&8/>}}
===Dragon-riders and weather=== The solomonari were regarded as dragon-riders who control the weather, causing thunder, or rain, or hail to fall.
One way in which this belief was articulated{{Efn|Folklore given by Wilhelm Schmidt and Emily Gerard's version.}} was that a particular pupil out of the graduating class of ten would be selected by the Devil to become the designated Weather-maker ({{langx|de|Wettermacher}}) who rode the "Ismeju" dragon (German phoneticization of ''zmeu'' dragon<ref name=florescu/>).<ref name=schmidt1/> Or he became the "Devil's aide-de-camp"<ref name=gerard/> who rode the ''zmeu'' to make thunderbolts.<ref name=gerard/> Or thirdly, the ''Solomonariu'' would fly up into the skies, and whenever his dragon glanced at the clouds, rainfall would come.{{Efn|In this version, it is written as if only the designated student retained by the devil earned the name ''Solomonariu''.}}<ref name=schmidt2/> But God intervened to keep the dragon from growing too weary, lest it plummeted and devour a great part of the earth.<ref name=schmidt2/>
A rather different presentation is that Solomonari who normally lived as beggars among the populace would occasionally engage himself for a fee to become the dragon-rider and hail-bringer. He selected which fields to damage, knowing which peasants behaved unkindly to them. A peasant may hire a "counter-Solomonari" ({{langx|ro|contrasolomonar}};{{sfnp|Olteanu|1998|p=67}} pl. Contra-Solomonarĭ{{sfnp|Marian|1878|p=55}}){{Efn|{{lang|de|»Gegen-Solomonarĭ«}} (pl.).}} to cast spells to divert the dragon-riding Solmomonari.<ref name=gaster-286&7/>
In this version, the type of dragon they rode were the ''balauri'' (sing. ''balaur'').<ref name=marian-balauri>Marian (1879): "Cînd voiesc Solomonarii să se suie în nori, iau friul cel de aur şi se duc la un lac fără de fund sau la o altă apă mare, unde ştiu ei că locuiesc balaurii", quoted in: Hasdeu, Bogdan Petriceicu; Brâncuș, Grigore (1976) edd., ''{{plain link|name=Etymologicum Magnum Romaniae |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAN_9QPRU1gC&q=balaurii}}'' '''3''', p. 438.</ref><ref name=marian-balauri-germ>Marian (1879), pp. 54–56, German (tr.), {{harvp|Gaster|1884|p=285}}: "''Mit diesem Zaum zäumen die Solomonari die ihnen anstatt Pferde dienenden Drachen'' (''Balauri'')" or, "With this [golden] bridle, the Solomonari rein their dragons (''balauri'') that they use instead of horses".</ref> This dragon can be brought out of a bottomlessly deep lake by using "golden reins" or bridle ({{langx|de|ein goldene Zaum}}"; {{langx|ro|{{linktext|un |frâu |de |aur}}}}), and the wizard and dragon would create storms or bring down hail.<ref name=marian-balauri-germ/><ref name=ljiljana>{{citation|last=Ljiljana |first=Marks |title=Legends about the ''Grabancijaš Dijak'' in the 19th Century and in Contemporary Writings |journal=Acta Ethnographica Hungarica |volume=54 |number=2 |year=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SkwqAQAAIAAJ&q=%22solomonar%22 |page=327<!--319–336-->}}</ref>
==19th century sources== "Scholomance" and "Scholomonariu" appeared in print in the Austrian journal ''Österreichische Revue'' in 1865, written by Wilhelm Schmidt (1817–1901)<ref>{{ÖBL|10|299|300|Schmidt, Wilhelm (1817-1901), Historiker|F. Hillbrand-Grill}} ({{plain link|url=http://www.biographien.ac.at/oebl/oebl_S/Schmid_Wilhelm_1817_1901.xml|name=xml}})</ref> The piece is discussed as a belief present in the Central Romanian Fogarasch (Făgăraș) district and beyond, with additional lore from Hermannstadt.<ref name=schmidt>{{citation|last=Schmidt |first=Wilhelm |title=Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der Romänen Siebenbürgens |journal=Österreichische Revue |volume=3 |number=1 |year=1865 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beuzAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA219 |page=219}}; reissued: {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YiYPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA16|name=(1866), Hermannstadt, A. Schmiedicke}}</ref>
Emily Gerard later wrote on the topic of "Scholomance", although she only referred to its attendees as "scholars", and did not specifically employ the term ''Solomanari'' or the equivalent.<ref name=gerard>{{citation|last=Gerard |first=Emily |author-link=Emily Gerard |title=Transylvanian Superstitions |journal=The Nineteenth Century |volume=18 |year=1885|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8hMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA136|page=136 (128–144)}}</ref>
Romanian ethnobotanist Simion Florea Marian described the Solmonari in his article on "Daco-Romanian Mythology" in the ''{{interlanguage link|Albina Carpaților|ro}}'' (1879).<ref>Marian, Simeon Florea (1879), "Mitologia daco-română", ''Albina Carpaților'' '''III''', pp. 54–56</ref> Marian collected this folklore orally from the people in Siebenbürgen (Transylvania) and the adjoining Bukovina-Moldavia region.{{sfnp|Gaster|1884|p=284}}
== Nomenclature == ''Solomonar'' is the singular form,{{sfnp|Olteanu|1998|p=294}} and the variant ''Șolomonar''{{Efn|As well as alternating the initial consonant between ''s'' /s/ and ''ş'' /ʃ/, earlier reflexes of the word in Romanian may add "-i" and the regular "-u" formerly found in the noun declension.}} also listed.<ref name=evseev/> The German phonetization ''Scholomonar'' which is closer to the latter form was given by Gaster.{{sfnp|Gaster|1884}}
The modern-day dictionary plural form in Romanian is ''Solomonari'',<ref name=comsulea&serban&teius-dict/> and "solomonars" in the plural has been used in English translation.{{sfnp|Oișteanu|1999|pp=178–181}}
An old dictionary form in the plural ''Șolomonariu'' occurs in a lexicon published in 1825, where the term is glossed as {{langx|la|imbriciter}},{{Efn|{{langx|la|{{linktext|imber}}}}, "rain".}} {{langx|hu|garabantzás deák}}, and {{langx|de|der {{linktext|Wetter|macher}}, {{linktext|Wetter|treiber}}, {{linktext|Lumpen|mann}}}}.<ref name=lexicon1825/> Andrei Oișteanu remarked that this form is rather dated.<ref name=oisteanu-1989-p-256/>
''Scholomonáriu'' is defined as ''Zauberer'' or "sorcerers" in an even earlier source, a glossary appended to a book dating from 1781.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sulzer |first=Franz Joseph |title=Geschichte des transalpinischen Daciens, b.2 |date=1781 |location=Vienna |publisher=Rudolph Gräffer |page=265 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jr1fAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA265 |language=de}}</ref>
==Etymologies== The default explanation is that the word is connected to King Solomon via the addition of the occupational suffix "''-ar''", although this may be folk etymology.<ref name=stef/><ref name=Talos/> A folkloric account attests to the association with the biblical king. In an account given by Friedrich von Müller the "Kaiser Salomo" has the ability to control the weather, and the inheritors of his art are called "Scholomonar".<ref name=mueller/><ref>Pointed out by {{harvp|Gaster|1884|p=283}}</ref> The association of Solomon with wizards may have been popularized by the adventure tale ''Solomon and Morcolf''.<ref>Șăineanu. Titkin. Cited by {{harvp|Ștef|2011}}, "șolomonár", ''Dicționar''.</ref>
Gaster, more complicatedly, suggested a hybrid of the word for the magic school ''Scholomantze'' (Romanian orthography: ''Şolomanţă'') from association with Salamanca, and ''Solomonie'' (from Solomon).{{sfnp|Gaster|1884|pp=288–299}}<ref>{{harvp|Oișteanu|2004|p=221}}: "În 1884, Moses Gaster a acordat apelativului în discuţie o etimologie combinată: „Şolomonar este rezultatul dintre şolomanţă [de la Salamanca – n. A.O.] + solomonie [de la Solomon – n. A.O.]"</ref> An alternate derivation from the German ''Schulmänner'' ("scholars"), in reference to the popular belief that solomonars attended a school, is credited to J. Vulcan.<ref>{{harvp|Gaster|1884|p=285}}: " »Scholomonari« (d. h. »Schulmänner« bemerkt .J. Vulcan)."</ref><ref name=stef>{{citation|last1=Ștef|first1=Dorin|title=șolomonár (Ș) |work=Dicționar de regionalisme și arhaisme din Maramureș|date=2011|publisher=Editura Ethnologica}}</ref>{{Refn|Or derive from German ''Schule'' "school".<ref name=ljiljana>{{citation|last=Ljiljana |first=Marks |title=Legends about the ''Grabancijaš Dijak'' in the 19th Century and in Contemporary Writings |journal=Acta Ethnographica Hungarica |volume=54 |number=2 |year=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SkwqAQAAIAAJ&q=%22solomonar%22 |page=327<!--319–336-->}}</ref>}}
===Zeus hypothesis=== King Solomon as weather-maker may derive from the Greek myth of Zeus the king of gods controlling the weather, a theory proposed by A. Oișteanu<ref>Oișteanu, Andrei (1990), p. 319. Cited by {{harvp|Ștef|2011}}, "șolomonár", ''Dicționar''.</ref>
===Red Jews hypothesis=== As the Solomonari have been described as red-haired giants ({{langx|ro|uriaşi}}, ''pl.''), a connection to them and the legendary Red Jews (''evreilor roşii''{{Efn|Correct form "evreii roșii"; unclear if the term "''evreilor roşii''" is widely circulate in Romania, but is used by Majuru to translate "Red Jews" in Koestler's book. }}) has been suggested by {{interlanguage link|Adrian Majuru|ro}}. This hypothesis builds on Lazăr Șăineanu's theory that giant/Jews in Romanian folklore derived from the historical Khazars, and Arthur Koestler bringing the notion of the "Red Jews" into that formulation (Koestler's ''The Thirteenth Tribe'', the ultimate source being A. N. Poliak's book on the Khazars in Hebrew).<ref name=majuru/><ref>{{citation|last1=Koestler |first1=Arthur |title=The Thirteenth Tribe |publisher=Opesource |year=2014 |orig-year=1976 |url=https://archive.org/stream/THETHIRTEENTHTRIBE_201411/THE%20THIRTEENTH%20TRIBE#page/n45 }}, Ch. IV, Sect. 10: "To quote Poliak again: 'The popular Jewish legend does not remember a 'Khazar' kingdom but a kingdom of the 'Red Jews'"; partially quoted in {{harvp|Majuru|2012}} and attributed (to Koestler) in note 58.</ref>
===Dacian ascetics hypothesis===
Similarity with the Geto-Dacian ascetics called the ''ktistai'' described by Strabo was noted by Traian Herseni (d. 1980) who hypothesized that they were the original Solomonari.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Herseni |first=Traian |author-link=Traian Herseni |title=Le dragon dace |journal= Ethnologica |number=1|year= 1979|pages=13–22}}</ref><ref name=oisteanu-ktisai>{{cite book|last=Oișteanu |first=Andrei |title=Ordine și Haos. Mit și magie în cultura tradițională românească |publisher=Polirom |year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjJrDAAAQBAJ&q=ktistai |page=185|isbn=9789734637140 }}; {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjJrDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT235 |name=2016 edition}}</ref> Herseni posited that the ''ktisai'' were more properly called "''skistai''" meaning "those who abstain from worldly pleasures", and that the cryptic byname that Strabo gave them ''Kapnobatai'' (which literally means "smoke-treaders"<ref name=strabo-note17/>) really meant "travelers in the clouds".<ref name=oisteanu-ktisai/>
The theory has found its strong proponent in Eugen Agrigoroaiei, who pronounced that the origins of the Solomonari had been established, and the Dacian cloud travelers must have been authentic Solomonari.<ref>{{cite book|first=Eugen |last=Agrigoroaiei |title=Ţara neuitatelor constelaţii: folclor arhaic românesc |publisher=Junimea |year=1981 |language=ro}}</ref><ref name=oisteanu-ktisai/> Andrei Oișteanu cautions that while "enticing", the "hypothesis remains as only as plausibility".{{Efn|Romanian: "ipoteza este spectaculoasă şi ispititoare"; "această ipoteză să rămână doar plauzibilă".}} He points out that a tradition kept alive from Caesar's time to the 19th century presents a credibility issue, since there is a complete vacuum in the records about any of it for the 1900-year interim.<ref name=oisteanu-ktisai/> {{interlanguage link|Mihai Coman|ro}} is another skeptic who referred to the idea as "speculation by Herseni".<ref>Coman, 1983, p. 123, cited by {{harvp|Oișteanu|2004}}</ref>
==Parallels and synonyms== Parallels with the legend of the Serbo-Croatian ''garabancijaš dijak'' ({{langx|hu|garabonciás diák}}) "necromantic scholar" had been sought in Moses Gaster's paper, which is one a major source for the Solomanari folkloristics. The Croatian version was described by Vatroslav Jagić and the Hungarian version by {{interlanguage link|Oszkár Asbóth (linguist){{!}}Oszkár Asbóth|hu|Asbóth Oszkár (nyelvész))}}.{{sfnp|Gaster|1884|pp=281–282}}
A number of synonyms can be found in Romanian, including "''zgrimințeș''", and it is considered synonymous or closely connected to the widespread Balkan legend known in Serbo-Croatian (for example) as ''grabancijaš dijak''<ref name=Talos>{{cite book|last=Taloș |first=Ion |translator=Anneliese and Claude Lecouteux |title=Petit dictionnaire de mythologie populaire roumaine |date=2002 |publisher=ELLUG|location=Grenoble, France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu_6QPkgfpAC&pg=PA187 |pages=187–188 |isbn=2843100364 |language=fr}}</ref> ("the necromancy student").
==Anecdotes== Friedrich von Müller (1857) reported a story from Schäßburg (Sighișoara in Transylvania) in which a Romanian mistook a robed student for a solomonar.<ref name=mueller>{{cite book|last1=Müller|first1=Friedrich von|title=Siebenbürgische Sagen|date=1857|publisher=J. Gött|location=Kronstadt|pages=177–178|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrcAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA177 |language=de}}</ref>
==Explanatory notes== {{notelist}}
==References== ;Citations {{reflist|30em|refs= <ref name=comsulea&serban&teius-dict>{{cite book|editor-last1=Comșulea |editor-first1=Elena |editor-link1=<!--Elena Comșulea--> |editor-last2=Șerban |editor-first2=Valentina |editor-link2=<!--Valentina Șerban--> |editor-last3=Teiuș |editor-first3=Sabina |editor-link3=<!--Sabina Teiuș--> |title=Solomonár |work=Dicționar al limbii române: explicativ, practic |publisher=Editura Vlad & Vlad |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPIcAQAAIAAJ |page=638|isbn=9789739664400 |language=ro}}</ref>
<ref name=evseev>{{citation|last=Evseev |first=Ivan |author-link=<!--Ivan Evseev--> |title=Dicționar de magie, demonologie și mitologie românească |publisher=Editura "Amarcord" |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I7BuAAAAMAAJ |page=515 |isbn=9-789-7392-4428-2 |language=ro}}</ref>
<ref name=florescu>{{cite book|last1=Florescu |first1=Radu |author-link=Radu Florescu |last2=McNally |first2=Raymond T. |title=Dracula, Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times |publisher=Little, Brown |year=2009|isbn=9780316092265 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zot08bJa3FAC&pg=PT217 |quote=''Ismeju'' [the correct Romanian spelling is ''Zmeu'', another word for dragon]}} {{isbn|9-780-3160-9226-5}}</ref>
<ref name=lexicon1825>{{citation|title=Șolomonariu |work=Lexicon valachico-latino-hungarico-germanicum<!--Lesicon Roma'nescu-La'tinescu-Ungurescu-Nemtescu--> |place=Budae |publisher=Typogr. Regiae Univ. Hungaricae |year=1825|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3VQAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA2-PA654 |page=654}}</ref>
<ref name=majuru>{{citation|last=Majuru |first=Adrian |author-link=:ro:Adrian Majuru |title=Khazar Jews. Romanian History And Ethnography |journal=Plural Magazine |volume=27 |year=2006 |url=http://icr.ro/pagini/khazar-jews-romanian-history-and-ethnography |page=234}} (English tr.); {{cite web|last=Majuru |year=2012 |url=http://www.e-antropolog.ro/2012/01/evreii-khazari-istorie-si-etnografie-romaneasca-ii/ |title=Evreii Khazari. Istorie Şi Etnografie Românească (II) |language=ro}}</ref>
<ref name=oisteanu-1989-p-256>{{citation|last=Majuru |first=Adrian |author-link=Andrei Oișteanu |title=Motive și semnificații mito-simbolice în cultura tradițională românească |publisher=Editura Minerva |year=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=miPaAAAAMAAJ |page=256|isbn=9789732101612 }}</ref>
<ref name=ramsland>{{citation|last1=Ramsland |first1=Katherine |title=The Science of Vampires |publisher=Penguin |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8P80OfiXJgC&pg=PT33 |page=33 |isbn=9-781-1012-0423-8}}</ref>
<ref name=schmidt1>Lore of Fogarasch (Făgăraș) district, etc., {{harvp|Schmidt|1866|p=16}}</ref> <ref name=schmidt2>Lore of Hermannstadt, {{harvp|Schmidt|1866|p=16}}</ref>
<ref name=strabo-note17>Strabo, ''{{plain link|url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0099.tlg001.perseus-eng1:7.3 |name=Geography}}'' VII.3.3</ref>
}}
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Category:Romanian legendary creatures Category:Magicians (supernatural)