Soil science

{{Short description|Study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of Earth}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}} thumb|A soil scientist examining horizons within a soil profile

'''Soil science''' is the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.<ref>{{cite book |year=1997 |last=Jackson |first=Julia A. |title=Glossary of geology |edition=4th |isbn=978-0922152346 |page=604 |url=https://archive.org/details/glossaryofgeolog0000unse_k9a5/page/604/mode/2up |access-date=28 April 2026 |publisher=American Geological Institute |location=Alexandria, Virginia }}</ref>

The diversity of names of disciplines associated with soil science is related to the various associations concerned. Indeed, engineers, agronomists, chemists, geologists, physical geographers, ecologists, biologists, microbiologists, silviculturists, sanitarians, archaeologists, and specialists in regional planning, all contribute to further knowledge of soils and the advancement of the soil sciences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodrigo-Comino |first1=Jesús |last2=López-Vicente |first2=Manuel |last3=Kumar |first3=Vinod |last4=Rodríguez-Seijo |first4=Andrés |last5=Valkó |first5=Orsolya |last6=Rojas |first6=Claudia |last7=Pourghasemi |first7=Hamid Reza |last8=Salvati |first8=Luca |last9=Bakr |first9=Noura |last10=Vaudour |first10=Emmanuelle |last11=Brevik |first11=Eric C. |last12=Radziemska |first12=Maja |last13=Pulido |first13=Manuel |last14=Di Prima |first14=Simone |last15=Dondini |first15=Marta |last16=De Vries |first16=Wim |last17=Santos |first17=Erika S. |last18=Mendonça-Santos |first18=Maria de Lourdes |last19=Yu |first19=Yang |last20=Panagos |first20=Panos |title=Soil science challenges in a new era: a transdisciplinary overview of relevant topics |journal=Air, Soil and Water Research |date=1 December 2020 |volume=13 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1177/11786221209774 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Soil scientists have raised concerns about how to preserve soil and arable land in a world with a growing population, possible future water crisis, increasing per capita food consumption, and land degradation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Janzen |first1=Henry H. |last2=Fixen |first2=Paul E. |last3=Franzluebbers |first3=Alan J. |last4=Hattey |first4=Jeffory |last5=Izaurralde |first5=Roberto C. |last6=Ketterings |first6=Quirine M. |last7=Lobb |first7=David A. |last8=Schlesinger |first8=William H. |title=Global prospects rooted in soil science |journal=Soil Science Society of America Journal |date=January 2011 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.2136/sssaj2009.0216 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51025808 |bibcode = 2011SSASJ..75....1J |access-date=28 April 2026 }}</ref>

== Fields of study ==

Soil occupies the pedosphere, one of Earth's spheres that the geosciences use to organize the Earth conceptually. This is the conceptual perspective of pedology and edaphology, the two main historical branches of soil science. Pedology is the study of soil in its natural setting. Edaphology is the study of soil in relation to soil-dependent uses. Both branches apply a combination of soil physics, soil chemistry, and soil biology. Due to the numerous interactions between the biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere that are hosted within the pedosphere,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Huggett |first=Richard |title=Earth’s spheres: conceptual and definitional debates |journal=Progress in Physical Geography, Earth and Environment |date=23 August 2024 |volume=48 |issue=5–6 |pages=651–70 |doi=10.1177/03091333241275465 |doi-access=free }}</ref> more integrated, less soil-centric concepts are also valuable. Many concepts essential to understanding soil come from or have been renewed by individuals not identifiable strictly as soil scientists, like biologists<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ponge |first=Jean-François |title=Humus: dark side of life or intractable "aether"? |journal=Pedosphere |date=August 2022 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=660–4 |doi=10.1016/S1002-0160(21)60013-9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/77582668 |access-date=28 April 2026 }}</ref> or philosophers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sigl |first1=Lisa |last2=Falkenberg |first2=Ruth |last3=Fochler |first3=Maximilian |title=Changing articulations of relevance in soil science: diversity and (potential) synergy of epistemic commitments in a scientific discipline |journal=Studies in History and Philosophy of Science |date=February 2023 |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=79–90 |doi=10.1016/j.shpsa.2022.12.004 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This highlights the interdisciplinary nature of soil concepts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brevik |first1=Eric C. |last2=Cerdà |first2=Artemi |last3=Mataix-Solera |first3=Jorge |last4=Pereg |first4=Lily |last5=Quinton |first5=John L. |last6=Six |first6=Johan |last7=Van Osst |first7=Kristof |title=The interdisciplinary nature of soil |journal=Soil (journal) |date=16 January 2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=117–29 |doi=10.5194/soil-1-117-2015 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Research ==

Exploring the diversity and dynamics of soil continues to yield fresh discoveries and insights. New avenues of soil research are compelled by a need to understand soil in the context of climate change,<ref name="Ochoa-Hueso2019">{{cite journal |last1=Ochoa-Hueso |first1=Raúl |last2=Delgado-Baquerizo |first2=Manuel |last3=King |first3=Paul Tuan An |last4=Benham |first4=Merryn |last5=Arca |first5=Valentina |last6=Power |first6=Sally A. |title=Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |date=February 2019 |volume=129 |pages=144–52 |doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009 |bibcode=2019SBiBi.129..144O |s2cid=92606851 |hdl=10261/336676 |hdl-access=free |url=https://www.academia.edu/41490992 |access-date=28 April 2026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pielke |first=Roger |date=19 December 2005 |title=Is soil an important component of the climate system? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908124853/http://climatesci.atmos.colostate.edu/2005/12/19/is-soil-an-important-component-of-the-climate-system/ |archive-date=8 September 2006 |website=pielkeclimatesci.wordpress.com |access-date=28 April 2026 |url=https://pielkeclimatesci.wordpress.com/2005/12/19/is-soil-an-important-component-of-the-climate-system/ |url-status=live }}</ref> greenhouse gases,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Li |first=Changsheng |title=Quantifying greenhouse gas emissions from soils: scientific basis and modeling approach |journal=Soil Science and Plant Nutrition |date=17 December 2010 |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=344–52 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-0765.2007.00133.x |url=https://z-library.ec/book/mX4JJbWE9x |access-date=28 April 2026 }}</ref> and carbon sequestration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lal |first1=Rattan |last2=Negassa |first2=Wakene |last3=Lorenz |first3=Klaus |title=Carbon sequestration in soil |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |date=August 2015 |volume=15 |pages=79–86 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2015.09.002 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283457192 |access-date=28 April 2026 }}</ref> Interest in maintaining the planet's biodiversity and in exploring past cultures has also stimulated renewed interest in achieving a more refined understanding of soil.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Jake M. |last2=Liddicoat |first2=Craig |last3=Muñoz-Rojas |first3=Miriam |last4=Breed |first4=Martin F. |title=Restoring soil biodiversity |journal=Current Biology |date=6 May 2024 |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=393–8 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2024.02.035 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Salisbury |first=Roderick B. |title=Engaging with soil, past and present |journal=Journal of Material Culture |date=5 March 2012 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=23–41 |doi=10.1177/1359183511432990 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/206858402 |access-date=28 April 2026 }}</ref>

== Mapping == {{Main|Soil survey}} Soil mapping is the process of classifying soil types and properties in a given area and geo-encoding the information. Along the second half of the 20th century soil mapping was currently achieved by field survey and reporting contours of soil types on geographic maps at varying scales according to countries and purposes. More recently digital soil mapping approaches have been developed in various countries for quantifying soils in space and time using remote sensing data.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richer-de-Forges |first1=Anne C. |last2=Chen |first2=Qianqian |last3=Baghdadi |first3=Nicolas |last4=Chen |first4=Songchao |last5=Gomez |first5=Cécile |last6=Jacquemoud |first6=Stéphane |last7=Martelet |first7=Guillaume |last8=Mulder |first8=Vera L. |last9=Urbina-Salazar |first9=Diego |last10=Vaudour |first10=Emmanuelle |last11=Weiss |first11=Marie |last12=Wigneron |first12=Jean-Pierre |last13=Arrouays |first13=Dominique |title=Remote sensing data for digital soil mapping in French research: a review |journal=Remote Sensing |date=12 June 2023 |volume=15 |issue=12 |article-number=3070 |doi=10.3390/rs15123070 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Behrens |first1=Thorsten |last2=Scholten |first2=Thomas |title=Digital soil mapping in Germany: a review |journal=Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science |date=June 2006 |volume=169 |issue=3 |pages=434–43 |doi=10.1002/jpln.200521962 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229536083 |access-date=28 April 2026 }}</ref>

== Classification == {{main|Soil classification}} [[File:Global soils map USDA.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Map of global soil regions from the USDA]] In 1998, the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) replaced the FAO soil classification as the international soil classification system. The currently valid version of WRB is the 4th edition, 2022.<ref name=WRB>{{cite web |url=https://wrb.isric.org/files/WRB_fourth_edition_2022-12-18_errata_correction_2024-09-24.pdf |title=World Reference Base for Soil Resources |edition=4th |author=IUSS Working Group WRB |date=24 September 2024 |publisher=International Union of Soil Sciences |location=Vienna, Austria |access-date=29 April 2026 }}</ref> The FAO soil classification, in turn, borrowed from modern soil classification concepts, including USDA soil taxonomy.

WRB is based mainly on soil morphology as an expression of pedogenesis. A major difference with USDA soil taxonomy is that soil climate is not part of the system, except insofar as climate influences soil profile characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bryan |first1=Kirk |last2=Albritton |first2=Claude C. Jr |title=Soil phenomena as evidence of climatic changes |journal=American Journal of Science |date=August 1943 |volume=241 |issue=8 |pages=469–90 |url=https://ajsonline.org/article/58124.pdf |access-date=29 April 2026 }}</ref>

Many other classification schemes exist, including vernacular systems. The structure in vernacular systems is either nominal (giving unique names to soils or landscapes) or descriptive (naming soils by their characteristics such as red, hot, fat, or sandy). Soils are distinguished by obvious characteristics, such as physical appearance (e.g., color, texture, landscape position), performance (e.g., production capability, flooding), and accompanying vegetation.<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306144700/http://forages.oregonstate.edu/is/ssis/main.cfm?PageID=168 |archive-date=6 March 2007 |title=Vernacular systems |access-date=29 April 2026 |url=https://forages.oregonstate.edu/ssis/soils/characteristics/types/vernacular |website=Oregon State University |url-status=live }}</ref> A vernacular distinction familiar to many is classifying texture as heavy (clayish) or light (sandy). Light soils with higher sand content and better structure take less effort to turn and cultivate than finer-textured soils but are more susceptible to erosion and thus to losses of production capacity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Donagemma |first1=Guilherme Kangussu |last2=de Freitas |first2=Pedro Luiz |last3=Balieiro |first3=Fabiano de Carvalho |last4=Fontana |first4=Ademir |last5=Spera |first5=Silvio Túlio |last6=Lumbreras |first6=José Francisco |last7=Viana |first7=João Herbert Moreira |last8=de Araújo Filho |first8=José Coelho |last9=dos Santos |first9=Flávia Cristina |last10=de Albuquerque |first10=Manoel Ricardo |last11=Macedo |first11=Manuel Cláudio Motta |last12=Teixeira |first12=Paulo Cesar |last13=Amaral |first13=André Julio |last14=Bortolon |first14=Elisandra |last15=Bortolon |first15=Leandro |title=Characterization, agricultural potential, and perspectives for the management of light soils in Brazil |journal=Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira |date=September 2016 |volume=51 |issue=9 |pages=1003–20 |doi=10.1590/S0100-204X2016000900001 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Light (sandy) soils do not necessarily weigh less than heavy (clay) soils on an air dry basis (i.e. they have similar bulk density), nor do they have more porosity, but they are less sensitive to cattle trampling because they are more resistant to compaction.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Van Haveren |first=Bruce P. |title=Soil bulk density as influenced by grazing intensity and soil type on a shortgrass prairie site |journal=Journal of Range Management |date=September 1983 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=586–8 |url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/645931/7601-7482-1-PB.pdf |access-date=29 April 2026 }}</ref>

== History ==

The earliest known soil classification system comes from China, appearing in the book ''Yu Gong'' (5th century BCE), where the soil was divided into three categories and nine classes, depending on its color, texture and hydrology.<ref>{{cite book |year=2009 |last1=Krasilnikov |first1=Pavel |last2=Ibáñez Martí |first2=Juan José |last3=Arnold |first3=Richard |last4=Shoba |first4=Serghei |title=A Handbook of soil terminology, correlation and classification |isbn=978-1844076833 |page=340 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pL0GNDLy0bEC&q=Yugong&pg=PA340 |access-date=30 April 2026 |publisher=Earthscan |location=London, United Kingdom }}</ref>

Contemporaries Friedrich Albert Fallou (the German founder of modern soil science) and Vasily Dokuchaev (the Russian founder of modern soil science) are both credited with being among the first to identify soil as a resource whose distinctness and complexity deserved to be separated conceptually from geology and crop production and treated as a whole. As a founding father of soil science, Fallou has primacy in time, working on the origins of soil before Dokuchaev was born.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feller |first1=Christian |last2=Aeschlimann |first2=Jean-Paul |last3=Frossard |first3=Emmanuel |title=The contribution of Friedrich Albert Fallou to modern soil science |journal=Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science |date=December 2022 |volume=185 |issue=6 |pages=766–72 |doi=10.1002/jpln.202200306 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, Dokuchaev's work was more extensive and is considered to be more significant to modern soil theory than Fallou's.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brevik |first1=Eric C. |last2=Hartemink |first2=Alfred E. |title=Early soil knowledge and the birth and development of soil science |journal=Catena |date=15 October 2010 |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=23–33 |url=https://www.academia.edu/5043425 |access-date=30 April 2026 }}</ref>

Previously, soil had been considered a product of chemical transformations of rocks, a dead substrate from which plants derive nutritious elements. Soil and bedrock were in fact equated. Dokuchaev considers the soil as a natural body having its own genesis and its own history of development, a body with complex and multiform processes taking place within it. The soil is considered as different from bedrock. The latter becomes soil under the influence of a series of soil-forming factors (climate, vegetation, country, relief and age). According to him, soil should be called the "daily" or outward horizon of rocks regardless of the type. Soils are changed naturally by the common effect of water, air and various kinds of living and dead organisms.<ref>{{cite book |year=1958 |last=Krasil'nikov |first=Nikolai Aleksandrovich |title=Soil microorganisms and higher plants, translated in Israel by Y. Halperin |url=https://soilandhealth.org/wp-content/uploads/01aglibrary/010112.krasilnikov.pdf |access-date=30 April 2026 |publisher=Academy of Sciences of the USSR |location=Moscow, Russia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041120011541/http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010112Krasil/010112Krasil.toc.html |archive-date=20 November 2004 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 1914 encyclopedic definition: "the different forms of earth on the surface of the rocks, formed by the breaking down or weathering of rocks".<ref>Wikisource:The New Student's Reference Work/4-0310</ref> serves to illustrate the historic view of soil which persisted from the 19th century. Dokuchaev's late 19th century soil concept developed in the 20th century to one of soil as earthy material that has been altered by living processes.<ref>{{cite book |year=2011 |last1=Buol |first1=Stanley W. |last2=Southard |first2=Randal J. |last3=Graham |first3=Robert C. |last4=McDaniel |first4=Paul A. |title=Soil genesis and classification |edition=6th |isbn=978-0813807690 |page=8 |url=https://z-library.ec/book/5DLnwRmB96 |access-date=30 April 2026 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Hoboken, New Jersey }}</ref> A corollary concept is that soil without a living component is simply a part of Earth's outer layer, a regolith.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Donald L. |last2=Domier |first2=Jane E. J. |last3=Johnson |first3=Dana N. |title=Reflections on the nature of soil and its biomantle |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |year=2005 |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=11–31 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00448.x |url=https://z-library.ec/book/DLnKEaBo96 |access-date=30 April 2026 }}</ref>

Further refinement of the soil concept is occurring in view of an appreciation of energy transport and transformation within soil. The term is popularly applied to the material on the surface of the Earth's moon<ref>{{cite journal |last=Slyuta |first=Evgeny N. |title=Physical and mechanical properties of the lunar soil (a review) |journal=Solar System Research |year=2014 |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=330–53 |doi=10.1134/S0038094614050050 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271900809 |access-date=30 April 2026 }}</ref> and Mars,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Banin |first=Amos |title=The enigma of the Martian soil |journal=Science |date=5 August 2005 |volume=309 |issue=5736 |pages=888–90 |doi=10.1126/science.1112794 |url=https://z-library.ec/book/YyVBD1EByp |access-date=30 April 2026 }}</ref> a usage acceptable within only a portion of the scientific community.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Certini |first1=Giacomo |last2=Scalenghe |first2=Riccardo |last3=Amundson |first3=Ronald |title=A view of extraterrestrial soils |journal=European Journal of Soil Science |date=December 2009 |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=1078–92 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2389.2009.01173.x |url=https://z-library.ec/book/lXWk2jP2Xq |access-date=30 April 2026 }}</ref> Accurate to this modern understanding of soil is Nikiforoff's 1959 definition of soil as the "excited skin of the sub aerial part of the Earth's crust".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nikiforoff |first=Constantin C. |title=Reappraisal of the soil: pedogenesis consists of transactions in matter and energy between the soil and its surroundings |journal=Science |volume=129 |issue=3343 |pages=186–96 |doi=10.1126/science.129.3343.186 |date=23 January 1959 |pmid=17808687 |bibcode=1959Sci...129..186N |url=https://z-library.ec/book/nLAZmnn29z |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref>

== Areas of practice ==

Academically, soil scientists tend to be drawn to one of five areas of specialization: Soil biology, pedology, edaphology, physics, or chemistry. Yet the work specifics are very much dictated by the challenges facing our civilization's desire to sustain the land that supports it, and the distinctions between the sub-disciplines of soil science often blur in the process, with The Critical Zone concept providing a natural framework for cross-disciplinary fundamental research on soil, rock, air, water, and biotic resources at the Earth's surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilding |first1=Larry P. |last2=Lin |first2=Henry |title=Advancing the frontiers of soil science towards a geoscience |journal=Geoderma |date=April 2006 |volume=131 |issue=3–4 |pages=257–74 |doi=10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.03.028 |url=https://z-library.ec/book/DLnRE4QBL6 |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref> Soil science professionals commonly stay current in soil chemistry, soil physics, soil biology, pedology, and applied soil science in related disciplines. However, the emergence and development of new sub-disciplines, more related to other fields of knowledge, such as biology and physics, than to the original geological framework, contributed to declining investments in research and teaching of soil science at the turn of the 21th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mermut |first1=Ahmet R. |last2=Eswaran |first2=Hari |title=Some major developments in soil science since the mid-1960s |journal=Geoderma |date=May 2001 |volume=100 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–26 |doi=10.1016/S0016-7061(01)00030-1 |url=https://z-library.ec/book/mLBreD53Lz |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref>

One exciting effort drawing in soil scientists in the U.S. {{As of|2004|lc=on}} is the Illinois Soil Quality Initiative. Central to the Soil Quality Initiative is developing indices of soil health and then monitoring them in a way that gives us long-term (decade-to-decade) feedback on our performance as stewards of the planet.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walter |first1=Gerry |last2=Wander |first2=Michelle |last3=Bollero |first3=Germán |title=A farmer-centered approach to developing information for soil resource management: the Illinois Soil Quality Initiative |journal=American Journal of Alternative Agriculture |date=June 1997 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=64–72 |doi=10.1017/S0889189300007268 |url=https://z-library.ec/book/zXOq0Ndv9b |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref> The effort includes understanding the functions of soil microbiotic crusts and exploring the potential to sequester atmospheric carbon in soil organic matter. Relating the concept of agriculture to soil quality, however, has not been without its share of controversy and criticism, including critiques by Nobel Peace Prize laureate Norman Borlaug, the father of the Green Revolution, and World Food Prize winner Pedro Sanchez, two renowned proponents of biotechnology-based agriculture for solving the hungry problem in the tropics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sojka |first1=Robert E. |last2=Upchurch |first2=Dan R. |last3=Borlaug |first3=Norman E. |title=Quality soil management or soil quality management: performance versus semantics |journal=Advances in Agronomy |year=2003 |volume=79 |pages=1–68 |doi=10.1016/S0065-2113(02)79001-9 |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/21904/Others%20PDFs/Adv%20Agron%2079p1.pdf |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanchez |first1=Pedro A. |last2=Palm |first2=Cheryl A. |last3=Buol |first3=Stanly W. |title=Fertility capability soil classification: a tool to help assess soil quality in the tropics |journal=Geoderma |date=June 2003 |volume=114 |issue=3–4 |pages=157–85 |doi=10.1016/S0016-7061(03)00040-5 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222885577 |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref>

A more traditional role for soil scientists has been to map soils. Almost every area in the United States now has a published soil survey, including interpretive tables on how soil properties support or limit activities and uses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brevik |first1=Eric C. |last2=Hartemink |first2=Alfred E. |title=Soil maps of the United States of America |journal=Soil Science Society of America Journal |date=July–August 2013 |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=1117–32 |doi=10.2136/sssaj2012.0390 |url=https://www.academia.edu/98055716 |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref> An internationally accepted soil taxonomy allows uniform communication of soil characteristics and soil functions. National and international soil survey efforts have given the profession unique insights into landscape-scale functions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bui |first1=Elisabeth N. |last2=Loughhead |first2=Andrew |last3=Corner |first3=Robert |title=Extracting soil-landscape rules from previous soil surveys |journal=Australian Journal of Soil Research |date=7 April 1999 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=495–508 |doi=10.1071/S98047 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224839748 |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref> The landscape functions that soil scientists are called upon to address in the field seem to fall roughly into six areas:

* '''Land-based treatment of wastes''' **Septic system **Manure **Municipal biosolids **Food and fiber processing waste * '''Identification and protection of environmentally critical areas''' **Sensitive and unstable soils **Wetlands **Unique soil situations that support valuable habitat and ecosystem diversity * '''Management for optimum land productivity''' **Silviculture **Agronomy ***Nutrient management ***Water management **Native vegetation **Grazing * '''Management for optimum water quality''' **Stormwater management **Sediment and erosion control * '''Remediation and restoration of damaged lands''' **Mine reclamation **Flood and storm damage **Contamination * '''Sustainability of desired uses''' **Soil conservation

There are also practical applications of soil science that might not be apparent from looking at a published soil survey.

* '''Radiometric dating''': specifically a knowledge of local pedology is used to date prior activity at the site **Stratification (archeology) where soil formation processes and preservative qualities can inform the study of archaeological sites **Geological phenomena ***Landslides ***Active faults * '''Altering soils to achieve new uses''' **Vitrification to contain radioactive wastes **Enhancing soil microbial capabilities in degrading contaminants (bioremediation). **Carbon sequestration **Environmental soil science *Pedology **Soil genesis **Pedometrics **Soil morphology ***Soil micromorphology **Soil classification ***USDA soil taxonomy ***World Reference Base for Soil Resources<ref name=WRB/> *Soil biology **Soil microbiology **Soil animals *Soil chemistry **Soil biochemistry **Soil mineralogy *Soil physics **Pedotransfer function **Soil mechanics and engineering *Soil hydrology, hydropedology

=== Fields of application in soil science === *Climate change<ref name="Ochoa-Hueso2019"/> *Ecosystem studies *Pedotransfer function *Soil fertility / Nutrient management *Soil management *Soil survey *Standard methods of analysis *Watershed and wetland studies *Land Suitability classification

== Depression storage capacity ==

Depression storage capacity, in soil science, is the ability of a particular area of land to retain water in its pits and depressions, thus preventing it from flowing.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hansen |first=Bjarne |last2=Schjønning |first2=Per |last3=Sibbesen |first3=Erik |title=Roughness indices for estimation of depression storage capacity of tilled soil surfaces |journal=Soil and Tillage Research |date=September 1999 |volume=52 |issue= 1–2 |pages=103–11 |doi=10.1016/S0167-1987(99)00061-6 |url=https://www.academia.edu/63409375 |access-date=4 May 2026 }}</ref> Depression storage capacity, along with infiltration capacity, is one of the main factors involved in Horton overland flow, whereby water volume surpasses both infiltration and depression storage capacity and begins to flow horizontally across land, possibly leading to flooding and soil erosion. The study of land's depression storage capacity is important in the fields of geology, ecology, and especially hydrology.

== References == {{Reflist}} * Soil Survey Staff (1993). [https://web.archive.org/web/20061219225438/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/contents/chapter1.html Soil Survey: Early Concepts of Soil.] (html) ''Soil Survey Manual USDA Handbook 18'', Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture. URL accessed on 2004-11-30. *{{cite book|author=Marion LeRoy Jackson|title=Soil Chemical Analysis: Advanced Course|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VcEOK9QCkVEC&pg=PR5|year=2005|publisher=UW-Madison Libraries Parallel Press|isbn=978-1-893311-47-3|pages=5–}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Soil Science}} Category:Soil science