Forestry

{{short description|Science and craft of managing woodlands}} [[File:TJ harvesteri.jpg |thumb |A [[Timberjack]] wheeled harvester stacking cut timber in [[Finland]]]] '''Forestry''' is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing [[forest]]s and [[woodland]]s for associated resources for human and [[Natural environment |environmental]] benefits.<ref name="dictionaryofforestry">{{cite web |url=http://dictionaryofforestry.org/dict/term/forestry |title=SAFnet Dictionary | Definition For [forestry] |publisher=Dictionaryofforestry.org |date=2008-10-22 |access-date=2014-03-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019122343/http://dictionaryofforestry.org/dict/term/forestry |archive-date=2013-10-19}}</ref> Forestry is practiced in [[plantation]]s and [[Forest stand|natural stands]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.forestryfocus.ie/growing-forests-3/establishing-forests/reproductive-material/seed-origin/ |title=Seed Origin -pinga Forestry Focus |work=Forestry Focus |access-date=April 5, 2018 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Nyland, Ralph D. (2007). ''Silviculture: concepts and applications'' (2nd ed.). Prospect Heights: Waveland Press.</ref> The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Raymond A. |title=Introduction to Forest Science |date=1982 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-06438-1 |page=ix}}</ref> [[Forest management]] plays an essential role in creating and modifying habitats, and affects [[ecosystem service]]s provisioning.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frouz |first1=Jan |last2=Frouzová |first2=Jaroslava |date=2022 |title=Applied Ecology |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-83225-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-83225-4 |isbn=978-3-030-83224-7 |s2cid=245009867}}</ref> A practitioner of forestry is a ''[[forester]]''.

Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of [[timber]], fuel wood, [[wildlife habitat]], natural [[Water resources |water quality management]], [[recreation]], landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing [[landscape]]s, [[biodiversity]] management, [[watershed management]], [[erosion control]], and preserving forests as "[[Carbon dioxide sink|sinks]]" for [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] [[carbon dioxide]].

Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the [[biosphere]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/ecosystem/ecosystem-definition.php |title=ecosystem part of biosphere |publisher=Tutorvista.com |access-date=2014-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111232130/http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/ecosystem/ecosystem-definition.php |archive-date=2013-11-11}}</ref> and forestry has emerged as a vital [[applied science]], [[craft]], and [[technology]]. The control of forests for timber production is known as ''[[silviculture]]'', as practiced by ''silviculturists''. Although forestry is a broader concept, the two terms are often used synonymously.

All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en |title=The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief |publisher=FAO & UNEP |year=2020 |isbn=978-92-5-132707-4 |location=Rome |doi=10.4060/ca8985en |s2cid=241416114}}</ref> Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests/report/economy/16517 |title=How does the forest industry contribute to the economy? |website=www.nrcan.gc.ca |date=26 August 2014 |language=en |access-date=April 5, 2018 |archive-date=8 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008182452/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests/report/economy/16517 |url-status=dead}}</ref> as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.<ref name=":0" /> For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,<ref name="bwi2">[http://www.bundeswaldinventur.de/enid/e321c6a169b0e83e5d3b54dff9406b0c,56d0ab305f7472636964092d09343938/7q.html ''Bundeswaldinventur 2002''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101503/http://www.bundeswaldinventur.de/enid/e321c6a169b0e83e5d3b54dff9406b0c,56d0ab305f7472636964092d09343938/7q.html |date=2014-10-06 }}, Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (BMELV), retrieved, 17 January 2010</ref> wood is the most important [[renewable resource]], and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.<ref>[http://www.waldeigentuemer.de/themen/unternehmen-wald/ Unternehmen Wald, forests as an enterprise, German private forestry association website] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918140046/http://www.waldeigentuemer.de/themen/unternehmen-wald/ |date=2016-09-18 }}</ref>

Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.<ref name=":0"/> Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high [[forest cover]] and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.<ref name=":0" /> Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.<ref name=":0"/>

== Science ==

=== Forestry as a science ===

Over the past centuries, [[silviculture|forestry]] was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of [[ecology]] and [[environmental science]], there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with [[agriculture]].<ref>Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 356p.</ref> Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and [[Biodiversity in agriculture|agroecological]] principles.<ref>Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Undoing the Damage: Silviculture for Ecologists and Environmental Scientists. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH, 313p.</ref> In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fishes and forestry : worldwide watershed interactions and management|date=2004|publisher=Blackwell Science|others=Northcote, T. G., Hartman, G. F.|isbn=978-0-470-99524-2|location=Oxford, UK|oclc=184983506}}</ref>

=== Dendrology and silviculture ===

Dendrology is a subset of [[botany]]; it is the scientific discipline that studies [[woody plants]] ([[tree]]s, [[shrub]]s, and [[liana]]s), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dendrology: Definition & Description |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/dendrology |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> [[Silviculture]] on the other hand is the commercial practice of forest management , primarily for the production of timber.<ref name="Practice">{{cite book |title=The Practice of Silviculture|last1=Hawley |first1=Ralph C. |last2=Smith |first2=David Martyn |publisher=Wiley |year=1954|edition=6th |location=New York |oclc=976898179}}</ref>

=== Genetic diversity in forestry ===

The [[provenance]] of [[forest reproductive material]] used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high [[genetic diversity]].<ref name="vries15">{{cite journal |last1=de Vries, S.M.G., Alan, M., Bozzano, M., Burianek, V., Collin, E., Cottrell, J., Ivankovic, M., Kelleher, C.T., Koskela, J., Rotach, P., Vietto, L. and Yrjänä, L. |date=2015 |title=Pan-European strategy for genetic conservation of forest trees and establishment of a core network of dynamic conservation units |url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Thematic_publications/EUFORGEN_FGR_conservation_strategy.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. |page=xii + 40 p |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131201310/http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Thematic_publications/EUFORGEN_FGR_conservation_strategy.pdf |archive-date=2017-01-31 |access-date=2017-01-20}}</ref> {{dfn|Genetic diversity}} is the differences in [[DNA sequence]] between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its [[genotype]]) will determine its performance (its [[phenotype]]) at a particular site.<ref name="konnert15">{{cite journal |last1=Konnert, M., Fady, B., Gömöry, D., A’Hara, S., Wolter, F., Ducci, F., Koskela, J., Bozzano, M., Maaten, T. and Kowalczyk, J. |date=2015 |title=Use and transfer of forest reproductive material in Europe in the context of climate change |url=http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Thematic_publications/EUFORGEN_FRM_use_transfer.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. |page=xvi and 75 p |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804173305/http://www.euforgen.org/fileadmin/templates/euforgen.org/upload/Publications/Thematic_publications/EUFORGEN_FRM_use_transfer.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-04 |access-date=2017-01-20}}</ref> [[Genetic diversity]] is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide [[Ecological resilience|resilience]] to [[Pest (organism)|pests]] and [[disease]]s. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and [[ecosystem]] levels. [[Forest genetic resources]] are therefore important in forest management.<ref name="vries15"/>

Genetic diversity in [[forests]] is threatened by [[forest fires]], [[habitat fragmentation]], pests and diseases, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rajora |first1=Om P. |last2=Fageria |first2=Manphool S. |last3=Fitzsimmons |first3=Michael |date=2023-01-14 |title=Effects of Wild Forest Fires on Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of a Boreal Conifer, White Spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss): Implications for Genetic Resource Management and Adaptive Potential under Climate Change |journal=Forests |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=157 |doi=10.3390/f14010157 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Fore...14..157R |issn=1999-4907}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marques |first1=Isabel |last2=Draper |first2=David |last3=Riofrío |first3=Lorena |last4=Naranjo |first4=Carlos |date=2022-11-17 |title=Early Signs of the Effects of Forest Fragmentation on the Genetic Diversity and Structure of the Threatened Ecuadorian Tree Ocotea rotundata (Lauraceae) |journal=Forests |language=en |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=1940 |doi=10.3390/f13111940 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022Fore...13.1940M |issn=1999-4907}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Konrad |first1=Heino |title=The State of Forest Genetic Diversity: Anthropogenic Impacts and Conservation Initiatives |date=2025 |work=Ecological Connectivity of Forest Ecosystems |pages=55–89 |editor-last=Lapin |editor-first=Katharina |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-82206-3_4 |access-date=2026-04-04 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-82206-3_4 |isbn=978-3-031-82206-3 |last2=George |first2=Jan-Peter |last3=Szukala |first3=Aglaia |editor2-last=Oettel |editor2-first=Janine |editor3-last=Braun |editor3-first=Martin |editor4-last=Konrad |editor4-first=Heino}}</ref> About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings |publisher=FAO |year=2020 |isbn=978-92-5-132581-0 |location=Rome |doi=10.4060/ca8753en |s2cid=130116768}}</ref> The marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the [[effects of climate change]].<ref name="vries15"/> Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.<ref name="konnert15"/>

== Forest management ==

Forest management is the branch of forestry concerned with the administration and running of commercial forests. It addresses silviculture, forest protection, and regulation. Its goals include management for timber, [[aesthetics]], [[outdoor recreation|recreation]], urban values, [[watershed management]], [[wildlife]], inland and nearshore fisheries, [[forest product|wood products]], [[plant genetic resources]], and other [[Nontimber forest products|forest resource values]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Glossary of Forestry Terms in British Columbia |publisher=Ministry of Forests and Range (Canada) |date=March 2008|url=http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/glossary/Glossary.pdf |access-date=2009-04-06}}</ref> Economic and policy decision-making tends to prioritise market-based benefits such as timber production which has led to recent frameworks emphasising that forest management must account for non-market ecosystem services such as cultural, social, and ecological functions which are often underrepresented. <ref>{{Cite report |url=https://zenodo.org/record/6522392 |title=Summary for policymakers of the methodological assessment of the diverse values and valuation of nature of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) |last=Unai |date=2022-07-09 |publisher=Zenodo |doi=10.5281/zenodo.6522392 |language=en|first=Pascual}}</ref>

For example, forest management often involves addressing wildlife-forest interactions. Deer populations have been shown to limit forest regeneration and alter species composition by grazing on young saplings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tanentzap |first=Andrew J. |last2=Bazely |first2=Dawn R. |last3=Koh |first3=Saewan |last4=Timciska |first4=Mika |last5=Haggith |first5=Edward G. |last6=Carleton |first6=Terry J. |last7=Coomes |first7=David A. |date=2011-01-01 |title=Seeing the forest for the deer: Do reductions in deer-disturbance lead to forest recovery? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320710004143 |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=144 |issue=1 |pages=376–382 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2010.09.015 |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> As a result, forest management involves studying and accounting for these interactions. A follow up study looked at using understory plants such as [[Trillium grandiflorum]] as an indicator species to estimate deer browsing pressure and predict long-term impacts on forest health<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Koh |first=Saewan |last2=Bazely |first2=Dawn R. |last3=Tanentzap |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Voigt |first4=Dennis R. |last5=Da Silva |first5=Eric |date=2010-03-31 |title=Trillium grandiflorum height is an indicator of white-tailed deer density at local and regional scales |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112710000277 |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=259 |issue=8 |pages=1472–1479 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2010.01.021 |issn=0378-1127}}</ref>

== Urban forestry ==

Urban forestry is the care and management of single [[tree]]s and tree [[Population (biology)|population]]s in [[Urban area|urban]] settings for the purpose of improving the [[urban environment]]. Urban forestry involves both planning and management, including the programming of care and maintenance operations of the urban forest.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Urban forestry |title=Encyclopedia of the City |last=Caves|first=R. W. |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0415862875}}</ref>

== Forestry education ==

{{See also|List of forestry universities and colleges|List of forestry technical schools}}

Forestry education includes training in general [[biology]], [[ecology]], [[botany]], [[genetics]], [[soil science]], [[climatology]], [[hydrology]], [[economics]] and [[forest management]]. Education in the basics of [[sociology]] and [[political science]] is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sample |first1=V. A. |last2=Bixler |first2=R. P. |last3=McDonough |first3=M. H. |last4=Bullard |first4=S. H. |last5=Snieckus |first5=M. M. |title=The Promise and Performance of Forestry Education in the United States: Results of a Survey of Forestry Employers, Graduates, and Educators |journal=Journal of Forestry |date=July 16, 2015 |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=528–537 |doi=10.5849/jof.14-122 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the United States, [[Higher education |postsecondary]] forestry education leading to a [[Bachelor's degree]] or [[Master's degree]] is accredited by the [[Society of American Foresters]].<ref>{{cite press release |title=SAF Accredited and Candidate Forestry Degree Programs |publisher=Society of American Foresters |date=2008-05-19 |url=http://www.safnet.org/education/forestry_degree_programs.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226052726/http://www.safnet.org/education/forestry_degree_programs.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-26 |quote=The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level. |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cif-ifc.org/site/silver_ring_program |title=Canadian Institute of Forestry - Silver Ring Program |publisher=Cif-ifc.org |access-date=2014-03-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201070610/http://cif-ifc.org/site/silver_ring_program |archive-date=2014-02-01 }}</ref> The [[International Union of Forest Research Organizations]] is the international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Discover IUFRO:The Organization |publisher=IUFRO |url=http://www.iufro.org/discover/organization/ |access-date=2010-10-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708002740/http://www.iufro.org/discover/organization/ |archive-date=2010-07-08 }}</ref>

== History ==

The first major works about forestry in the English language included [[Roger Taverner]]'s ''Booke of Survey'' (1565), [[John Manwood]]'s ''A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest'' (1592) and [[John Evelyn]]'s ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber|Sylva]]'' (1662).<ref>{{citation |author=N.D.G. James |title=A History of Forestry and Monographic Forestry Literature in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom |work=The Literature of Forestry and Agroforestry |pages=34–35 |year=1996 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=9780801431814 |authorlink=N. D. G. James}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180> File:Sylva paper 1662.jpg|The first book edition of ''[[Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber|Sylva]]'' File:Land Army girls sawing larch poles for use as pit props at the Women's Timber Corps training camp at Culford in Suffolk. TR912.jpg|Women of the Land Army cutting felled logs during World War II </gallery>

=== Silvologists ===

* [[Gabriel Hemery]] * [[Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf]]

== See also ==

* [[Agroforestry]] * [[Close to nature forestry]] * [[Community forestry]] * [[List of forest research institutes]] * [[List of forestry journals]] * [[#Early journals which are still present|List of historic journals of forestry]] * [[List of national forests of the United States]] * [[Non-timber forest product]] * [[Private nonindustrial forest land|Nonindustrial private forests]]

==References== {{Reflist}}

=== Sources === {{Free-content attribution | title = Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings | author = FAO | publisher = FAO | page numbers = | source = | documentURL = http://www.fao.org/3/CA8753EN/CA8753EN.pdf | license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Forest_Resources_Assessment_2020_%E2%80%93_Key_findings.pdf | license = CC BY-SA 3.0 }}

{{Free-content attribution | title = The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief | author = FAO & UNEP | publisher = FAO & UNEP | page numbers = | source = | documentURL = https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en | license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_State_of_the_World%E2%80%99s_Forests_2020._In_brief.pdf | license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO }}

{{Free-content attribution | title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 | author = FAO | publisher = FAO | documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en | license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf | license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 }}

==External links== {{Commons category multi | Forestry | Forestry schools}} * {{wikisource inline|Forestry}} *[http://www.silvology.com www.silvology.com]

{{Forestry|state=collapsed}} {{Forestry by country|state=collapsed}} {{Forestry tools|state=collapsed}} {{Deforestation|state=collapsed}} {{Climate change|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Dendrology]] [[Category:Forestry| ]]