Sikh state

{{Short description|Political entity ruled by Sikhs}} {{lead too short|date=August 2024}} thumb|Approximate political map of Punjab from 1764 to 1803 by Joseph Davey Cunningham. The area under Sikh-rule is coloured blue. {{Sikhism sidebar}}

A '''Sikh state''' is a political entity that is ruled by Sikhs.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Gurbachan |title=The Idea of the Sikh State |last2=Gyani |first2=Lal Singh |publisher=Lahore Book Shop |year=1946}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ramusack |first1=Barbara |title=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism |last2=Copland |first2=Ian |publisher=Punjabi University |year=2004 |isbn=817380530X |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Harbans |edition=2nd |volume=4: S–Z |location=Patiala |pages=166–177}}</ref> There were various Sikh states, empires, and dynasties, beginning with the first Sikh state established by Banda Singh Bahadur to the Sikh-ruled princely states of British India. Sikhism turned toward militancy by the end of the 17th century and by the 18th century, the Sikhs had established themselves as a dominant player in regional affairs, becoming the political elite of the Punjab.<ref name=":2222">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Gurharpal |title=Sikh Nationalism |last2=Shani |first2=Giorgio |date=Nov 25, 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781009213448 |pages=32, 41–42}}</ref> This transformation has been described as being one of rebels turning into rulers.<ref name=":2222" /> During British-rule, the idea of Sikhs being a unique nation developed further and was aided by the colonial administrative policies.<ref name=":222222">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Gurharpal |title=Sikh Nationalism |last2=Shani |first2=Giorgio |date=Nov 25, 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781009213448 |pages=45–51}}</ref> However, territoriality has not played a major part in the self-identity of the Sikhs.<ref name=":222222" />

== History == {{Further information|History of Sikhism}}

=== Theological underpinnings === thumb|Painting depicting Guru Nanak meeting with Babur Guru Nanak established Sikhism as a religious movement, whereby its followers were called to interact with the Divine directly live in the real-world through their own efforts.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Ramusack |first=Barbara N. |title=The Indian Princes and their States |date=Jan 8, 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139449083 |pages=37–39 |chapter=Princely States Prior to 1800}}</ref> There was a prevailing Sikh belief in the mid-16th century that Guru Nanak was the master of both spirituality and temporality (''din'' and ''dunia'') but that he allowed Babur to have stewardship over political affairs.<ref name=":06">{{Cite book |last=Mann |first=Gurinder Singh |url=http://giss.org/jsps_vol_23/2_mann.pdf |title=Sri Gur Panth Prakash: Its Text, Context, and Significance |publisher=Global Institute for Sikh Studies |year=2016 |location=New York |pages=36}}</ref> The Mughals had established their rule in India by 1526.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Satnam |title=The Road to Empire: The Political Education of Khalsa Sikhs in the Late 1600s |date=Oct 15, 2024 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520399372 |pages=xix–xxii |chapter=Significant Events}}</ref> However, the Mughals were seen as going against this bestowal when they executed Guru Arjan (in 1606) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (in 1675).<ref name=":06" /> Thus, Guru Gobind Singh was envisioned as coming about to destroy the Mughals and their rule.<ref name=":06" /> After the death of Guru Arjan, his successor Guru Hargobind introduced the ''Miri-Piri'' concept and went to war against the Mughals, which politicalized the Sikh movement.<ref name=":9" />

Guru Gobind Singh was brought up with an education in Indo-Islamic literature, which emulated imperial norms of that era.<ref name=":9" /> From 1677 onwards, the guru dispatched his Sikhs to the wider Indo-Islamic world, and invited scholars from Sanskritic and Islamic backgrounds to his court in Anandpur, with the formation of literary production and study, including in statecraft.<ref name=":9" /> Several texts studied and produced by the Sikh court in this period of the 1680s and 1690s include the ''Hitupdesha'', ''Chanaka Shastra Bhakha'', ''Mahabharata'', and ''Shahnamah''.<ref name=":9" /> Furthermore, Guru Gobind Singh wrote works that would later become part of the Dasam Granth, such as ''Krishna Avatar'', ''Bachittar Natak Granth'', and ''Pakhian Charitar'', which expound on statecraft, sovereignty, and the concept of ''dharam yudh''.<ref name=":9" /> The ''Prem Sumarag'' was compiled in circa 1700, which heavily dealt in kingship and statecraft.<ref name=":9" /> These works helped prepare the Sikhs for future rule and mostly saw themselves existing as an autonomous Sikh ''Raj'' that had been established by the tenth Sikh guru in Anandpur and Paonta in the late 17th century.<ref name=":9" /> In 1688, the Raja of Garhwal launched an attack on the Sikhs at Paonta, with the Sikhs emerging victorious, this battle was following by many others that the Sikhs fought with local Pahari rulers.<ref name=":9" /> In 1689, the Sikhs had fortified Anandpur, establishing demarcated borders.<ref name=":9" /> In 1704, a joint Mughal-Pahari Rajput force destroyed the Sikh raj of Anandpur and Paonta.<ref name=":9" />

Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa, which involved a baptism and shared social-practices.<ref name=":8" /> According to Satnam Singh, the Khalsa was also established to work towards establishing Sikh autonomous rule over territories.<ref name=":9" /> The formalization of the Khalsa order, which is exemplified as being sovereign, in the late 18th century has been described by scholars such as establishing a fundamental aspect of national-construction that allowed for a "national imagination" that gave a shared identity to the Sikh community which allowed for sovereignty and territoriality.<ref name=":222">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Gurharpal |title=Sikh Nationalism |last2=Shani |first2=Giorgio |date=Nov 25, 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781009213448 |pages=39–41}}</ref> The Khalsa was a marker of the Sikhs being a separate ''Quom'' (nation), which Walker Connor (1993) explains allowed for the development of a national identity of some sorts "that joins people, in the sub- conscious conviction of its members, from all its non-members in a most vital way".<ref name=":222" /> Meanwhile, Anne Murphy (2012) and Fenech (2008) believe that any claims to sovereignty were "guru-centric" to establish an environment of a self-governing religious community.<ref name=":222" /> However, not all scholars agree that the establishment of the Khalsa had nationalistic undertones, according to Giorgio Shani (2008) the Khalsa "de-territorialises both sovereignty and the nation" and rather was about unlimited sovereignty.<ref name=":222" /> Murphy, examining the works of the court-poet Sainapati, stresses that the Sikhs of the past were not overly bothered with political sovereignty.<ref name=":222" /> According Nicky Gurinder Kaur Singh, Guru Gobind Singh's ideal of ''raj'' was about sharing power with others in a spirit of equality and democracy and not conquering for oneself, domination of a particular piece of territory, nor establishing a dynasty.<ref name=":222" />

The bards Satta Doom and Balvand Rai state the following in the Guru Granth Sahib regarding Guru Nanak establishing a ''raj'' (governance or rule):<ref name=":12" />

{{Blockquote|text=Nanak established the Dominion by raising the fort of Truth on firm foundations … With might and bravery of One’s wisdom-sword, Perfection bestowed the gift of life … The Light and the method were same, the Sovereign only changed the body. Impeccable Divine canopy waves, the Throne of Guru-ship is occupied.|author=Satta Doom and Balvand Rai|title=Guru Granth Sahib|source=page 966}} thumb|Guru Gobind Singh laid the foundation for later Sikh sovereignty<ref name=":12" /> The Sikh concept of ''miri-piri'' emphasizes that spirituality and temporality are intrinsically linked to one another, legitimizing Sikh aims to establish their own sovereignty.<ref name=":12" /> Guru Gobind Singh taught the principles of ''Raj Karega Khalsa'' as forming the basis for Sikh-rule in the form of a commitment to political domination.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Harinder |date=15 June 2020 |title=Raj Karega Khalsa: The Khalsa & The Rule |url=https://sikhri.org/articles/raj-karega-khalsa-the-khalsa-the-rule |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=Sikh Research Institute |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> In-response to a question posed by Bhai Nand Lal, the tenth guru responded as follows on the issue of sovereignty:<ref name=":12" />

{{Blockquote|text=Nand Lal, listen to this truth: I will establish the Raj (Sovereignty). (56) The four categories will become one category, I will recite Vahiguru (Awe-Wisdom) recitation. (57) [They will] mount horses and fly hawks, The Turks (empire) will flee seeing them. (58) I will make one fight a hundred and twenty-five thousand. I will free those Singhs (warriors) who ascend (die). (59) The spears will wave and the elephants will be caparisoned, The nine-instruments will resound from gate to gate. (60) When a hundred and twenty-five thousand guns will discharge, Then the Khalsa will be victorious from wherever the sun shines and sets. (61) The Khalsa will rule and no one will be a dissenter, All will unite after exhaustion, those who take refuge will survive. (62)|author=Bhai Nand Lal of Goya|title=Nasihatnamah/Tankhahnamah|source=stanzas 56-62}}Rattan Singh Bhangu's ''Panth Prakash'' describes Guru Gobind Singh as being the ruler of Anandpur in the 1690's, later blessing the Sikhs to rule over the Majha region.<ref name=":05">{{Cite book |last=Mann |first=Gurinder Singh |url=http://giss.org/jsps_vol_23/2_mann.pdf |title=Sri Gur Panth Prakash: Its Text, Context, and Significance |publisher=Global Institute for Sikh Studies |year=2016 |location=New York |pages=32, 36}}</ref>

=== Establishment of the first Sikh rule === {{Main|First Sikh State}} thumb|Territorial peak of Banda's rule (October 1710); ruling from Jammu in the north to Sonipat in the south In 1708 shortly prior to his death, Guru Gobind Singh ordered a group of Khalsa Sikhs to attack Sirhind, kill Wazir Khan, and re-establish Khalsa-rule after the downfall of Anandpur and Paonta in 1704.<ref name=":9" /> Before the Guru dies, he formalizes that the new gurus of the Sikhs would be both the ''Guru Granth'' and the ''Guru Panth'', with the panth referring to the initiated body of Khalsa Sikhs.<ref name=":9" /> The first Sikh polity, albeit a short-lived one, was founded by Banda Singh Bahadur in May 1710, a disciple of Guru Gobind Singh, after his forces captured Sirhind and issued silver rupee coinage from the Mukhlisgarh Fort based at the Shivalik range.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Madra |first1=Amandeep Singh |title=Sicques, Tigers or Thieves: Eyewitness Accounts of the Sikhs (1606–1810) |last2=Singh |first2=Parmjit |date=27 September 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781137119988 |page=xxx |chapter=Introduction}}</ref><ref name=":2222" /><ref name=":9" /> Khalsa-rule was established in the surrounding tracts of land.<ref name=":9" /> This was a republic that existed from 1710 to 1716.<ref name=":12" /> The issuing of coinage was a mark of sovereignty, marking the beginning of Banda's rule over Sirhind.<ref name=":0" /> Additionally, the Sirhind Sarkar was one of the most wealthiest areas of the Mughal Empire.<ref name=":9" /> Furthermore, Banda rejected using both the traditional Indic Bikrami calendar and the Islamicate calendar, creating his own calendar where the first year commenced on the date of his victory over Sirhind.<ref name=":0" /> Banda's state issued coins in the name of the Sikh gurus.<ref name=":0" /> Banda's rebellion lasted from 1708–1715, with the rebellion eventually failing with the capture of Banda and him and other prominent Sikhs (governors and warriors) under him being executed in Delhi in 1716.<ref name=":2222" /><ref name=":9" /> His execution marked the end of the short-lived Sikh state.<ref name=":9" /> Banda's short-lived state had existed as a parallel government in northwestern India, which motivated future Sikhs to work toward the same achievement.<ref name=":2222" />

=== Formation of the Sikh Confederacy === {{Main article|Sikh Confederacy}} The Mughal Empire in the early 18th century was one of decline due to a vartiety of factors, such as Persian and Afghan invasions.<ref name=":2222" /> Bands of Sikh warriors, excited by the Khalsa ideals of sovereignty and Banda's temporary success, were active during this time, which has been labelled as a "heroic age" of the Sikhs.<ref name=":2222" /> These Sikh bands were engaged in-warfare against their enemy, the Mughals, and eventually managed to conquer territory of their own.<ref name=":2222" /> According to C. A. Bayly, the Sikhs were a social-movement akin to the Marathas, whom became empowered through their absorption of the "pioneer peasant castes, miscellaneous military adventurers, and groups on the fringe of settled agriculture".<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayly |first=C. A. |title=Rulers |pages=20}}</ref> By the 18th century, groups of Sikhs had coalesced into bands known as ''jathas'', which were based upon various personal, regional, and kinship-ties.<ref name=":8" /> The jathas themselves were eventually fused further to form a larger grouping: ''misls''.<ref name=":8" /> The misls extended protection over tracts of lands in the central Punjab (''doabs'' and ''bars'') in-exchange for a payment in the form of sharing produce from the land being protected.<ref name=":8" /> The Sikhs began to construct mud-forts, known as ''garhis'', as they began to conquer territory and establish their rule in the 18th century, such as by the Phulkians at Patiala, Nabha, and Jind.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Sidhu |first=Puneetinder Kaur |date=15 June 2014 |title=Forlorn fortifications |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2014/20140615/spectrum/main1.htm |access-date=23 December 2025 |website=The Tribune}}</ref> The later Sikh Empire also had a number of forts.<ref name=":19" />

After the execution of Banda Singh Bahadur after Mughal military victories against the Sikhs, the Sikh rebellion went underground, with the Sikhs adhering to the concept of ''Raj Karega Khalsa'' ("the Khalsa shall rule") to maintain their aspirations for sovereignty.<ref name=":9" /> Between the period of 1726–1733, Zakaria Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Lahore province, enacted a genocidal policy against the Sikhs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Comrnonwealth or Rise and FalI of Sikh Misls |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-8121501651 |volume=IV |pages=71–77}}</ref> After the oppressive anti-Sikh government policy failed to get rid of the Sikh threat, the Mughal government decided to try pacifying the Sikhs by granting them an official ''jagir'' (estate) grant.<ref name=":2" /> Upon Sikh request, a ''Nawab'' title was offered to the Sikhs, which was bestowed upon Kapur Singh in 1733 (since Darbara Singh had rejected it), alongside a ''khilat'' and bag of gold.<ref name=":2" /> In 1734, Nawab Kapur Singh divided the Sikh congregation into two groups: the Taruna Dal and the Buddha Dal.<ref name=":2" /> Each of these Dals ("armies") were further sub-divided into five groups (with Kapur Singh's own grouping being the additional).<ref name=":2" /> After a short period of peace between the Mughals and Sikhs, differences between them started to grow again due to the restless and provocative antics of the Taruna Dal, and the Nawab-ship that was bestowed upon the Sikhs earlier by the Mughal Empire was revoked and the jagir was confiscated in 1735.<ref name=":2" /> Thus, the former anti-Sikh genocidal policies of the Mughals was put in-place again and the Sikhs once again had to disperse to places of safe haven, such as the Lakhi Jungle.<ref name=":2" />

With the invasion of India by Nadir Shah between January–May 1739 and the total destruction of the Mughal administration in the Punjab as a result, the Sikhs saw an opportunity for themselves and pillaged and sought revenge on their enemies.<ref name=":2" /> According to the contemporary writer Harcharan Das in his ''Chahár Gulzár Shujá'í'', in 1740, one year after the attack of Nader Shah, a large force of Sikhs and Jats, including local Muslims, seized the Sirhind ''sarkar'' of the Jullunder Doab, establishing a short-lived polity with a person named Daranat Shah as its head.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=2007 |volume=2: Evolution of Sikh Confederacies (1707-69) |pages=57}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Malik |first=Arjan Dass |title=An Indian Guerilla War: The Sikh Peoples War, 1699-1768 |publisher=Wiley |year=1975 |isbn=9780470565766 |pages=44}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |title=History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of Sikh Misls |isbn=9788121501651 |edition=3rd |volume=IV |pages=13, 73, 121}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Citation |title=Chahár Gulzár Shujá'í, of Harí Charan Dás |date=2013 |work=The History of India, as Told by its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period |volume=8 |pages=204–231 |editor-last=Elliot |editor-first=Henry Miers |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-india-as-told-by-its-own-historians/chahar-gulzar-shujai-of-hari-charan-das/59871F04147D5E4D2362BE2A22BFE32C |access-date=2024-09-14 |series=Cambridge Library Collection - Perspectives from the Royal Asiatic Society |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139507219.035 |isbn=978-1-108-05590-1 |editor2-last=Dowson |editor2-first=John|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The rebellion was eventually crushed by a Mughal force in 1741 under Azimullah Khan and the Sikhs retreated to the Lakhi Jungle.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Proceedings - Punjab History Conference |publisher=Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University |year=1986 |volume=20 |pages=114}}</ref> According to Hari Ram Gupta, Daranat Shah was Baba Deep Singh.<ref name=":7" />

On 1 July 1745, Zakarian Khan died and he was succeeded by less-effective Mughal administrators, such as Yahiya Khan.<ref name=":2" /> After this point, Kapur Singh divided the Sikh congregation into twenty-five bands (''jathas''), with each band consisting of about a hundred young Sikh men under the command of a respective leader.<ref name=":2" /> With this reform, a basic confederation structure for military activities of the Sikhs was forming shape.<ref name=":2" />

From 1748 onwards, the Durrani Empire was invading the subcontinent, with them taking control of the Mughal provinces of Lahore, Multan, Delhi, and Kashmir.<ref name=":9" /> This period is marked by the Afghans, Sikhs, Mughals, and Marathas contesting for control over the wider Punjab region, especially Lahore province.<ref name=":9" /> After an initial invasion of India by Ahmad Shah Abdali, Kapur Singh realized that the Afghan invader would surely return for more loot, additionally due to the strict ruling-style of Moin-ul-Mulk, Kapur Singh resolved to reform the then sixty-five (the number of Sikh bands had since swelled from the twenty-five bands that had been established earlier) Sikh bands into eleven ''misls'' on the annual Vaisakhi gathering at Amritsar on 29 March 1748, establishing the Sikh Confederacy and its constituent misls, with the united army of all the Sikhs called the ''Dal Khalsa''.<ref name=":2" /> The earlier Taruna Dal and Buddha Dal division system that was established earlier in 1734 was retained, with each of the eleven misls being assigned as part of a dal, with the seminal division being as follows:<ref name=":2" />

* Buddha Dal:<ref name=":2" /> ** Ahluwalia Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Dallewalia Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Faizulpuria Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Karorasinghia Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Nishanwalia Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Shaheedan Misl<ref name=":2" /> * Taruna Dal:<ref name=":2" /> ** Bhangi Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Kanhaiya Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Nakai Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Ramgarhia Misl<ref name=":2" /> ** Sukarchakia Misl<ref name=":2" /> thumb|Political maps of India in the years 1765 and 1805, published in the 'Imperial Gazetteer of India' (Vol. XXVI, Atlas; 1931 revised edition; plate no. 28) The misls have been described as military bands led by a central leader, known as a ''misldar''.<ref name=":2222" /> The chiefs of all the misls would convene bi-annually at the Darbar Sahib in Amritsar for an assembly known as the Sarbat Khalsa, with collective decisions being made by the body in-front of the Guru Granth Sahib being termed ''gurmattas''.<ref name=":2222" /> From 1750 onwards, the Sikh leaders Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, Jai Singh Kanhaiya, and Hakumat Singh began to occupy territories.<ref name=":9" /> The Sikhs were killed in large numbers by two genocides, the ''Chotta Ghalughara'' and the ''Vadda Ghalughara'' but their political ascendency continued, being aided by the Sikhs' attempt at state-formation and its accompanying institutions.<ref name=":2222" /> By 1765, the Sikhs held Lahore and their influence spread allover the region.<ref name=":2222" />

=== Establishment of Sikh monarchies === In the second half of the 18th century, the various Sikh states could be roughly categorized into two groups: the misls of the Sikh Confederacy, concentrated in the former Mughal province of Lahore, and the Sikh principalities/chiefdoms that had been established in the former Mughal province of Delhi, with most being connected to the Phulkian dynasty.<ref name=":052">{{Cite book |last=Grewal |first=J. S. |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |date=Oct 8, 1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521637640 |pages=88–96 |chapter=Rise to Political Power}}</ref> By the 1770s, there were more than sixty Sikh states that had been established between the Indus and Yamuna rivers.<ref name=":052" />thumb|Map created by the British East India Company of much of Punjab showing the various polities, borders, and settlements of the area, ca.1829–1835 In the 1760s, marked by the fall of Sirhind in 1763–64, many Sikh kingdoms began to take root after being founded by ''sardars'' (chiefs) of the precursory Sikh misls, such as Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Faridkot, Kalsia, Manimajra, Kapurthala, and Kaithal.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Suresh K. |title=Haryana: Past and Present |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2006 |isbn=9788183240468 |pages=132–33 |chapter=History of Karnal: The Sikh Rule}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Bhagat |title=A History of the Sikh Misals |publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjabi University |year=1993 |chapter=Chapter 14 - The Phulkian Misl}}</ref><ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs: Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of Sikh Misls |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-8121501651 |volume=4 |pages=158–160}}</ref><ref name=":122">{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |title=Fall of the Mughal Empire |publisher=Orient Longman |year=1964 |edition=3rd |volume=3: 1771–1788 |pages=106}}</ref><ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last= |url=http://archive.org/details/ThePunjabPastAndPresent-Volume20Part2 |title=The Punjab Past and Present |publisher=Punjabi University, Patiala |year=1986 |editor-last=Singh |editor-first=Ganda |series=Part 2 |volume=20 |location=Patiala |pages=396–398 |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last1=Bond |first1=J. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47sfj8DUwNgC |title=Indian States: A Biographical, Historical, and Administrative Survey |last2=Wright |first2=Arnold |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-206-1965-4 |location=New Delhi |pages=232–242 |language=en |access-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620210317/https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Indian_States/47sfj8DUwNgC?hl=en&gbpv |archive-date=20 June 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2222" /> The Battle of Sirhind (1764) was a landmark moment in Sikh history, as it marked the beginning of Sikh-domination in the cis-Sutlej tract.<ref name=":7222">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Kirpal |url= |title=Baba Ala Singh: Founder of Patiala Kingdom |publisher=Guru Nanak Dev University |year=2005 |edition=2nd |location=Amritsar |pages=77–80}}</ref> Sirhind had been attacked by the Sikhs four times in the 18th century. After the last attack known as the Battle of Sirhind in 13–14 January 1764, the cis-Sutlej tract became dominated by Sikhs after its Afghan governor, Zain Khan Sirhindi, was killed by a coalition of Sikh forces of both the Buddha Dal and Taruna Dal divisions of the Dal Khalsa military of the Sikh Confederacy.<ref name=":72222">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Kirpal |url= |title=Baba Ala Singh: Founder of Patiala Kingdom |publisher=Guru Nanak Dev University |year=2005 |edition=2nd |location=Amritsar |pages=77–82}}</ref> The victory of the Sikhs ended foreign Afghan-rule over the region.<ref name=":72222" /> By 1765, Afghan administration in the region collapsed and was over-turned by the Sikhs.<ref name=":9" /> The Afghans were pushed-out and Khalsa-rule over the land was proclaimed, with the newly conquered territories being divided amongst the Sikh chiefs.<ref name=":9" /> Lepel Henry Griffin stated:<ref name=":72222" />{{Blockquote|text=The storm burst at last. The Sikhs of the ''Majha'' country of Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur combined their forces at Sirhind, routed and killed the Afghan governor, Zain Khan and pouring across Sutlej occupied the whole country to the Jamna without further opposition. It is enough to say that with few exceptions, the leading families of today are the direct descendants of the conquerors of Zain Khan.|author=Lepel Henry Griffin}}Artillery, supplies, and treasures fell into the possession of the Sikh forces after the victory at Sirhind, which helped them further, especially Ala Singh of Patiala.<ref name=":72222" /> The victory helped consolidate the political entity of Patiala.<ref name=":72222" /> The settlement of Sirhind was mostly completely destroyed after the battle, which meant its former residents shifted to other locations, especially Patiala in Ala Singh's state.<ref name=":72222" /> Ala Singh would strike coins in the aftermath of the victory, with the coins bearing similarities to coins that had earlier been struck by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Sirhind mint.<ref name=":72222" />

The ''sarkar'' of Sirhind was cut-up and distributed amongst hundreds of both petty and prominent Sikh sardars.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Banga |first=Indu |title=Agrarian System of the Sikhs: Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century |date=20 August 2023 |publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors |isbn=9789388540193 |edition=Reprint |pages=68–69, 192–193}}</ref> These new Sikh chiefdoms engaged in nation-building, such as by establishing new settlements, improving trade, patronizing artists and writers, and developing relations with other powers of the subcontinent.<ref name=":9" /> The Sikh kingdoms were mostly established in the region from the Sutlej river to the Delhi area, although some, such as Kapurthala and the Sikh Empire, laid in the trans-Sutlej region.<ref name=":2222" /> Some of the Sikh states located south of the Sutlej were Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Faridkot, Ambala, Shahabad, Thanesar, Kaithal, Jagadhari, and Buria.<ref name=":052" /> A breakthrough was achieved when the Sikhs successfully took-over Delhi in the early 1780's, which allowed them to construct gurdwaras in the area.<ref name=":06" /> The Sukerchakia Misl formed the Sikh Empire after the capture of Lahore in 1799.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition 1911 Page 892">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Ranjit Singh |volume=22 |page=892}}</ref><ref name="Grewal">{{cite book |last=Grewal |first=J. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab, Chapter 6: The Sikh empire (1799–1849) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-63764-3 |series=The New Cambridge History of India |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927082839/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC |archive-date=27 September 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2222" /><ref name=":8" /> Ranjit Singh was able to absorb most of the other misls to form his empire by 1799.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> In 1801, Ranjit Singh formally established the Kingdom of Lahore.<ref name=":2222" /> However, the Sikh states located south of the Sutlej river mostly remained independent from Ranjit Singh's polity, with them initially recognizing Ranjit Singh's suzerainty but later choosing to ally with the British.<ref name=":8" /> The three main states in the cis-Sutlej region were: Patiala, Nabha, and Jind, all of which were Phulkian states.<ref name=":8" /> In 1809, the remaining Sikh monarchies of the cis-Sutlej region came under British protection via treaty to protect themselves from being annexed by their powerful neighbour to the north and some of the survived until 1947 in the form of a princely-state.<ref name=":2222" /><ref name=":8" /> Patiala utilized its position between the Sikh Empire and British East India Company to expand its influence.<ref name=":8" /> The Sikh Empire expanded Sikh-rule to Kashmiri, Balochi, Pashtun, and Tibetan areas, creating a multicultural state.<ref name=":9" />

Ranjit Singh's polity led to the state patronage of the Sanatan Sikhs, whom he favoured.<ref name=":22222">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Gurharpal |title=Sikh Nationalism |last2=Shani |first2=Giorgio |date=Nov 25, 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781009213448 |pages=42–45}}</ref> The onset of Sikh monarchical-rule also led to the weakening of the authority of the Akal Takht and the ending of collective-decision making in the form of the Sarbat Khalsa.<ref name=":22222" /> Meanwhile, the Khalsa Sikhs maintained control over the Sikh Army, which allowed them to still wield influence.<ref name=":22222" /> After Ranjit Singh died in 1839, his empire quickly fell to the British due to internal infighting and British scheming, resulting in the annexation of the Sikh Empire in 1849.<ref name=":22222" /><ref name=":8" /> Two Anglo-Sikh wars were fought, the first from 1845–46 and the second from 1848–49.<ref name=":8" /> The other Sikh states either allied with the Sikh Empire or the British East India Company, the states of Patiala, Jind, and Faridkot firmly supported the British, whilst the states of Kapurthala and Nabha were more ambivalent about supporting the British against the Sikh Empire.<ref name=":8" /> Nabha and Kapurthala were punished for their hesitation or allying with the Sikh Empire, but were not extinguished as states.<ref name=":8" /> The deposed boy-king of the Sikh Empire, Duleep Singh, was exiled to England.<ref name=":22222" /> In the aftermath of the first Anglo-Sikh war, the region of Kashmir and Jammu was given to the Hindu Dogra ruler Gulab Singh, a former official in Ranjit Singh's court, in 1846 as the British felt they could not defend or occupy such a remote territory.<ref name=":8" /> The Sikh Empire never developed into a modern nation-state, being annexed before such a possible development could take-place, but rather can be described as being a "developing system of power".<ref name=":22222" />

=== Colonial period === thumb|Political maps of India in the years 1837 and 1857, published in the 'Imperial Gazetteer of India' (Vol. XXVI, Atlas; 1931 revised edition; plate no. 29) During the colonial period, the British began to preferentially recruit Sikhs into its colonial military in the period after the Indian rebellion of 1857, as the Sikhs helped suppress the mutineers.<ref name=":222222" /> Sikhs were labelled as being a martial-race by the British.<ref name=":222222" /> After 1857, the British began to more firmly emphasize religious, racial, social, and caste differences amongst its Indian subjects, especially through its decennial censuses, the first of which was held in 1871.<ref name=":222222" /> The British governed the Punjab through a careful balancing act between the colonial administrators, the landlords, and the traditional custodians of religious sites.<ref name=":222222" /> Since annexation in 1849, the British evaluated the custodians of Sikh shrines and allowed them to claim proprietary rights over the religious sites.<ref name=":222222" /> This would have major ramifications and lead to major social movements amongst the Sikhs.<ref name=":222222" /> The British-rule made it possible for the Sikhs to develop further their sense of nationhood, where they began to view their religion as being a world religion and that the Sikhs themselves were a unique nation.<ref name=":222222" />

Earlier British works, such as John Malcolm’s ''Sketch of the Sikhs: A Singular Nation'' (1812) and Joseph Davey Cunningham’s ''History of the Sikhs'' (1849) characterized the Sikhs as being a nation.<ref name=":222222" /> According to Cunningham, Guru Nanak had initiated the separation of his followers from Hindu "idolatry" and Muslim "superstition", whilst Guru Gobind Singh laid the foundation for a "distinct political existence and inspired them with the desire of being socially free and nationally independent", with this being realized and lived according to the author through the foundation of Ranjit Singh's polity.<ref name=":222222" /> Cunningham described a pre-modern Sikh nationhood of being bound by the common Khalsa and a shared connection to the Sikh guru.<ref name=":222222" /> Max Arthur Macauliffe in the late 19th century believed that the Sikhs were full of merits and at-risk of being absorbed by Hinduism, thus they needed colonial protection to safeguard their unique sense of identity.<ref name=":222222" />

The British Indian military promoted a standardized Khalsa identity to its Sikh recruits, as it highly favoured Khalsa Sikhs.<ref name=":222222" /> All Sikh recruits had to be baptized into the Khalsa order through the ''khande-di-pahul'' initiation ceremony.<ref name=":222222" /> The Sikh soldiers had to follow the Khalsa dress code and observe to Sikh customs.<ref name=":222222" /> A granthi and gurdwara was attached to each Sikh regiment.<ref name=":222222" /> Even British officers of Sikh soldiers sometimes wore turbans and wore the Sikh dressing colours, even paying respect to the Guru Granth Sahib.<ref name=":222222" /> This British emphasis on Sikhism allowed for the Sikhs to become a hegemonic force.<ref name=":222222" /> David Petrie states:<ref name=":222222" /> {{Quote|text=Sikhs in the Indian Army have been studiously ‘nationalised’ or encouraged to regard themselves as a totally distinct and separate nation. Their national pride has been fostered by every available means.|author=David Petrie (1911)}}

=== Khalistan movement === {{Main|Khalistan movement}}

Some segments of the Sikh community advocate for an independent state called Khalistan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 December 2023 |title=Khalistan: Why are some Sikhs calling for a separate homeland in India? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-66852291 |access-date=16 August 2024 |work=BBC}}</ref>

== Administration == ''Parganas'', ''<nowiki/>'ilaqa'', and ''ta'alluqa'' administrative divisions of Sikh polities tended to much smaller scale in-size compared to the Mughal administrative system and more numerous.<ref name=":3" /> An example of this is the Gujranwala district, which consisted of twenty-six ta'alluqas during Sikh-rule but three or four parganas during Mughal-rule.<ref name=":3" /> An explanation of this is when Sikhs occupied formerly Mughal-controlled territory, they divvied up the Mughal parganas amongst the Sikh ''sardars''.<ref name=":3" /> A subdivision of a ''pargana'' or ''ta'alluqa'' was a ''tappa'' or ''topes''.<ref name=":3" /> Sikh-rule over Kashmir led to the establishment of four new Kashmiri parganas.<ref name=":3" /> The Mughal pargana was comparable in-nature to the Sikh ta'alluqa.<ref name=":3" /> At the ta'alluqa-level, the Mughal office of the ''<nowiki/>'amil'' was comparable to the Sikh office of the ''kardar''.<ref name=":3" /> The basis of revenue administration came from the positions of the ''muqaddam'', ''chaudhari'', and the ''qanungo''.<ref name=":3" />

The Sikh polities did not made radical changes to the pre-existing system but rather made slight changes, which do make them discernible from their predecessors.<ref name=":3" /> Whilst in main areas during the Mughal-period the ''zabt'' method was predominant, during Sikh-rule it was the ''ghallabakhshi'' and ''kankut'' that were dominant.<ref name=":3" /> However, the most dominant systems of assessment and collection during Sikh-rule were the ''batai'' and ''kankut'', however the ''zabt'' method was employed in some areas.<ref name=":3" /> Outside of main areas, older methods continued unabated for the most part.<ref name=":3" /> The ''ijara'' practice became popularized during Sikh-rule but this method led to lower shares of produce being received by the state due to lower rates of assessment.<ref name=":3" />

The ''jagirs'' bestowed by Sikh states were similar to the ''mansabdari jagirs'' that were granted by the Mughals.<ref name=":3" /> The ''dharmarth'' grants issued by Sikh states were similar to the ''madad-i-ma'ash'' grants of the Mughals.<ref name=":3" /> A key difference however was the proportion of revenue alienated by the way of jagir was much smaller during Sikh-rule in-comparison to Mughal-rule.<ref name=":3" /> However, the proportion of revenue alienated by the way of ''dharmarth'' was much larger during Sikh-rule compared to the predecessor Mughals.<ref name=":3" /> Another difference was that the proportion of hereditary jagirs was larger during Sikh-rule.<ref name=":3" />

The three classes in-relation to land tenures was the same between Mughal and Sikh-rule:<ref name=":3" />

# Peasant proprietor – the most important position<ref name=":3" /> # Superior owner (''zamindar'' or ''ta'alluqdar'')<ref name=":3" /> # Tenant<ref name=":3" />

During Sikh-rule, the position of the peasant proprietor improved in-relation to the ta'alluqdar whilst the position of the tenant improved in-relation to the other two classes above it.<ref name=":3" /> Sikh ruling classes received a relatively smaller share of surplus land revenue in-comparison to their Mughal counterparts, with the revenue during Sikh-rule being distributed to many sardars and rajas (with both being relatively equal in importance).<ref name=":3" /> Thus, the peasant proprietor and tenant classes were able to enjoy much of the produce they produced.<ref name=":3" /> During the reign of Ranjit Singh of Lahore State, there were no instances of agricultural crises.<ref name=":3" />

== List of historical Sikh states and dynasties == {{Expand section|date=August 2024}} The following list enumerates historical Sikh states, empires, and dynasties in chronological order, ordered by their establishment year:<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Truhart |first=Peter |title=Regents of Nations: Asia, Australia-Oceania, Part 2 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2017 |isbn=9783111616254 |edition=Reprint |pages=1395}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-text" !State or Dynasty !Established !Disestablished !Founder(s) !Capital(s) !Citation |- ! colspan="6" |Early Sikh states |- |Sikh Raj |1680s |6 December 1704 |Guru Gobind Singh |Anandpur and Paonta |<ref name=":03" /><ref name=":9" /> |- |First Sikh State |1709 |1715 |Banda Singh |Lohgarh |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Nawabship of Amritsar |1733 |1735 |Kapur Singh |Amritsar |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Daranat Shah's State |1740 |1741 |Deep Singh |Unknown |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Sikh Confederacy |1748 |1799 |Kapur Singh |Amritsar |<ref name=":03" /> |- ! colspan="6" |Constituent ''Misls'' of the Sikh Confederacy |- |Ahluwalia Misl |1748 |1846 |Jassa Singh |Baggoki (1748 - 1754) Fatehabad (1754 - 1780)

Kapurthala (1780 - 1825)

Jagraon (1825-1826)

Hargobindgarh (1783 - 1816) |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Singhpuria Misl |1748 |1804 |Kapur Singh |Jalandhar |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Panjgarhia Misl |1748 |1809 |Karora Singh |Shamchaurasi |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Nishanwalia Misl |1748 |1809 |Dasaundha Singh |Ambala |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Sukerchakia Misl |1748 |1799 |Charat Singh |Gujranwala |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Dallewalia Misl |1748 |1807 |Gulab Singh |Rahon |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Nakai Misl |1748 |1803 |Heera Singh |Baherwal Kalan |<ref name=":03" /> |- |Shaheedan Misl |1734 |1809 |Deep Singh |Shahzadpur |<ref name=":03" /> |- ! colspan="6" |Sikh monarchal states |- |Patiala State |1762 |20 August 1948 |Ala Singh |Patiala |<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Truhart |first=Peter |title=Regents of Nations: Asia, Australia-Oceania, Part 2 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2017 |isbn=9783111616254 |edition=Reprint}}</ref>{{Rp|page=1398}} |- |Jind State |1763 |20 August 1948 |Gajpat Singh |Jind |<ref name=":14" />{{Rp|pages=1395}} |- |Nabha State |1763 |20 August 1948 |Hamir Singh |Nabha |<ref name=":14" />{{Rp|page=1398}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nabha {{!}} Princely State, Maharaja, Punjab {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nabha |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> |- |Ladwa State |1763 |1846 |Gurdit Singh |Ladwa |<ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Suresh K. |title=Haryana: Past and Present |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2006 |isbn=9788183240468 |pages=132–33 |chapter=History of Karnal: The Sikh Rule}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bal |first=Sarjit Singh |title=A Brief History of the Modern Punjab |publisher=Lyall Book Depot |year=1974 |pages=3}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Mittal |first=Satish Chandra |title=Haryana: A Historical Perspective |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |year=1986 |pages=41 |chapter=Revolt of Ajit Singh of Ladwa 1845–46}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Suresh K. |title=Haryana: Past and Present |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2006 |isbn=9788183240468 |pages=132–33 |chapter=History of Karnal: The Sikh Rule}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pasha |first=Mustapha Kamal |title=Colonial Political Economy: Recruitment and Underdevelopment in the Punjab |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=9780195777628 |pages=158}}</ref> |- |Faridkot State |1763 |20 August 1948 |Hamir Singh |Faridkot |<ref name=":14" />{{Rp|page=1395}} |- |Kalsia State |1809 |1948 |Gurbaksh Singh |Chhachhrauli |<ref name=":14" />{{Rp|page=1396}} |- |Manimajra State |1764 |1875 |Gharib Das |Manimajra |<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs: Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of Sikh Misls |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=8121501652 |series=History of the Sikhs |volume=4}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=158–160}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Arora |first=Amit |date=8 September 2017 |title=Amalgamation of History |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/amalgamation-of-history/articleshow/60426156.cms |access-date=11 August 2024 |work=The Times of India}}</ref> |- |Kaithal State |1767 |1843 |Desu Singh |Kaithal |<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |title=Fall of the Mughal Empire |publisher=Orient Longman |year=1964 |edition=3rd |volume=3: 1771–1788 |pages=106}}</ref>'''<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Comrnonwealth or Rise and FalI of Sikh Misls |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-8121501651 |volume=IV |pages=60–66}}</ref>''' |- |Kapurthala State |1774{{Efn|Other sources give 1846 as the establishment year for Kapurthala State.|group=note}} |20 August 1948 |Nihal Singh |Kapurthala |<ref name=":14" />{{Rp|page=1396}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dogra |first=R. C. |title=Encyclopaedia of Sikh Religion and Culture |last2=Mansukhani |first2=Gobind Singh |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |year=1995 |isbn=9780706983685 |pages=249}}</ref> |- |Sikh Empire |1799 |1849 |Ranjit Singh |Gujranwala (1799–1802)

Lahore (1802–1849) | |}

== See also ==

* List of monarchs of Punjab

== Notes == {{Reflist|group=note}}

== References == <references />

Category:Sikh politics Category:Former countries in Indian history