{{Short description|Breeding shrimp for food}} [[File:ചെമ്മീൻ കെട്ട്.jpg|thumb|The gate of a traditional shrimp farm in [[Kerala]], [[India]] which uses the tide to harvest shrimp]] '''Shrimp farming''' is a form of [[aquaculture]] that takes place in marine or freshwater environments, producing [[shrimp]] or [[prawn]]s{{#tag:ref|The terminology may be confusing as different agencies draw different distinctions between "[[shrimp]]" and "[[prawn]]s".|group=Note}} (crustaceans of the groups [[Caridea]] or [[Dendrobranchiata]]) for human consumption. However, the industry has raised concerns about environmental damage to [[mangrove]] ecosystems, reliance on [[slave labor]], and animal welfare issues.<ref name="CF">{{Cite news |last=Kateman |first=Brian |date=January 12, 2023 |title=You don't want to know where your shrimp comes from |url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90833406/shrimp-farming-unethical-vegan-alternative |work=Fast Company}}</ref>
==Marine==
{{main|Marine shrimp farming}} [[File:Shrimp pond.jpg|right|thumb|Shrimp grow-out pond on a farm in [[South Korea]]]] Commercial marine shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the [[United States]], [[Japan]], and Western [[Europe]]. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 2.1 million [[tonne]]s in 1991, representing a value of nearly [[United States dollar|US$]]9 billion. About 30% of farmed shrimp is produced in [[Asia]], particularly in [[China]] and [[Indonesia]]. The other 54.1% is produced mainly in [[Latin America]], where [[Brazil]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Mexico]] are the largest producers. The largest exporting nation is Indonesia. Shrimp farming has changed from traditional, small-scale businesses in [[Southeast Asia]] into a global industry. Technological advances have led to growing shrimp at ever higher densities, and [[broodstock]] is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are of the [[Family (taxonomy)|family]] [[Penaeidae]], and just two species{{Mdash}}''[[Whiteleg shrimp|Litopenaeus vannamei]]'' (Pacific white shrimp) 70% and ''[[Penaeus monodon]]'' (giant tiger prawn) 20%{{Mdash}} account for roughly 90% of all farmed shrimp.
These industrial [[monoculture]]s used to be very susceptible to diseases, which caused several regional wipe-outs of farm shrimp populations in past decades. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from [[non-governmental organization|NGOs]], consumer countries and even producers themselves, led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by governments.
In 1999, a program aimed at developing and promoting more [[sustainable agriculture|sustainable farming]] practices was initiated, including governmental bodies, industry representatives, and environmental organizations.
==Freshwater== {{main|Freshwater prawn farming}} [[File:Construction of Freshwater Shrimp Farm, Pekalongan.jpg|thumb|A farmer constructing a shrimp farm in [[Pekalongan]], Indonesia]] Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, [[marine shrimp farming]]. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental lifecycle of the main species (the giant river prawn, ''[[Macrobrachium rosenbergii]]'').<ref name="freshwater">New, M. B.: ''[http://library.enaca.org/Shrimp/Publications/FAO_Macrobrachium_manual_2003.pdf Farming Freshwater Prawns]''; FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 428, 2002. ISSN 0429-9345.</ref> The global annual production of freshwater prawns in 2010 was about 670,000 tons, of which China produced 615,000 tons (92%).<ref name="figis_fresh">Data extracted from the [http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/static?dom=collection&xml=global-aquaculture-production.xml FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database] for freshwater crustaceans. {{As of|October 2012}}, the most recent data sets are for 2010 and sometimes contain estimates. Accessed October 21, 2012.</ref>
==Animal welfare== '''<big>Eyestalk Ablation</big>'''
{{main|Eyestalk ablation}}
Eyestalk ablation is the removal of one (unilateral) or both (bilateral) [[eyestalk]]s from a [[crustacean]]. It is routinely practiced on female shrimps (or prawns) in almost every marine shrimp maturation or reproduction facility in the world, but has faced increasing criticism in recent years.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The shocking practice that shows prawn farming is as cruel as factory farming|url=https://www.animalsaustralia.org/features/prawn-farming.php|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.animalsaustralia.org|language=en}}</ref> The aim of [[Ablation#Medicine|ablation]] is to stimulate the female shrimp to develop mature ovaries and [[Spawn (biology)|spawn.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0024427|title = Insights into Eyestalk Ablation Mechanism to Induce Ovarian Maturation in the Black Tiger Shrimp|year = 2011|last1 = Uawisetwathana|first1 = Umaporn|last2 = Leelatanawit|first2 = Rungnapa|last3 = Klanchui|first3 = Amornpan|last4 = Prommoon|first4 = Juthatip|last5 = Klinbunga|first5 = Sirawut|last6 = Karoonuthaisiri|first6 = Nitsara|journal = PLOS ONE|volume = 6|issue = 9|article-number = e24427|pmid = 21915325|pmc = 3168472|bibcode = 2011PLoSO...624427U|doi-access = free}}</ref>
Poor captive conditions for shrimp cause inhibitions in females that prevent them from developing mature [[Ovary|ovaries]]. Even in conditions where a given species will develop ovaries and spawn in captivity, use of eyestalk ablation increases total egg production and increases the percentage of females in a given population that will participate in reproduction. Once females have been subjected to eyestalk ablation, complete ovarian development often ensues within as little as 3 to 10 days.
Eyestalk ablation has faced criticism from animal welfare advocates. Alternatives such as higher quality feed, and maintaining a 2:1 sex ratio of female to male shrimp within tanks have been found effective, but are not yet widespread.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stirling researchers identify viable ablation alternatives for shrimp hatcheries « Global Aquaculture Advocate|url=https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/advocate/stirling-researchers-identify-viable-ablation-alternatives-shrimp-hatcheries/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Global Aquaculture Alliance|date=28 January 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Slaughter Methods === Shrimp are commonly slaughtered using the ice slurry method, in which they are immersed in a mixture of ice and water with the aim of inducing thermal shock.<ref>{{Cite web |last=zuridah |date=2025-02-21 |title=Waitrose to stop selling "killed in ice slurry" prawns |url=https://aquaasiapac.com/2025/02/21/waitrose-to-stop-selling-killed-in-ice-slurry-prawns/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Aqua Culture Asia Pacific |language=en-US}}</ref> However, animal welfare organizations have raised concerns that this method is often ineffective, leading instead to death by asphyxiation and prolonged suffering.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ungoed-Thomas |first=Jon |date=2025-02-15 |title=Waitrose to stop selling suffocated farmed prawns, as campaigners say they feel pain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/feb/15/prawn-farming-cruelty-electrical-stunning-waitrose |access-date=2025-07-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In response to growing ethical concerns, more humane alternatives have been explored. Electrical stunning is currently considered the most humane pre-slaughter method available for shrimp, as it renders them unconscious significantly faster and more effectively than ice slurry or asphyxiation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Humane Slaughter Initiative |url=https://www.shrimpwelfareproject.org/humane-slaughter-initiative |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Shrimp Welfare Project |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2022, the United Kingdom legally recognized decapod [[crustacean]]s, including shrimp, as sentient beings capable of experiencing pain, further reinforcing the need for improved welfare practices during slaughter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lobsters, octopus and crabs recognised as sentient beings |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/lobsters-octopus-and-crabs-recognised-as-sentient-beings |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>
=== Animal Welfare Initiatives in Shrimp Farming === In recent years, animal welfare groups have intensified their campaigns to improve shrimp farming standards. [[Mercy for Animals]] led the world's first public demonstration for shrimp welfare, prompting Tesco in 2024 to commit to banning eyestalk ablation and ice-slurry stunning, replacing them with 100% electrical stunning for key species, Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus monodon, by 2027.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Kimberly |date=2024-08-19 |title=Tesco Commits to Banning the Cruelest Shrimp-Farming Practices |url=https://mercyforanimals.org/blog/tesco-shrimp-welfare-progress/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Mercy For Animals |language=en-US}}</ref> The UK-based Shrimp Welfare Project supports humane slaughter practices globally by providing free electrical stunners to producers and encouraging broader adoption of electrical stunning alongside efforts to eliminate eyestalk ablation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrimp Welfare Project |url=https://www.shrimpwelfareproject.org/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Shrimp Welfare Project |language=en-US}}</ref> Similarly, the International Council for Animal Welfare (ICAW) has urged retailers, including [[Tesco]], [[Marks & Spencer]], [[Sainsbury's]], [[Ocado]], [[Waitrose]], and [[The Co-operative Group|Co‑op]], to end ice-slurry slaughter and eyestalk ablation and to implement electrical stunning in their supply chains.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ungoed-Thomas |first=Jon |date=2025-02-15 |title=Waitrose to stop selling suffocated farmed prawns, as campaigners say they feel pain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/feb/15/prawn-farming-cruelty-electrical-stunning-waitrose |access-date=2025-07-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
==See also== *[[Mangrove#Exploitation and conservation|Exploitation and conservation of mangroves]] *[[Pain in invertebrates]] *[[Integrated mangrove-shrimp aquaculture]]: creates less destruction of mangroves in mangrove-areas, subjected to tidal flow reducing disease *[[Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture]]: can be used to reduce diseases compared to when closed-ponds systems are used
==Footnotes== {{Reflist|group=Note}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
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[[Category:Aquaculture]] [[Category:Decapods]]