Senostoma

{{short description|Genus of flies}} {{Automatic_taxobox | image =Long tongue tachinid fly edit.jpg | image_caption = | display_parents = 2 | taxon = Senostoma | authority = Macquart, 1847<ref name="Macquart1847">{{cite book |last1=Macquart |first1=P.J.M. |title=Diptères exotiques nouveaux ou peu connus. 2.e supplement |date=1847 |publisher=Roret |location=Paris |pages=104 pp, 6 pls}}</ref> | type_species = ''Senostoma variegata'' | type_species_authority = Macquart, 1847<ref name="Macquart1847"/> | synonyms = *''Austrodexia'' Malloch, 1930<ref name="Malloch1930b">{{cite journal |last1=Malloch |first1=J.R. |title=Notes on Australian Diptera. XXIII |journal=Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales |date=1930 |volume=55 |pages=92–135 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/35069713#page/184/mode/1up |access-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> *''Lasiocalypter'' Malloch, 1930<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Lasiocalyptrina'' Malloch, 1930<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Macropodexia'' Townsend, 1933<ref name="Townsend1933">{{cite journal |last= Townsend |first= C. H. T. |date= 1933 |title= New genera and species of Old World oestromuscoid flies |journal=Journal of the New York Entomological Society |volume= 40 |pages= 439–479}}</ref> *''Rhychiodexia'' Bigot, 1889<ref name="Bigot1889b">{{cite journal |last= Bigot |first= J. M. F. |date= 1889 |title= Dipteres nouveaux ou peu connus. 34e partie, XLII: Diagnoses de nouvelles especes|journal= Annales de la Société Entomologique de France |volume= 8 |issue= 6 |pages = 253–270 }}</ref> *''Rhychodexia'' Bigot, 1889<ref name="Bigot1889b"/> *''Rhycodexia'' Malloch, 1930 *''Rhynchiodexia'' Bigot, 1885 *''Rhynchionodexia'' Bigot, 1885<ref name="Bigot1885d">{{cite journal |last1=Bigot |first1=J.M.F. |title=[Diagnoses de 11 genres de diptères exotiques nouveaux] |journal=Bulletin Bimensuel de la Société Entomologique de France |date=1885 |volume=1884 |issue=24 |pages=237}}</ref> *''Rhynchodexia'' Wulp, 1891 *''Stenostoma'' Macquart, 1850<ref name="Macquart1850b">{{cite journal |last1=Macquart |first1=P.J.M. |title=Nouvelles observations sur les insectes diptères d'Europe de la tribu des tachinaires |journal=Annales de la Société Entomologique de France |date=1850 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=353-418, pls. 10-12 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32507624#page/357/mode/1up |access-date=13 September 2023}}</ref> }}

'''''Senostoma ''''' is a genus of parasitoid tachinid flies in the family Tachinidae.<ref name="OHara2020">{{cite web |last1=O’Hara |first1=James E. |last2=Henderson |first2=Shannon J. |first3=D. Monty |last3=Wood |title=Preliminary Checklist of the Tachinidae (Diptera) of the World|url=http://www.nadsdiptera.org/Tach/WorldTachs/Checklist/Tachchlist_ver2.1.pdf |website=Tachinidae Resources |access-date=7 January 2024 |date=5 March 2020}}</ref> Endemic to Australasia, the flies are medium-sized, bristly, and long-legged.

==Taxonomy== French entomologist Pierre-Justin-Marie Macquart first described the genus in 1847 in the work "Diptères Exotiques, Nouveaux Ou Peu Connus, Supplément I", published in ''Memoires de la Societe royale des sciences, de l'agriculture et des arts, de Lille''. Macquart stated that "Senostoma" signifies "narrow mouth".<ref name="nomenclator"/><ref name="macquart"/>

At various times the name has been used generically, and misapplied to ''Prodiaphania'' and ''Microrutilia''. ''Senostoma'' is classified in the subfamily Dexiinae; some older texts use the synonym Proseninae.<ref name="cantrell2"/><ref name="bulletinbm"/>

The genus comprises four species-groups, ''punctipenne'', ''rubricarinaturn'', ''longipes'', and ''hirsutilunula''.<ref name="barraclough"/>

There are approximately 10,000 species described within Tachinidae, and the geographic range and diversity of the species and difficulties encountered in classification means the count is probably thousands more. The monophyletic features that support Tachinidae classification are subtle, and detailed information on most genera and species is sparse. ''Senostoma'' is one such genus that lacks extensive research, with most studies having focussed only on a few of its 29 identified species.<ref name="o'hara"/><ref name="evenhuis"/><ref name="stireman"/>

==Distribution and habitat== As a member of the subfamily Dexiinae, ''Senostoma'' flies are endemic to the Australasian region. More specifically, the flies inhabit the Australian mainland and Tasmania, with two species present in New Caledonia and none in New Zealand. In Australia, members of the genus are non-existent in Cape York Peninsula and the Northern Territory. Some species are particularly narrow in distribution; ''S. basale'' inhabits only the Gondwana Rainforests, while ''S. hirticauda'' and ''S. simulcercus'' are limited to Barrington Tops and Tamborine Mountain, respectively.<ref name="o'hara2"/><ref name="williams"/>

''Senostoma'' can be found in a variety of habitats in the Australian region, but most species appear to prefer dry eucalypt forest at elevations above 600 metres. Adults are attracted to flowers and feed on their nectar, contributing to pollination, with ''Leptospermum'' being favoured by some species. As well as resting on ''Eucalyptus'' tree trunks and the surrounding substrate at hill-topping sites, the flies are observable elsewhere feeding on flowers and resting on rocks and vegetation.<ref name="o'hara"/><ref name="evenhuis"/><ref name="stireman"/><ref name="zborowski"/><ref name="barraclough2"/>

==Parasitism== As with all known Tachinidae, ''Senostoma'' are parasitoids. The larvae develop inside a host, as intercellular endoparasites, consuming and killing the host in the process. For ''Senostoma'', these hosts are exclusively beetles, most usually Scarabaeidae in the larval stage. In some cases, the host may survive the attack.<ref name="cantrell2"/><ref name="o'hara"/><ref name="evenhuis"/><ref name="stireman"/><ref name="zborowski"/>

The eggs are laid containing mature first instars, the female having incubated the eggs within her reproductive system until ready to hatch, a mode of reproduction known as ovolarviparity, more generally known as ovoviviparity. Deposition usually occurs on the ground and the eggs may hatch within seconds or a few minutes of being laid, whereupon the larvae hunt for a host beetle by burrowing into the soil. Other tachinids lay eggs directly onto potential hosts or food plants and therefore enjoy a higher success rate of infection; the number of eggs produced by ''Senostoma'' females is consequently higher than for some other genera, numbering somewhere between 1000 and 3000.<ref name="o'hara"/><ref name="evenhuis"/><ref name="stireman"/>

The labrum of the larval mouthparts is sharp and functions as a cutting device, with which they penetrate the integument of the selected host, possibly helped by enzymes in their saliva. Once established inside the hosts, the larvae feed on them, passing through second and third instars before pupation occurs. Larval development for tachinids may take between one and three weeks to complete, and the death of the host does not usually occur until the final stage, when the fly is ready to emerge for pupation. As such, ''Senostoma'' are considered koinobiont parasitoids, as they co-exist with a living, functional host during development and avoid feeding on vital organs or other critical tissues until it is necessary for their continued growth.<ref name="o'hara"/><ref name="stireman"/>

==Morphology== Adult members of the genus have bristly bodies and long, thin legs. Their size is generally in the range of 10 to 12 mm, making them medium-sized within the family, as measurements for tachinids span from 2 mm to 20 mm. Mouthparts are distinctively elongated and narrow. Limited information suggests that ''Senostoma'' colourings are usually at the nondescript end of tachinid fly variation, with at least a few species being light grey and brown.<ref name="o'hara"/><ref name="stireman"/><ref name="zborowski"/>

Along with other genera, ''Senostoma'' flies possess two morphological features that support their inclusion in the family Tachinidiae. As larvae in the first instar, the labrum is attached to the cephalopharyngeal sclerites (the skeleton of the larval anterior digestive system), and as adults, the postscutellum is well-developed.<ref name="o'hara"/>

==Behaviour== A few species, ''S. longipes'', ''S. pallidihirturn'', and ''S. tessellaturn'', have been noted to exhibit behaviour strongly suggestive of hill-topping, with males maintaining downward-facing positions on trunks of ''Eucalyptus'' trees, at elevations above 900 metres. This behaviour is likely to be applicable to other species within the genus. Each species studied appeared to prefer certain times of day for hill-topping and selected their positions on tree trunks based on bark smoothness or roughness, degree of illumination by sunlight, and distance from the ground. Males are competitive for these positions and can be observed engaging with each other aggressively, approaching each other for face-offs, spiral flights, and simulated copulation. While males congregating at altitude were in abundance, females were infrequently spotted at hill-topping sites, and when present, did not exhibit any territorial behaviour and preferred locations near the substrate. Female absence may be due to females only visiting the congregation sites when ready to mate. Although the behaviour of males and females at elevation are considered to be for mating purposes, direct evidence of this is lacking and little is known of their courtship and mating rituals.<ref name="o'hara"/><ref name="evenhuis"/><ref name="stireman"/><ref name="barraclough2"/>

==Species== *''Senostoma apicalis'' (Curran, 1938) *''Senostoma appendiculatum'' (Macquart, 1851)<ref name="Macquart1851a">{{cite journal |last = Macquart|first = P. J. M. |date = 1851 |title = Dipteres exotiques nouveaux ou peu connus. Suite du 4e supplement publie dans les memoires de 1849 |journal = Mémoires de la Société (Royale) des sciences, de l'agriculture et des arts à Lille |volume = 1850 |pages = 134–294 |url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/107754#page/156/mode/1up| access-date = 28 March 2021}}</ref> *''Senostoma atripes'' (Malloch, 1930)<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Senostoma basale'' (Curran, 1938) *''Senostoma brevipalpe'' (Macquart, 1846)<ref name="Macquart1846">{{cite book |last1=Macquart |first1=P.J.M. |title=Diptères exotiques nouveaux ou peu connus. Supplement. [1] |date=1846 |publisher=Mem. Soc. R. Sci. Agric. Arts |location=Lille |pages=133–364, 20 pls |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/109525#page/5/mode/1up |access-date=5 December 2020}}</ref> *''Senostoma flavipes'' Barraclough, 1991 *''Senostoma flavohirtum'' (Malloch, 1930)<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Senostoma hirsutilunula'' Barraclough, 1992<ref name="Barraclough1992">{{cite journal |first=D.A.|last=Barraclough|year=1992|title=The systematics of the Australasian Dexiini (Diptera : Tachinidae : Dexiinae) with revisions of endemic genera|journal=Invertebrate Taxonomy | volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=1127–1371 |doi=10.1071/IT9921127}}</ref> *''Senostoma hirticauda'' (Malloch, 1930)<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Senostoma hyria'' (Walker, 1849)<ref name="Walker1849b">{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=F. |title=List of the specimens of dipterous insects in the collection of the British Museum. Part IV.|date=1849 |publisher=British Museum |location=London |pages=[3] + 689–1172 + [2]|url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/118982#page/7/mode/1up |access-date=20 October 2022}}</ref> *''Senostoma longimentum'' Barraclough, 1992<ref name="Barraclough1992"/> *''Senostoma longipes'' (Macquart, 1846)<ref name="Macquart1846"/> *''Senostoma mcalpinei'' Barraclough, 1992<ref name="Barraclough1992"/> *''Senostoma nigropilosum'' Barraclough, 1992<ref name="Barraclough1992"/> *''Senostoma nigrospiraculum'' Barraclough, 1992<ref name="Barraclough1992"/> *''Senostoma notatum'' (Walker, 1853)<ref name="Walker1853b">{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Frances|title=Diptera. Part IV, pp. 253-474, pls. 7-8. In [Saunders, W. W. (ed.)], Insecta Saundersiana: or characters of undescribed insects in the collection of William Wilson Sauders, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. Vol. 1|date=1853|publisher=Van Voorst|location=London|pages=1–474}}</ref> *''Senostoma pallidihirtum'' (Malloch, 1930)<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Senostoma pectinatum'' Barraclough, 1992<ref name="Barraclough1992"/> *''Senostoma punctipenne'' (Macquart, 1846)<ref name="Macquart1846"/> *''Senostoma rubricarinatum'' (Macquart, 1846)<ref name="Macquart1846"/> *''Senostoma setigerum'' (Malloch, 1930)<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Senostoma setiventre'' (Malloch, 1930)<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Senostoma simulcercus'' Barraclough, 1992<ref name="Barraclough1992"/> *''Senostoma taylori'' (Curran, 1938) *''Senostoma tenuipes'' (Bigot, 1885)<ref name="Bigot1885d"/> *''Senostoma tessellatum'' (Macquart, 1851)<ref name="Macquart1851a"/> *''Senostoma testaceicorne'' (Macquart, 1851)<ref name="Macquart1851a"/> *''Senostoma unipunctum'' (Malloch, 1930)<ref name="Malloch1930b"/> *''Senostoma variegata'' Macquart, 1847<ref name="Macquart1847"/>

==References== {{Reflist|2|refs= <ref name="barraclough">{{Cite journal | last = Barraclough | first = David A | title = The systematics of the Australasian Dexiini (Diptera : Tachinidae: Dexiinae) with revisions of endemic genera | journal = Invertebrate Taxonomy | volume = 6 | issue = 5 | pages = 1127–1371 | year = 1992 | doi = 10.1071/IT9921127}}</ref>

<ref name="o'hara">{{Cite book |last1 = O'Hara |first1 = James E |last2 = Usupensky |first2 = Igor |last3 = Bostanian |first3 = N. J. |last4 = Capinera |first4 = John L. |last5 = Chapman |first5 = Reg |last6 = Barfield |first6 = Carl S. |last7 = Swisher |first7 = Marilyn E. |last8 = Barfield |first8 = Carl S. |last9 = Heppner |first9 = John |last10 = Fitzgerald |first10 = Terrence D. |last11 = Scheffrahn |first11 = Rudolf H. |last12 = Constantino |first12 = Reginaldo |last13 = Sanborn |first13 = Allen |last14 = Gayubo |first14 = Severiano F. |last15 = Arthurs |first15 = Steven |last16 = Tipping |first16 = Christopher |last17 = Lysyk |first17 = Tim |last18 = Coons |first18 = Lewis B. |last19 = Rothschild |first19 = Marjorie |last20 = Randolph |first20 = Sarah |last21 = Choate |first21 = Paul M. |last22 = Heppner |first22 = John B. |last23 = Jolivet |first23 = Pierre |last24 = Rogers |first24 = Michael E. |last25 = Potter |first25 = Daniel A. |last26 = Capinera |first26 = John L. |last27 = Webster |first27 = Thomas C. |last28 = Nation |first28 = James L. |last29 = Hoy |first29 = Marjorie A. |last30 = Agrios |first30 = George N. |chapter = Tachinid Flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) |title = Encyclopedia of Entomology |pages = 3675–3686 |issue = 2nd edition |publisher = Springer Netherlands |location = Dordrecht |year = 2008 |chapter-url = http://www.nadsdiptera.org/Tach/Gen/tachintr.htm |doi = 10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_2344 |access-date = 2010-08-30 |isbn = 978-1-4020-6242-1 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100725115936/http://www.nadsdiptera.org/Tach/Gen/tachintr.htm |archive-date = 2010-07-25 }}</ref>

<ref name="evenhuis">{{Cite journal | last = Evenhuis | first = Neal L. | title = 113. Family TACHINIDAE | journal = Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions | year = 2007 | url = http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/tachinidae.html | access-date = 2010-08-30}}</ref>

<ref name="stireman">{{Cite journal | last = Stireman | first = John O. III |author2=O'Hara, James E. |author3=Wood, D. Monty | title = Tachinidae: Evolution, Behavior, and Ecology | journal = Annual Review of Entomology | volume = 51 | pages = 525–555 | publisher = Annual Reviews | year = 2006 | pmid = 16332222 | url = http://www.wright.edu/~john.stireman/StiremanetalARE2006.pdf | doi = 10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151133 | access-date = 2010-08-30}}</ref>

<ref name="barraclough2">{{Cite journal | last = Barraclough | first = David A. | title = Field observations of ''Senostoma'' spp. (Diptera:Tachinidae) at Katoomba, N.S.W | journal = Australian Journal of Entomology | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 247–252 | date = August 1990 | doi = 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1990.tb00355.x| doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name="o'hara2">{{Cite journal |last = O'Hara |first = James E. |title = World genera of the Tachinidae (Diptera) and their regional occurrence |date = December 2008 |url = http://www.nadsdiptera.org/Tach/Genera/Gentach_ver4.pdf |access-date = 2010-08-31 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725132303/http://www.nadsdiptera.org/Tach/Genera/Gentach_ver4.pdf |archive-date = 2011-07-25 }}</ref>

<ref name="williams">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.3853/j.1031-8062.16.2002.1353 | last = Williams | first = Geoff | title = A Taxonomic and Biogeographic Review of the Invertebrates of the Central Eastern Rainforest Reserves of Australia (CERRA) World Heritage Area, and Adjacent Regions | journal = Technical Reports of the Australian Museum | volume = 16 | pages = 1–208 | year = 2002 | url = http://www.australianmuseum.net.au/Uploads/Journals/15402/1353_complete.pdf | issn = 1031-8062 | access-date = 2010-08-31| doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name="cantrell2">{{Cite journal | last = Cantrell | first = Bryan K. | title = An updated host catalogue for the Australian Tachinidae (Diptera) | journal = Journal of the Australian Entomological Society | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 255–265 | year = 1986 | doi = 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1986.tb01112.x| doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name="macquart">{{Cite book | last = Macquart | first = Pierre-Justin-Marie | author-link = Pierre-Justin-Marie Macquart | title = Histoire Naturelle: Diptères Exotiques, Nouveaux Ou Peu Connus, Supplément I | publisher = Roret | year = 1846 | location = Paris | pages = [https://archive.org/details/diptresexotiqu12macqfo/page/161 161]–237 | url = https://archive.org/details/diptresexotiqu12macqfo | language = French | access-date = 2010-08-31}}</ref>

<ref name="nomenclator">{{Cite web | title = ''Senostoma'' | publisher = Nomenclator Zoologicus | year = 2005 | url = http://www.ubio.org/NZ/detail.php?uid=182268&d=1 | access-date = 2010-08-31}}</ref>

<ref name="bulletinbm">{{Cite journal | last = Crosskey | first = Ryan W. | title = The Type-Material of Australasian, Oriental, and Ethiopian Tachinidae (Diptera) described by Macquart and Bigot | journal = Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Entomology | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | pages = 251–305 | publisher = The Bulletin of the British Museum | location = London | year = 1971 | url = https://archive.org/stream/bulletinofbritis25entolond/bulletinofbritis25entolond_djvu.txt | access-date = 2010-08-31}}</ref>

<ref name="zborowski">{{Cite book | last = Zborowski | first = Paul |author2=Storey, Ross | title = A field guide to insects in Australia | publisher = Reed | year = 1996 | page = 150 | isbn = 978-0-7301-0414-8}}</ref> }}

Category:Tachinidae Category:Brachycera genera Category:Taxa named by Pierre-Justin-Marie Macquart Category:Flies of Australasia Category:Endoparasites