{{Short description|Waterfall on the Coca River in Ecuador}} {{Infobox waterfall | name = San Rafael Falls | image = AMA Cascada de San Rafael limite provincial de Napo y Sucumbíos (8227381138).jpg | caption = San Rafael Falls in 2012 | map_image = | map_size = | coordinates = {{Coord|-0.1037|-77.5813|format=dms|region:EC_type:waterbody_source:dewiki|display=inline,title}} | coords_ref = | location = [[Sucumbíos Province|Sucumbíos]] and [[Napo Province|Napo]], Ecuador | elevation = | height = {{cvt|131|m}} (until 2020)<ref name="World Waterfall Database"/> | height_longest = | number_drops = 2 (until 2015)<br/>1 (2015–2020) | width = {{cvt|30|m}} (until 2020)<ref name="World Waterfall Database"/> | average_width = {{cvt|23|m}} (until 2020)<ref name="World Waterfall Database"/> | run = {{cvt|46|m}} (until 2020)<ref name="World Waterfall Database"/> | watercourse = [[Coca River]] | average_flow = {{cvt|293|m3/s}}<ref name="ESP"/> | world_rank = | type = Tiered plunges (until 2015)<br/>Plunge (2015–2020) }}
'''San Rafael Falls''' ({{Langx|es|Salto de San Rafael}}) was a waterfall on the [[Coca River]] in [[Sucumbíos Province|Sucumbíos]] and [[Napo Province|Napo]], Ecuador.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2011/03/110315_ecuador_san_rafael_cascada_hidroelectrica_az|title=La mayor cascada de Ecuador compite con una hidroeléctrica|date=March 15, 2011|website=BBC News Mundo}}</ref> Standing {{convert|131|m}} high,<ref name="World Waterfall Database"/> it was the tallest and most powerful waterfall in Ecuador and a popular tourist attraction. The falls were located at the eastern boundary of [[Cayambe Coca National Park]], in the eastern [[Andes|Andean]] foothills about {{convert|170|km}} to the east of [[Quito]].
On February 2, 2020, the falls collapsed into a massive [[sinkhole]] behind the layer of hard [[volcanic rock]] that formed its lip, creating a large [[natural bridge]] spanning the Coca River.<ref name="ESP"/> The natural bridge also collapsed about one year later, leaving an open ravine at the former site of the falls. During its brief existence, the natural bridge may have been the longest in the world, exceeding China's [[Xianren Bridge]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.naturalarches.org/blog/sudden-birth-of-a-large-natural-bridge-in-ecuador/|title=Sudden Birth of a Large Natural Bridge in Ecuador – Possibly the Longest in the World|publisher=Natural Arch and Bridge Society|date=2020-04-10|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref> The waterfall itself retreated upstream as a result of rapid [[headward erosion]] and disappeared within a few months as the river carved a new, more gradually descending channel.<ref name="ESP"/>
The collapse of the falls has significantly altered the Coca River, with a deep new canyon appearing upstream of the former falls, and large volumes of sediment depositing downstream. Upstream erosion destroyed several bridges and oil pipelines, and as of 2023 threatens to undermine the [[Coca Codo Sinclair Dam]], which was built upstream of the falls in 2016. Increased erosion as a result of the dam trapping sediment is thought by some researchers to have accelerated the collapse of the waterfall, although the phenomenon would likely have happened eventually due to the natural erosive force of the river.
==History== The San Rafael Falls were formed thousands of years ago by debris and lava flows from the nearby El [[Reventador]] volcano, whose [[caldera]] is located about {{convert|9|km}} to the west. About 19,000 years ago, a large section of the eastern side of the volcano collapsed, causing a massive [[debris flow]] of loose rock and soil into the Coca River valley. After that, the volcano erupted and a {{convert|100|m|ft|adj=mid|-thick}} [[basalt]]ic lava flow blocked the Coca River, forming a highly erosion-resistant [[lava dam]] on top of the initial debris flow deposit. The natural impoundment behind the dam eventually filled with a mix of [[fluvial]] sediments and additional volcanic material from El Reventador, while the river spilled over the top of the barrier forming a waterfall.<ref name="ESP"/>
[[Image:San Rafael Waterfall, Coca Cayambe Ecological Reserve, Ecuador.jpg|thumb|left|upright|San Rafael Falls in August 2019, less than one year before its collapse into a [[sinkhole]]]] The debris flow material downstream of the lava dam washed away, increasing the drop to over {{convert|130|m}}. Over thousands of years, the [[plunge pool]] at the waterfall base continued to expand, creating a large overhanging precipice and cavern where the hard basalt layer rested atop the loose material below. At this point, the [[knickpoint]] became relatively stable, with the overhanging basalt protecting the loose material below from further upstream erosion.<ref name="ESP">{{cite journal|title=Major fluvial erosion and a 500-Mt sediment pulse triggered by lava-dam failure, Río Coca, Ecuador|last1=Crespo|first1=Pedro D. Barrera|last2=Girón|first2=Pablo Espinoza|last3=Bedoya|first3=Rénan|last4=Gibson|first4=Stanford|last5=East|first5=Amy E.|last6=Langendoen|first6=Eddy J.|last7=Boyd|first7=Paul|journal=Earth Surface Processes and Landforms|date=2024 |volume=1|number=23|pages=1058–1080 |doi=10.1002/esp.5751 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The area around El Reventador remains tectonically active. A March 1987 earthquake caused large debris flows into the Coca River that reached San Rafael Falls. The debris flows reached an estimated depth of {{convert|20|m}} at the falls.<ref name="NAP 1991">{{cite book|url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/1857/the-march-5-1987-ecuador-earthquakes-mass-wasting-and-socioeconomic|title=The March 5, 1987, Ecuador Earthquakes: Mass Wasting and Socioeconomic Effects|publisher=National Academies Press|author=National Research Council|year=1991|doi=10.17226/1857 |isbn=978-0-309-04444-8 }}</ref>
Prior to the collapse, the falls were a major tourist attraction for the area. In 2019 about 30,000 people visited the falls.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cuencahighlife.com/countrys-largest-waterfall-stops-flowing-after-sink-hole-opens-under-river-bed/ |publisher=CuencaHighlife |date=6 February 2020 |title=Country's largest waterfall stops flowing after a giant sink hole swallows the Coca River |access-date=6 December 2020}}</ref> The falls were accessible by an approximately thirty-minute hike from nearby Hostería El Reventador (about {{convert|50|km}} by road northeast of [[El Chaco, Ecuador|El Chaco]]) which brought visitors to a scenic view point, "La Mirador", above the falls.<ref>{{cite book|title=Let's Go Ecuador|last1=Doshi|first1=Megha|last2=Kinkopf|first2=Abe|last3=Robbins|first3=Ben|last4=Walters|first4=Anna|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=9780312335625|year=2004|page=295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huukKbDgM7oC}}</ref> Although located near the Cayambe-Coca National Park, the falls themselves were actually on a small private preserve.<ref>{{cite book |last=Krahenbuhl |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYJvH58O3DMC |title=Ecuador's Amazon Region |publisher=Hunter Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=9781588438041 |page=40}}</ref>
In 2010, construction had begun on the [[Coca Codo Sinclair Dam]] about {{convert|19|km}} upstream from the waterfall. The 1,500 [[megawatt]] hydroelectric plant, Ecuador's largest power station, was designed to divert water around a large bend ("codo") of the Coca River, utilizing the natural drop of the waterfall and river to generate power.<ref name="ESP"/> Despite creating significant controversy over its ecological impact and its potential to reduce the flow of the waterfall, the project was completed in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalrivers.org/resources/ecuador-s-most-spectacular-waterfall-threatened-by-chinese-funded-hydroelectric-project|title=Ecuador's most spectacular waterfall threatened by Chinese-funded hydroelectric project|publisher=International Rivers|year=2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917060717/https://www.internationalrivers.org/resources/ecuador-s-most-spectacular-waterfall-threatened-by-chinese-funded-hydroelectric-project|archivedate=2016-09-17|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.power-technology.com/projects/coca-codo-sinclair-hydroelectric-project/|title=Coca Codo Sinclair Hydroelectric Project|publisher=Power Technology|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref> The developers of Coca Codo Sinclair promised to maintain a minimum flow of {{convert|22|m3/s}} over the falls, or about one-quarter of its typical [[dry season]] flow.<ref>{{cite news |last=Caselli |first=Irene |date=2011-03-15 |title=Ecuador's San Rafael falls: At risk from energy plans? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-12680487 |access-date=2024-03-19 |work=BBC News}}</ref>
The waterfall had been undergoing noticeable geomorphic changes since the 1990s, when it fell in two distinct stages: a smaller upper cascade followed by a large lower plunge. By about 2010, much of the lower lip of the falls had eroded away, bringing the two tiers close together; in 2015 that section collapsed completely, and the waterfall became a single uninterrupted plunge.<ref name="World Waterfall Database">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldwaterfalldatabase.com/waterfall/San-Rafael-Cascada-de-373|title=San Rafael, Cascada de|publisher=World Waterfall Database|date=|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref><ref name="ESP"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sedhyd.org/2023Program/1/223.pdf|title=Reconnaissance of the Rio Coca Regressive Erosion and Building the Partnership|last1=Creech|first1=Calvin|last2=McConnell|first2=Adriel|last3=Gibson|first3=Stanford|publisher=SEDHYD|year=2023|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref>
==2020 collapse and impacts== In June 2019, a sinkhole formed above the falls and water was observed to emerge from the bottom of the cliff face, suggesting that water was seeping through the loose material under the lava dam and thus bypassing the falls. On February 2, 2020, the sinkhole abruptly collapsed, swallowing a large portion of the flow of the Coca River, which proceeded to burst out from underneath the lava dam. By February 6 the remaining loose material under the lava dam had been washed away and the full volume of the Coca River flowed beneath it, creating a massive natural bridge and effectively removing the knickpoint the waterfall represented. A new waterfall appeared immediately upstream where the sinkhole had been located. The sudden [[river rejuvenation]] initiated [[headward erosion]] of the loose unconsolidated sediment in the riverbed, causing the waterfall to quickly retreat upstream.<ref name="ESP"/><ref name="PFG">{{cite journal|title=Regressive Erosion at River Coca in Northeast Ecuador: Landslide Monitoring with Sentinel-1 to Support Disaster Risk Management|journal=Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science|last1=Graw|first1=Valerie|last2=Dedring|first2=Torben|last3=Hiby|first3=Roman|last4=Jara-Alvear|first4=Jose|last5=Guzman|first5=Pablo|last6=Juergens|first6=Carsten|date=2022-10-20|volume=90|issue=5 |pages=457–471|doi=10.1007/s41064-022-00221-z |bibcode=2022PFJ....90..457G |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Onofa |first=Mercedes |date=2022-01-24 |title=US, Ecuador Sign Agreement to Mitigate Regressive Erosion on the Coca River |url=https://dialogo-americas.com/articles/us-ecuador-sign-agreement-to-mitigate-regressive-erosion-on-the-coca-river/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |work=Dialogo Americas}}</ref>
[[Image:USGS Rio Coca upstream of San Rafael Falls 2023.JPG|thumb|right|Massive erosion has damaged the landscape upstream of the falls.]] In July 2020, five months after the initial collapse, erosion had progressed {{convert|3.8|km}} upstream, forming a canyon {{convert|100|m}} deep in places. As the river gradient equalized, the waterfalls evolved from a single plunge to multiple small, separated drops, and eventually were reduced into rapids.<ref name="Cardona August 2020">{{cite news |last=Cardona |first=Antonio José Paz |date=2020-08-11 |title=Ecuador races for emergency infrastructure as river's collapse threatens dam |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/08/ecuador-races-for-emergency-infrastructure-as-rivers-collapse-threatens-dam/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |work=Mongabay}}</ref> Ecuador's Ministry of Energy began constructing temporary grade controls in the river in an attempt to slow the rate of erosion.<ref name="Cardona August 2020"/> The natural bridge collapsed approximately one year later in February 2021, briefly damming the river before being overtopped and washed away in a large outburst flood.<ref name="ESP"/>
Sucumbíos' Emergency Operations Committee restricted access to the area as the Ecuador Ministry of Environment began to investigate the incident.<ref name="Cardona March 2020">{{cite news |last=Cardona |first=Antonio José Paz |date=2020-08-11 |title=Why did Ecuador's tallest waterfall suddenly disappear? |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/03/why-did-ecuadors-tallest-waterfall-suddenly-disappear/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |work=Mongabay}}</ref> Erosion soon threatened critical infrastructure upstream. On April 7, 2020, the sinking riverbed broke oil pipelines belonging to the Trans-Ecuadorial Pipeline System, Crudos Pesados Oil and Poliducto Shushufindi-Quito. About 15,000 barrels of crude oil spilled into the Coca River and soon entered the [[Napo River]]. Oil was detected as far downstream as [[Cabo Pantoja]], Peru.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eos.com/blog/oil-spills-in-the-amazon-a-never-ending-tragedy/|title=Oil Spills In The Amazon: A Never-ending Tragedy|publisher=EOS Data Analytics|date=19 July 2022|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref> The oil spill affected more than one hundred primarily indigenous communities, many of which are economically dependent on fishing. On April 30 a lawsuit was filed seeking damages from the oil companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecojurisprudence.org/initiatives/ecuador-case-on-the-oil-spill-in-the-san-rafael-waterfall/|title=Ecuador court case on the oil spill in the San Rafael Waterfall|publisher=Eco Jurisprudence Monitor|year=2021|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref><ref name="Cardona May 2020">{{cite news |last=Cardona |first=Antonio José Paz |date=2020-08-11 |title=Massive erosion likely due to hydropower dam causes oil spill on Ecuador's Coca River |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2020/05/massive-erosion-likely-due-to-hydropower-dam-causes-oil-spill-on-ecuadors-coca-river/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |work=Mongabay}}</ref> By August, bypasses had been constructed to route the oil pipelines away from the river, while downstream communities continued to express concern over the speed of remedial action.<ref name="Cardona August 2020"/> In December 2021, the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] and the Electric Corporation of Ecuador (Corporación Eléctrica del Ecuador, or CELEC) signed a memorandum of understanding to study options for mitigating erosion and protecting upstream infrastructure, particularly the Coca Codo Sinclair Dam, which could be damaged or destroyed if headward erosion reaches that point.<ref name="PFG"/><ref>{{cite news |last=Onofa |first=Mercedes |date=2022-01-24 |title=US, Ecuador Sign Agreement to Mitigate Regressive Erosion on the Coca River |url=https://dialogo-americas.com/articles/us-ecuador-sign-agreement-to-mitigate-regressive-erosion-on-the-coca-river/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |work=Dialogo Americas}}</ref>
Large waves of sediment unleashed by the collapse have drastically changed the downstream reaches of the Coca River. About 250 million tonnes (Mt) of sediment was mobilized in the first year after collapse, and by early 2023, three years later, this had increased to 500 Mt.<ref name="ESP"/> The three-year sediment volume is comparable to the total amount transported in 43 years after the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/news/federal-scientists-assess-unusual-river-erosion-disaster-ecuadorian-amazon|title=Federal Scientists Assess Unusual River-Erosion Disaster in Ecuadorian Amazon|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|date=2023-02-16|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref> As of 2023, massive [[aggradation]] has buried the former riverbed downstream, with sediment piling up as much as {{convert|40|m}} at a point {{convert|2|km}} below the former waterfall. At the outlet of Coca Codo hydroelectric plant, {{convert|44.5|km}} downstream, the river bed has risen {{convert|1|to|2|m|ft}},<ref name="ESP"/> which threatens to limit the amount of water that can pass through the power station and thus its electrical output.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/international-programs/news/usgs-advises-sediment-and-erosion-monitoring-part-emergency-response|title=USGS Advises on Sediment and Erosion Monitoring as Part of Emergency Response in Ecuador|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|date=2023-06-20|access-date=2024-01-26}}</ref> This has been mitigated so far by dredging, but a long-term solution has yet to be determined.<ref name="ESP"/> Flooding and water quality impacts tied to the collapse have been reported at [[Puerto Francisco de Orellana]], {{convert|90|km}} downstream from the falls.<ref name="ESP"/>
By early 2023, erosion had progressed {{convert|11.3|km|0}} upstream from the original waterfall location. Some {{convert|287|ha}} of riverside land have collapsed and at least three bridges have been destroyed. Headward erosion is expected to continue for another {{convert|28|km}} before the river achieves a stable gradient, which would be more than enough to reach the Coca Codo Sinclair Dam, unless the river encounters a harder rock layer before that point.<ref name="ESP"/> The headward erosion has also begun to affect tributaries, particularly the Río Malo, which joins the Coca about {{convert|10|km}} upstream from the former waterfall.<ref name="ESP"/>
==Investigation== While all waterfalls experience headward erosion, many researchers and groups have suggested that the Coca Codo Sinclair Dam may have increased the effect of erosion on the falls, causing it to collapse sooner than from natural geologic forces alone. Emilio Cobo, leader of the [[IUCN]]'s South America Water Program, surmised that the dam accelerated the collapse by trapping sediment upstream, starving the river of sediment and increasing its erosive force.<ref name="Cardona March 2020"/> The [[National Polytechnic School (Ecuador)|National Polytechnic School of Ecuador]] had studied the impacts of the dam after its construction, estimating that river erosion increased by 42 percent as a result of dam operation.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2020 |title=Dam implicated in waterfall collapse and oil spill |url=https://www.ecoamericas.com/issues/article/2020/5/4A758326-B1B1-4B78-AA70-E420A7513166 |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=ecoamericas.com}}</ref>
According to Alfredo Carrasco, an Ecuadorian state geologist, the collapse of the waterfall was probably not significantly affected by damming, but the rapid riverbed erosion that followed was made worse by the dam. After the collapse, Carrasco had expressed concern over the potential impact on infrastructure such as bridges and oil pipelines, but no remedial action was taken before that infrastructure was undermined and destroyed.<ref name="Cardona May 2020"/> Geologist Carolina Bernal stated, "I had doubts that the Coca Codo Sinclair plant influenced what happened with the San Rafael waterfall [on Feb. 2], but now, after seeing the aggressiveness of the phenomenon, it can be linked with the sediment management of the project. Hydroelectric plants must be planned very carefully."<ref name="Cardona May 2020"/>
==See also== *[[Pailón del Diablo]] *[[List of waterfalls]] *[[List of waterfalls by flow rate]]
==References== {{reflist}}
[[Category:Waterfalls of Ecuador]] [[Category:Geography of Napo Province]] [[Category:Geography of Sucumbíos Province]] [[Category:Tourist attractions in Ecuador]] [[Category:Natural arches]] [[Category:Collapsed arches]] [[Category:Destroyed landforms]]