Russian phonology

{{Short description|Sounds and pronunciation of the Russian language}} {{selfref|For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Russian for Wikipedia articles, see Help:IPA/Russian.}} {{IPA notice}} This article discusses the phonological system of standard Russian based on the Moscow dialect (unless otherwise noted). For an overview of dialects in the Russian language, see Russian dialects. Most descriptions of Russian describe it as having five vowel phonemes, though there is some dispute over whether a sixth vowel, {{IPAslink|ɨ}}, is separate from {{IPA|/i/}}. Russian has 34 consonants, which can be divided into two types: * ''hard'' ({{lang|ru|твёрдый}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-твёрдый.ogg|[ˈtvʲordɨj]}}) or ''plain'' * ''soft'' ({{lang|ru|мягкий}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-мягкий.ogg|[ˈmʲæxʲkʲɪj]|help=no}}) or ''palatalized''

Russian also distinguishes hard consonants from soft consonants and from consonant+{{IPA|/j/}} clusters, making four sets in total: {{IPA|/C Cʲ Cj Cʲj/}}, although {{IPA|/Cj/}} in native words appears only at morpheme boundaries ({{langx|ru|подъезд|pod-yezd|label=none}}, {{IPA|ru|pɐdˈjest|}} for example). Russian also preserves palatalized consonants that are followed by another consonant more often than other Slavic languages do. Like Polish, it has both hard postalveolars ({{IPA|/ʂ ʐ/}}) and soft ones ({{IPA|/tɕ ɕː/}} and marginally or dialectically {{IPA|/ʑː/}}).

Russian has vowel reduction in unstressed syllables. This feature also occurs in a minority of other Slavic languages like Belarusian and Bulgarian and is also found in English, but not in most other Slavic languages, such as Czech, Polish, most varieties of Serbo-Croatian, and Ukrainian.

==Vowels== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+Vowel phonemes |- ! ! Front !Central ! Back |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Close | style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|i}} | style="font-size:120%" | ({{IPA link|ɨ}}) | style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|u}} |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Mid | style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|e̞|e}} | | style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|o̞|o}} |- ! style="text-align: left;" | Open | style="font-size:120%" | | style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|ä|a}} | |}

thumb|Russian vowel chart by {{Harvcoltxt|Jones|Trofimov|1923|p=55}}. The symbol {{angbr IPA|i̝}} stands for a positional variant of {{IPA|/i/}} raised in comparison with the usual allophone of {{IPA|/i/}}, ''not'' a raised cardinal {{IPAblink|i}} which would result in a consonant.|left|class=skin-invert-image [[File:Russian stressed vowels F1 F2.png|thumb|Russian stressed vowel chart according to their formants and surrounding consonants, from {{Harvcoltxt|Timberlake|2004|pp=31, 38}}. C is hard (non-palatalized) consonant, Ç is soft (palatalized) consonant. This chart uses frequencies to represent the basic vowel triangle of the Russian language.|left|class=skin-invert-image]] Russian has five to six vowels in stressed syllables, {{IPA|/i, u, e, o, a/}} and in some analyses {{IPA|/ɨ/}}, but in most cases these vowels have merged to only two to four vowels when unstressed: {{IPA|/i, u, a/}} (or {{IPA|/ɨ, u, a/}}) after hard consonants and {{IPA|/i, u/}} after soft ones.

A long-standing dispute among linguists is whether Russian has five vowel phonemes or six; that is, scholars disagree as to whether {{IPA|[ɨ]}} constitutes an allophone of {{IPA|/i/}} or if there is an independent phoneme {{IPA|/ɨ/}}. The five-vowel analysis, taken up by the Moscow school, rests on the complementary distribution of {{IPA|[ɨ]}} and {{IPA|[i]}}, with the former occurring after hard (non-palatalized) consonants (e.g. {{lang|ru|жить}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жить.ogg|[ʐɨtʲ]|help=no}} 'to live', {{lang|ru|шип}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-шип.ogg|[ʂɨp]|help=no}} 'thorn, spine', {{lang|ru|цирк}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-цирк.ogg|[t͡sɨrk]|help=no}} 'circus', etc.) and {{IPA|[i]}} after soft (palatalized) consonants (e.g. {{lang|ru|щит}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-щит.ogg|[ɕːit]|help=no}} 'shield', {{lang|ru|чин}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-чин.ogg|[t͡ɕin]|help=no}} 'rank', etc.), at the word beginnings, and after vowels.<ref>In some cases the sound {{IPA|[i]}} after vowels may be regarded as a realization of the underlying phoneme sequence {{IPA|{{!}}ji{{!}}}}: {{lang|ru|бой}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-бой.ogg|[boj]|help=no}} 'battle', plural {{lang|ru|бои́}} {{IPA|[bʌˈi]}}.</ref> The allophony of the stressed variant of the open {{IPA|/a/}} is largely the same, yet no scholar considers {{IPAblink|ä}} and {{IPAblink|æ}} to be separate phonemes{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} (which they are in e.g. Slovak).

The five-vowel point of view is further supported by the following facts: * Some endings have {{IPA|[i]}} after soft consonants and {{IPA|[ɨ]}} after hard consonants, e. g. {{lang|ru|воды́}} {{IPA|[vɐˈdɨ]}} (gen. sg. of {{lang|ru|вода́}} {{IPA|[vɐˈda]}} 'water'), {{lang|ru|земли́}} {{IPA|[zʲɪˈmlʲi]}} (gen. sg. of {{lang|ru|земля́}} {{IPA|[zʲɪˈmlʲa]}} 'ground, land, earth'). Proto-Slavic *y could correspond to either *ę̇ or *i after palatals (see Proto-Slavic language); in Russian, the soft-stem counterpart of the hard-stem ending {{IPA|[ɨ]}} regularized to {{IPA|[i]}}. * When a word or morpheme (root or prefix) beginning with {{IPA|/i/}} is preceded by a hard consonant, {{IPA|/i/}} becomes {{IPA|[ɨ]}}: {{lang|ru|и́мя}} {{IPA|[ˈimʲə]}} 'name' — {{lang|ru|без и́мени}} {{IPA|[bʲɪz ˈɨmʲɪnʲɪ]}} 'without name' and {{lang|ru|безымя́нный}} {{IPA|[bʲɪzɨˈmʲanːɨj]}} 'nameless', {{lang|ru|история}} {{IPA|[ɪˈstorʲɪjə]}} 'history' — {{lang|ru|предыстория}} {{IPA|[prʲɪdɨˈstorʲɪjə]}} 'events preceding, events leading up, backstory, prehistory', исла́м {{IPA|[ɪsˈɫam]}} 'Islam' — панислами́зм [ˌpanɨsɫʌˈmʲizm], 'Pan-Islamism', изме́на {{IPA|[ɪˈzmʲenə]}} 'treason' — госизме́на {{IPA|[ˌɡosɨˈzmʲenə]}} 'high treason'. According to the current spelling rules standardized in 1956, the letter {{vr|ы}} is used instead of the morpheme-initial {{vr|и}} in words with Slavic prefixes (except меж- and сверх-) whereas words with non-Slavic prefixes and compound words conserve the morpheme-initial {{vr|и}} in the spelling. Pre-1956 spelling varied: whereas for common words such as {{lang|ru|подымать, взыскать, сыскной, розыгрыш}} the spelling with {{vr|ы}} was well established long ago, less common words such as {{lang|ru|предыдущий}} {{IPA|[prʲɪdɨˈduɕːɪj]}} 'previous' were often spelled with {{vr|ъи}} in the 19th century; however, Yakov Grot prescribed spelling them with {{vr|ы}}.<ref> Русское правописаніе. Руководство, составленное по порученію Второго отдѣленія Императорской академіи наукъ академикомъ Я. К. Гротомъ. Одиннадцатое изданіе. — Санктпетербургъ: Типографія императорской академіи наукъ, 1894. — С. 55.</ref> For even less common words, spelling practice varied between {{vr|ы}}, {{vr|ъи}}, and {{vr|и}} even in the first half of the 20th century.<ref>Н. А. Еськова. Графическая передача фонемы <и> в начале морфемы, не являющейся флексией или суффиксом, после твердой согласной предшествующей морфемы // О современной русской орфографии. М., 1964. С. 5–17.</ref>

The six-vowel view, held by the Saint-Petersburg (Leningrad) phonology school, points to several phenomena to make its case: * Native Russian speakers' ability to articulate {{IPA|[ɨ]}} in isolation: for example, in the names of the letters {{angbr|{{lang|ru|и}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|ru|ы}}}}.<ref>See, for example, {{Harvcoltxt|Ozhegov|1953|p=10}}; {{Harvcoltxt|Barkhudarov|Protchenko|Skvortsova|1987|p=9}}; {{Harvcoltxt|Chew|2003|p=61}}. The traditional name of {{angbr|ы}}, {{lang|ru|еры}} {{IPA|[jɪˈrɨ]}} ''yery''; since 1961 this name has been replaced from the Russian school practice (compare the 7th and 8th editions of the standard textbook of Russian for 5th and 6th grades: {{Harvcoltxt|Barkhudarov|Kryuchkov|1960|p=4}}, and {{Harvcoltxt|Barkhudarov|Kryuchkov|1961|p=20}}.</ref> * Rare instances of word-initial {{IPA|[ɨ]}}, including the minimal pair {{lang|ru|и́кать}} 'to produce the sound {{lang|ru|и}}' and {{lang|ru|ы́кать}} 'to produce the sound ы',{{Sfn|Chew|2003|p=61}} as well as borrowed names and toponyms, like {{lang|ru|Ыб}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-Ыб.ogg|[ɨp]}}, the name of a river and several villages in the Komi Republic. * Morphological alternations between non-palatalized consonants without any following vowel or before {{lang|ru|'''ы'''}} and palatalized consonants before {{lang|ru|'''и'''}}, like {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-готов.ogg|[ɡʌˈto'''f''']|help=no}} ('ready' adjective, masculine, short-form), {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''ый}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-готовый.ogg|[ɡʌˈto'''v'''ɨj]|help=no}} ('ready' adjective, masculine), and {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''ить}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-готовить.ogg|[ɡʌˈto'''vʲ'''ɪtʲ]|help=no}} ('to get ready; to prepare' verb, transitive), signifying that {{lang|ru|'''и'''}} palatalizes an inherently non-palatalized underlying consonant while {{lang|ru|'''ы'''}} does not.{{Sfn|Chew|2003|p=62}}

The different behaviour of the underlying combination "hard consonant+{{IPA|/i/}}" in prefix-root and root-suffix bounds can be explained historically. In Old East Slavic, words such as {{lang|orv|подъимати}} (from {{lang|orv|подъ}} 'under' + {{lang|orv|имати}} 'to take') had the extra-short vowel {{lang|orv|ъ}} before {{lang|orv|и}}; the combination {{lang|orv|ъи}} {{IPA|/ŭi/}} changed to {{IPA|[ɨ]}}, which is reflected in the modern Russian spelling {{lang|ru|подыма́ть}} {{IPA|[pədɨˈmatʲ]}} 'to lift' (although contemporary Russian prefers the form {{lang|ru|поднима́ть}} {{IPA|[pədnʲɪˈmatʲ]}} with the epenthetic {{IPA|[nʲ]}} from {{lang|ru|снима́ть}} {{IPA|[sʲnʲɪˈmatʲ]}} 'to take off', from Old East Slavic {{lang|orv|сън}} 'off' + {{lang|orv|имати}} 'to take' but reanalysed as {{lang|ru|с}} + {{lang|ru|нима́ть}}). The Old East Slavic prefixes ending in {{lang|orv|з}} ({{lang|orv|без-}}, {{lang|orv|въз-}}, etc.) did not have the final {{lang|orv|ъ}}, but in Modern Russian {{IPA|/i/}} after them becomes {{IPA|[ɨ]}} by analogy, except the verb {{lang|ru|взима́ть}} {{IPA|[vzʲɪˈmatʲ]}} 'to levy, to take monies'.

However, the alternations between hard and soft consonants occur not only when the soft consonant occurs before {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}, but also sometimes when the soft consonant occurs before {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/o/}} or without any following vowel (which is historically explained by origin of those vowels and vowel absence in Old East Slavic {{lang|orv|ѧ}}, {{lang|orv|е}}, and {{lang|orv|ь}}), which can lead to minimal pairs such as {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''а}} {{IPA|[ɡʌˈto'''v'''ə]}} ('ready' adjective, feminine, short-form) — {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''я}} {{IPA|[ɡʌˈto'''vʲ'''ə]}} ('getting ready; preparing', adverbial participle), {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-готов.ogg|[ɡʌˈto'''f''']|help=no}} ('ready' adjective, masculine, short-form) — {{lang|ru|гото́'''вь'''}} {{IPA|[ɡʌˈto'''fʲ''']}} ('get ready; prepare', imperative). No matter whether the five-vowel or six-vowel point of view is used, the phonological explanation of those alternations requires either a separate "palatalization phoneme" or palatalization as a phoneme alternation occurring before particular morphemes (including null morphemes). Hence, the difference between {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''ый}} and {{lang|ru|гото́'''в'''ить}} can be explained using the five-vowel point of view.

The most popular view among linguists (and the one taken up in this article) is that of the Moscow school,{{Sfn|Chew|2003|p=61}} though Russian pedagogy has typically taught that there are six ''vowels'' (the term ''phoneme'' is not used).<ref>See, for example, {{Harvcoltxt|Shcherba|1950|p=15}}; {{Harvcoltxt|Matiychenko|1950|pp=40–41}}; {{Harvcoltxt|Zemsky|Svetlayev|Kriuchkov|1971|p=63}}; {{Harvcoltxt|Kuznetsov|Ryzhakov|2007|p=6}}</ref>

Reconstructions of Proto-Slavic show that {{lang|sla|*i}} and {{lang|sla|*y}} (which correspond to {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[ɨ]}}) were separate phonemes. On the other hand, after the first palatalization, Old East Slavic *''i'' and *''y'' contrasted only after alveolars and labials: after palatals only *''i'' occurred, and after velars only *''y'' occurred. With the development of phonemic palatalized alveolars and labials, *''i'' and *''y'' no longer contrasted in any environment and were reinterpreted as allophones of each other, becoming a single phoneme /i/. Even so, this reinterpretation entailed no mergers and no change in the pronunciation. Subsequently, sometime between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries, the allophone of /i/ occurring after a velar consonant changed from [ɨ] to [i] with subsequent palatalization of the velar, turning old Russian {{lang|orv|хытрыи}} {{IPA|[ˈxɨtrɨj]}} into modern {{lang|ru|хитрый}} {{IPA|[ˈxʲitrɨj]}} and old {{lang|orv|гыбкыи}} {{IPA|[ˈɡɨpkɨj]}} into modern {{lang|ru|гибкий}} {{IPA|[ˈɡʲipkʲij]}}.{{sfn|Padgett|2003a|p=39}}

=== Allophony === {| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;" |+ A quick index of vowel pronunciation |- style="font-size: small;" ! Phoneme ! Letter (typically) ! Phonemic position ! Stressed ! Reduced |- | rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/i/}} | {{lang|ru|ы}}, {{lang|ru|и}}{{asterisk}}|| {{IPA|Ci}} || {{IPAblink|ɨ}}|| {{IPAblink|ɨ̞}} |- | {{lang|ru|и}} || {{IPA|(Cʲ)i}} || {{IPAblink|i}}|| {{IPAblink|ɪ}} |- | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/e/}} || rowspan="2" | {{lang|ru|э}}, {{lang|ru|е}}{{dag}} || {{IPA|(C)e(C)}} || {{IPAblink|ɛ}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPAblink|ɨ̞}} |- | {{IPA|(C)eCʲ}} || {{IPAblink|e}} |- | {{lang|ru|е}} || {{IPA|Cʲe}} | {{IPAblink|e}}|| {{IPAblink|ɪ}} |- | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/a/}} | {{lang|ru|а}} || {{IPA|(C)a}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}}, {{IPAblink|ə}} |- | rowspan="2" | {{lang|ru|я}} || {{IPA|Cʲa(C)}} || {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, {{IPAblink|ə}} |- | {{IPA|CʲaCʲ}} || {{IPAblink|æ}} || {{IPAblink|ɪ}} |- | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/o/}} | {{lang|ru|о}}{{asterisk}}{{asterisk}} || rowspan="1" | {{IPA|(C)o}} || {{IPAblink|o}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}}, {{IPAblink|ə}} |- | {{lang|ru|ё}}, {{lang|ru|е}}{{ddag}} || {{IPA|Cʲo}} || {{IPAblink|ɵ}} || {{IPAblink|ɪ}} |- | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/u/}} | {{lang|ru|у}} || {{IPA|(C)u}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPAblink|u}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPAblink|ʊ}} |- | rowspan="2" | {{lang|ru|ю}} || {{IPA|Cʲu(C)}} |- | {{IPA|CʲuCʲ}} || {{IPAblink|ʉ}} | {{IPAblink|ʉ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: left;" | : "C" represents a hard consonant only. : "(C)" represents a hard consonant, a vowel, or an utterance boundary. : "Cʲ" represents a soft consonant. : {{asterisk}} {{angbr|и}} is used after unpaired hard consonants ({{angbr|ж}}, {{angbr|ш}}, and {{angbr|ц}}, although some words are spelled with {{angbr|цы}}) and on the root onset after a consonant-ending loaned (usually Latin or Greek) prefix (e.g. {{lang|ru|супер'''и'''гра}} {{IPA|[ˌsupʲɪrɨˈɡra]}}). : {{dag}} {{angbr|е}} is used after unpaired hard consonants ({{angbr|ж}}, {{angbr|ш}}, and {{angbr|ц}}) and after paired hard consonants in many loanwords; {{angbr|э}} is mostly used word-initially and after vowels. : {{asterisk}}{{asterisk}} Sometimes spelled {{angbr|ё}} after {{angbr|ж}} and {{angbr|ш}}. Reduced /o/ after {{angbr|ж}} and {{angbr|ш}} is written as {{angbr|е}} (except in loanwords) and is mostly pronounced the same as reduced /e/. : {{ddag}} Reduced {{angbr|ё}} is written as {{angbr|е}}, except in loanwords. |} Russian vowels are subject to considerable allophony, subject to both stress and the palatalization of neighboring consonants. In most unstressed positions, in fact, only three phonemes are distinguished after hard consonants, and only two after soft consonants. Unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} have merged to {{IPA|/a/}} (a phenomenon known as {{langx|ru|а́канье|ákan'je}}); unstressed {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} have merged to {{IPA|/i/}} ({{langx|ru|и́канье|íkan'je}}); and all four unstressed vowels have merged after soft consonants, except in the absolute final position in a word. None of these mergers are represented in writing.

==== Front vowels ==== When a preceding consonant is ''hard'', {{IPA|/i/}} is retracted to {{IPAblink|ɨ}}. Formant studies in {{Harvcoltxt|Padgett|2001}} demonstrate that {{IPAblink|ɨ}} is better characterized as slightly diphthongized from the velarization of the preceding consonant,{{refn|Thus, {{IPA|/ɨ/}} is pronounced something like {{IPA|[ˠi]}}{{sfnp|Padgett|2003b|p=321}}}} implying that a phonological pattern of using velarization to enhance perceptual distinctiveness between hard and soft consonants is strongest before {{IPA|/i/}}. When unstressed, {{IPA|/i/}} becomes near-close; that is, {{IPAblink|ɨ̞}} following a hard consonant and {{IPAblink|ɪ}} in most other environments.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|pp=37–38}} Between soft consonants, stressed {{IPA|/i/}} is raised,{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=31}} as in {{lang|ru|пить}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-пить.ogg|[pʲi̝tʲ]}} ('to drink'). When preceded ''and'' followed by coronal or dorsal consonants, {{IPAblink|ɨ}} is fronted to {{IPA|[ɨ̟]}}.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=33}} After a cluster of a labial and {{IPA|/ɫ/}}, {{IPAblink|ɨ}} is retracted, as in {{lang|ru|плыть}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-плыть.ogg|[pɫɨ̠tʲ]|help=no}} ('to float'); it is also slightly diphthongized to {{IPA|[ɯ̟ɨ̟]}}.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=33}}

In native words, {{IPA|/e/}} only follows unpaired (i.e. the retroflexes and {{IPA|/ts/}}) and soft consonants. After soft consonants (but not before), it is a mid vowel {{IPAblink|ɛ̝}} (hereafter represented without the diacritic, for simplicity), while a following soft consonant raises it to close-mid {{IPAblink|e}}. Another allophone, an open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, occurs word-initially and between hard consonants.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|pp=41–44}} Preceding hard consonants retract {{IPA|/e/}} to {{IPA|[ɛ̠]}} and {{IPA|[e̠]}}{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=193}} so that {{lang|ru|жест}} ('gesture') and {{lang|ru|цель}} ('target') are pronounced {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жест.ogg|[ʐɛ̠st]|help=no}} and {{Audio-IPA|Ru-цель.ogg|[tse̠lʲ]|help=no}} respectively.

In words borrowed from other languages, {{IPA|/e/}} often follows hard consonants; this foreign pronunciation usually persists in Russian for many years until the word is more fully adopted into Russian.{{sfn|Halle|1959|p=63}} For instance, {{lang|ru|шофёр}} (from French ''chauffeur'') was pronounced {{Audio-IPA|Ru-шофёр (20th cent).ogg|[ʂoˈfɛr]|help=no}} in the early twentieth century,<ref>As in Igor Severyanin's poem, [http://poetrylibrary.ru/stixiya/severyanin-1.html {{lang|ru|Сегодня не приду}} . . .]</ref> but is now pronounced {{Audio-IPA|Ru-шофёр.ogg|[ʂʌˈfʲɵr]|help=no}}. On the other hand, the pronunciations of words such as {{lang|ru|отель}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-отель.ogg|[ʌˈtelʲ]|help=no}} ('hotel') retain the hard consonants despite a long presence in the language.

==== Back vowels ==== Source:<ref name=":0" />

Between soft consonants, {{IPA|/a/}} becomes {{IPAblink|æ}},{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=50}} as in {{lang|ru|пять}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-пять.ogg|[pʲætʲ]}} ('five'). When not following a soft consonant, {{IPA|/a/}} is retracted to {{IPAblink|ɑ|ɑ̟}} before /ɫ/ as in {{lang|ru|палка}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-палка.ogg|[ˈpɑ̟ɫkə]|help=no}} ('stick').{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=50}}

For most speakers, {{IPA|/o/}} is a mid vowel {{IPAblink|o̞}}, but it can be a more open {{IPAblink|ɔ}} for some speakers.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=56}} Following a soft consonant, {{IPA|/o/}} is centralized and raised to {{IPAblink|ɵ}} as in {{lang|ru|тётя}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-тётя.ogg|[ˈtʲɵtʲə]|help=no}} ('aunt').{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=62}}{{sfn|Halle|1959|p=166}} More recently (2015) {{IPA|/o/}} has been described as "a diphthongoid, with a closer lip rounding at the beginning of the vowel that gets progressively weaker [ʊo] or even [ʊɔʌ], particularly when occurring word-initially or word-finally under the stress".{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015}} This phenomenon does not seem to be a recent development because the diphthongal nature of /o/ under stress has already been described in 1969.<ref name=":1" />

As with the other back vowels, {{IPA|/u/}} is centralized to {{IPAblink|ʉ}} between soft consonants, as in {{lang|ru|чуть}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-чуть.ogg|[tɕʉtʲ]|help=no}} ('barely, slightly'). When unstressed, {{IPA|/u/}} becomes near-close; central {{IPAblink|ʉ̞}} between soft consonants, centralized back {{IPAblink|ʊ}} in other positions.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|pp=67–69}}

==== Unstressed vowels ==== {{Main|Vowel reduction in Russian}}

Russian unstressed vowels have lower intensity and lower energy. They are typically shorter than stressed vowels, and {{IPA|/a e o i/}} in most unstressed positions tend to undergo mergers for most dialects:{{sfn|Crosswhite|2000|p=112}} * {{IPA|/o/}} has merged with {{IPA|/a/}}: for instance, {{lang|ru|валы́}} 'bulwarks' and {{lang|ru|волы́}} 'oxen' are both pronounced {{IPA|/vaˈɫi/}} (phonetically {{Audio-IPA|Ru-валы.ogg|[vʌˈɫɨ]|help=no}}). * {{IPA|/e/}} has merged with {{IPA|/i/}}: for instance, {{lang|ru|лиса́}} (''lisá'') 'vixen' and {{lang|ru|леса́}} 'fishing line' are both pronounced {{IPA|/lʲiˈsa/}} (phonetically {{Audio-IPA|Ru-лиса.ogg|[lʲɪˈsa]|help=no}}); however, {{lang|ru|ли́сы}} (''lísy'') 'vixens' is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈlʲisɨ/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ˈlʲisɨ]}}) while {{lang|ru|ле́сы}} (''lésy'') 'fishing-lines' is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈlʲesɨ/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ˈlʲesɨ]}}). * {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}{{#tag:ref|{{IPA|/o/}} has merged with {{IPA|/i/}} if words such as {{wikt-lang|ru|тепло́}} {{IPA|/tʲiˈpɫo/}} 'heat' are analyzed as having the same morphophonemes as related words such as {{wikt-lang|ru|тёплый}} {{IPA|/ˈtʲopɫij/}} 'warm', meaning that both of them have the stem {{IPA|{{!}}tʲopl-{{!}}}}. Alternatively, they can be analyzed as having two different morphophonemes, {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}} and {{IPA|{{!}}e{{!}}}}: {{IPA|{{!}}tʲopɫ-{{!}}}} vs. {{IPA|{{!}}tʲepɫ-{{!}}}} (compare {{wikt-lang|ru|те́плиться}} {{IPA|[ˈtʲeplʲɪt͡sə]}} 'to glimmer, to gleam'). In that analysis, {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}} does not occur in {{wikt-lang|ru|тепло́}}, so {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}} does not merge with {{IPA|{{!}}i{{!}}}}. Historically, the {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}} developed from {{IPA|{{!}}e{{!}}}}: see {{section link|History of the Russian language|The yo vowel}}.}} have merged with {{IPA|/i/}} after soft consonants: for instance, {{wikt-lang|ru|ме́сяц}} (''mésjats'') 'month' is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈmʲesʲits/}}, phonetically {{audio-IPA|Ru-месяц.ogg|[ˈmʲesʲɪts]|help=no}}.

The merger of unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} in particular is less universal in the pretonic (pre-accented) position than that of unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/a/}}. For example, speakers of some rural dialects as well as the "Old Petersburgian" pronunciation may have the latter but not the former merger, distinguishing between {{lang|ru|лиса́}} {{IPA|[lʲɪˈsa]}} and {{lang|ru|леса́}} {{IPA|[lʲɘˈsa]}}, but not between {{lang|ru|валы́}} and {{lang|ru|волы́}} (both {{IPA|[vʌˈɫɨ]}}). The distinction in some ''loanwords'' between unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}}, or {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} is codified in some pronunciation dictionaries ({{Harvcoltxt|Avanesov|1985|p=663}}, {{Harvcoltxt|Zarva|1993|p=15}}), for example, {{lang|ru|фо́рте}} {{IPA|[ˈfortɛ]}} and {{lang|ru|ве́то}} {{IPA|[ˈvʲeto]}}.

Unstressed vowels (except {{IPA|/o/}}) are preserved word-finally, for example in second-person plural or formal verb forms with the ending {{lang|ru|-те}}, such as {{wikt-lang|ru|де́лаете}} ("you do") {{IPA|/ˈdʲeɫajitʲe/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[ˈdʲeɫə(j)ɪtʲe]}}). The same applies for vowels starting a word.<ref name="Sobrinho" />

As a result, in most unstressed positions, only three vowel phonemes are distinguished after hard consonants ({{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/a ~ o/}}, and {{IPA|/e ~ i/}}), and only two after soft consonants ({{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/a ~ o ~ e ~ i/}}). For the most part, Russian orthography (as opposed to that of the closely related Belarusian) does ''not'' reflect vowel reduction. This can be seen in, for examples: * Russian {{wikt-lang|ru|село|с'''е'''ло́}} {{IPA|[s'''ʲɪ'''ˈɫo]}} "village" and {{lang|ru|с'''ё'''лa}} {{IPA|[ˈs'''ʲɵ'''ɫə]}} "villages" — cf. Belarusian {{wikt-lang|be|сяло|с'''я'''ло́}} {{IPA|[sʲaˈɫo]}} and {{lang|be|с'''ё'''лы}} {{IPA|[ˈsʲoɫɨ]}}. Russian unstressed {{lang|ru|ё}} {{IPA|{{!}}ʲo{{!}}}} (which is reduced to {{IPA|[ʲɪ]}}) is written as if it were {{IPA|/ʲe/}}, ⟨e⟩, while Belarusian unstressed {{lang|be|ё}} {{IPA|{{!}}ʲo{{!}}}} (which is reduced to {{IPA|[ʲa]}}) is transparently written as ⟨я⟩. * Russian {{wikt-lang|ru|к'''о'''т}} {{IPA|[k'''o'''t]}} "tomcat" and {{wikt-lang|ru|к'''о'''ты́}} {{IPA|[k'''ɐ'''ˈtɨ]}} "tomcats" — cf. Belarusian {{wikt-lang|be|к'''о'''т}} {{IPA|[k'''o'''t]}} and {{wikt-lang|be|к'''а'''ты́}} {{IPA|[k'''a'''ˈtɨ]}}. Russian unstressed morphophonemic {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}} (which is reduced to {{IPA|[ɐ]}}) is written as if it were still {{IPA|/o/}}, ⟨о⟩, while Belarusian unstressed morphophonemic {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}} (which is reduced to a {{IPA|[a]}}) is transparently written as ⟨а⟩. ** There exist some exceptional Russian words whose original {{angbr|o}} (from ancestral *''o'') was and is never stressed across the words' entire inflectional paradigms and thus pronounced {{IPA|[ɐ]}} or {{IPA|[ə]}} (depending on its position), and then is rewritten as {{angbr|a}} (as if it were morphophonemic {{IPA|{{!}}a{{!}}}}); for instances: *** {{lang|ru|паро́м}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-паром.ogg|[pɐˈrom]}} ('ferry'), which is from Proto-Slavic ''{{lang|sla-x-proto|*pormъ}}'';<ref name = "WB">{{cite encyclopedia|last= Boryś|first= Wiesław|year= 2005|title= Proto-Slavic/pormъ|encyclopedia= Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego|trans-encyclopedia= Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language|lang= pl|location= Kraków|publisher= Wydawnictwo Literackie|page= 483}}</ref><ref name = "MV">{{cite book|last= Vasmer|first= Max|author-link= Max Vasmer|translator= Oleg Trubachyov|title= Этимологический словарь русского языка|trans-title= Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language|lang= ru|year=1964–1973|volume=3|pages= [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/response.cgi?basename=\data\ie\vasmer&text_word=%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC&method_word=beginning&ww_word=on 208], [https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/response.cgi?basename=\data\ie\vasmer&text_word=%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC&method_word=beginning&ww_word=on 331-332]|location= Moscow|publisher= Progress}}</ref> *** {{lang|ru|карава́й}} [kərɐˈvaj] ('korovai'), which is from PSl. ''{{lang|sla-x-proto|*korvajь}}'' <ref name = "OT">{{cite book|editor= Oleg Trubachyov|year= 1984|entry= *korvajь|title= Этимологический словарь славянских языков|trans-title= Etymological Dictionary of Slavic Languages|lang= ru|volume= 11|location= Moscow|publisher= Nauka|url= https://archive.org/details/ESSJa/ESSJa_11/page/112/mode/1up?view=theater}}</ref> etc. ** Spelling those words with ⟨а⟩ was already common in the 18th century, but it co-existed with the spelling with ⟨о⟩ ({{lang|ru|пором, коровай}}), conforming to etymology of those words. Dictionaries often gave both spellings. Finally the spelling of those words with ⟨а⟩ was set by the 1956 orthographic codification (orthographic rules and spelling dictionary), based on the spread of usage.

===== Vowel mergers ===== In terms of actual pronunciation, there are at least two different levels of vowel reduction: vowels are less reduced when a syllable immediately precedes the stressed one, and more reduced in other positions.{{Sfn|Avanesov|1975|p=105-106}} This is particularly visible in the realization of unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/a/}}, where a less-reduced allophone {{IPAblink|ʌ}} appears alongside a more-reduced allophone {{IPAblink|ə}}.

The pronunciation of unstressed {{IPA|/o ~ a/}} is as follows:

# {{IPAblink|ʌ}} (sometimes transcribed as {{IPAblink|ɐ}}; the latter is phonetically correct for the standard Moscow pronunciation, whereas the former is phonetically correct for the standard Saint Petersburg pronunciation;<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=225}}</ref> this article uses only the symbol {{IPAblink|ʌ}}) appears in the following positions: #* In the syllable immediately before the stress, when a hard consonant precedes:{{sfn|Padgett|Tabain|2005|p=16}} e.g. {{lang|ru|наро́д}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-народ.ogg|[nʌˈrot]}} ('people, nation'), {{lang|ru|моро́з}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-мороз.ogg|[mʌˈros]|help= no}} ('frost'), {{lang|ru|дрова́}} {{Audio-IPA|LL-Q7737 (rus)-Rominf-дрова.wav|[drʌˈva]}} ('firewood'), and {{lang|ru|трава́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-трава.ogg|[trʌˈva]|help=no}} ('grass'). #* In absolute word-initial position:{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=51}} e.g. {{lang|ru|'''а'''ванга́рд}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-авангард.ogg|['''ʌ'''vʌnˈɡart]}} ('vanguard'), {{lang|ru|'''о'''горо́д}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-огород.ogg|['''ʌ'''gʌˈrot]}} ('kitchen garden'). #* In hiatus, when the vowel occurs twice without a consonant between; this is written {{angbr|aa}}, {{angbr|ao}}, {{angbr|oa}}, or {{angbr|oo}}:{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=51}} {{lang|ru|сообража́ть}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-соображать.ogg|[sʌʌbrʌˈʐatʲ]|help=no}} ('to use common sense, to reason'). # {{IPAblink|ə}} appears elsewhere, when a hard consonant precedes: {{lang|ru|о́блако}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-облако.ogg|[ˈobɫəkə]|help=no}} ('cloud'), {{lang|ru|я́года}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ягода.ogg|[ˈjaɡədə]|help=no}} ('berry'). #* In absolute word-final position, {{IPAblink|ʌ}} may occur instead, especially at the end of a syntagma.<ref>С. В. Князев, С. К. Пожарицкая. Современный русский литературный язык. Фонетика, графика, орфография, орфоэпия. Москва, 2005. P. 184.</ref> # When a soft consonant or {{IPA|/j/}} precedes, both {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/a/}} merge with {{IPA|/i/}} and are pronounced as {{IPAblink|ɪ}}. Example: {{lang|ru|язы́к}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-язык.ogg|[jɪˈzɨk]}} ('tongue'), {{lang|ru|ежи́}} {{Audio-IPA|LL-Q7737 (rus)-Lvova-ежи.wav|[jɪˈʐɨ]|help=no}} ('hedgehogs') ({{IPA|/o/}} is written as {{angbr|e}} in these positions; compare {{lang|ru|ёж}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ёж.ogg|[ˈjoʂ]|help=no}} 'hedgehog'). #* This merger also tends to occur after formerly soft consonants now pronounced hard ({{IPA|/ʐ/}}, {{IPA|/ʂ/}}, {{IPA|/ts/}}),{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=194}} where the pronunciation {{IPAblink|ɨ̞}}{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=38}} occurs; e.g. {{lang|ru|шевели́ть}} {{IPA|[ʂɨvʲɪˈlʲitʲ]}} 'to stir ~ to move ~ to bulge'. This always occurs when the spelling uses the soft vowel variants, e.g. {{lang|ru|жена́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жена.ogg|[ʐɨ̞ˈna]}} ('wife') vs. {{lang|ru|жёны}} {{IPA|[ˈʐonɨ]}} ('wives') (but {{lang|ru|шок}} {{IPA|[ˈʂok]}} 'shock (n.)' vs. {{lang|ru|шоки́ровать}} {{IPA|[ʂɐˈkʲirəvətʲ]}} 'to shock (v.)'; unstressed spellings {{vr|жо}}, {{vr|шо}} are used only in loanwords). However, {{IPAblink|ɨ̞}} also occurs in a few word roots where the spelling writes a hard {{IPA|/a/}}.{{Sfn|Avanesov|1985|p=663}}{{Sfn|Zarva|1993|p=13}} Examples: #** {{lang|ru|жаль}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жаль.ogg|[ʐalʲ]|help=no}} 'regret', whence {{lang|ru|жале́ть}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жалеть.ogg|[ʐɨ̞ˈlʲetʲ]|help=no}} ('to regret'), к сожале́нию {{Audio-IPA|Ru-к сожалению.ogg|[ksəʐɨ̞ˈlʲenʲɪju]|help=no}} ('unfortunately'). #** {{lang|ru|ло́шадь}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-лошадь.ogg|[ˈɫoʂətʲ]|help=no}} ~ {{IPA|[ˈɫoʂɨtʲ]}}{{example needed|date=April 2025}} ('horse [sg. nom. & acc.]'), whence {{lang|ru|лошаде́й}}, {{Audio-IPA|Ru-лошадей.ogg|[ɫəʂɨ̞ˈdʲej]|help=no}} ('horses' [pl. gen. & acc.]'). #** {{lang|ru|-дцать-}} in numbers: e.g. {{lang|ru|двадцати́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-двадцати.ogg|[dvətsɨ̞ˈtʲi]|help=no}} ('twenty [gen., dat., prep.]'), {{lang|ru|тридцатью́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-тридцатью.ogg|[trʲɪtsɨˈtʲju]|help=no}} ('thirty [instr.]'). #** {{lang|ru|ржано́й}} {{IPA|[rʐɨ̞ˈnoj]}}{{example needed|date=April 2025}} ~ {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ржаной.ogg|[rʐɐˈnoj]|help=no}} ('rye [adj. m. nom.]'). #** {{lang|ru|жасми́н}} {{IPA|[ʐɨ̞ˈsmʲin]}}{{example needed|date=April 2025}} ~ {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жасмин.ogg|[ʐɐˈsmʲin]|help=no}} ('jasmine [n. sg. nom. & acc.]'). #* After those now-hardened formerly-soft consonants ({{IPA|/ʐ/}}, {{IPA|/ʂ/}}, {{IPA|/ts/}}) and in word-final position, unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} and unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} (the latter written as {{angbr|e}}) merge and are pronounced {{IPAblink|ə}},{{cn|date= May 2025}} as in: #** {{lang|ru|пыльц'''а́'''}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-пыльца.ogg|[pɨlʲˈt͡s'''a''']}} ('pollen') vs. {{lang|ru|уби́йц'''а'''}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-убийца.ogg|[ʊˈbʲijt͡s'''ə''']}} ('murderer, assassin'), #** {{lang|ru|строжа́йш'''е'''}} {{IPA|[ˈstrɐˈʐajʂ'''ə''']}} ('most strictly', adv.) vs. {{lang|ru|хорош'''о́'''}} {{Audio|Ru-хорошо.ogg|[xərɐˈʂ'''o''']}} ('good', neut. predic. or 'well', adv.), #** {{lang|ru|похо́ж'''е'''}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-похоже.ogg|[pɐˈxoʐ'''ə''']}} ('similar(ly)', neut. predic. or adv.), vs. {{lang|ru|свеж'''о́'''}} {{IPA|[svʲɪˈʐo]}} ('fresh(ly)', neut. predic. or adv.), and #** {{lang|ru|де́ревц'''е'''}} {{IPA|[ˈdʲerʲɪft͡s'''ə''']}} ('sapling, small tree') vs. its synonym {{lang|ru|деревц'''о́'''}} {{IPA|[dʲɪrʲɪfˈt͡s'''o''']}}. #** Yet word-final unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} after {{IPA|/ʐ/}}, {{IPA|/ʂ/}}, and {{IPA|/t͡s/}} is also pronounced {{IPA|[ɨ]}} by some speakers:{{cn|date= May 2025}} e.g. {{lang|ru|строжа́йш'''е'''}} {{IPA|[ˈstrɐˈʐajʂ'''ɨ''']}}{{example needed|date=June 2025}} {{lang|ru|похо́ж'''е'''}} {{IPA|[pɐˈxoʐ'''ɨ''']}},{{example needed|date=June 2025}} {{lang|ru|корытц'''е'''}} {{IPA|[kərʲɪt͡sː'''ɨ''']}} "trough, washing tub (diminutive) (nom. sg.)" (as it rhymes with {{lang|ru|води́ц'''ы'''}} {{IPA|[vɐˈdʲit͡s'''ɨ''']}} "water (dim.) (gen. sg.)" in the song {{lang|ru|Цыплята}} "the little chickens"<ref>{{cite web |last= Филиппенко|first= A.|last2= Волгина|first2= T.|title= Цыплята |url= https://notarhiv.ru/detskie/stranizi10/Cyplyata.html |website= notarhiv.ru|publisher= |access-date= 2026-04-23}}</ref>). #These processes occur even across word boundaries as in {{lang|ru|под морем}} {{IPA|[pʌd‿ˈmorʲɪm]}} ('under the sea').

The pronunciation of unstressed {{IPA|/e ~ i/}} is {{IPAblink|ɪ}} after soft consonants and {{IPA|/j/}}, and word-initially ({{lang|ru|эта́п}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-этап.ogg|[ɪˈtap]|help=no}} ('stage'); {{lang|ru|икра́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-икра.ogg|[ɪˈkra]|help=no}} ('roe'); {{lang|ru|исто́рия}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-история.ogg|[ɪˈstorʲɪjə]|help=no}}; {{lang|ru|диви́ть}} {{IPA|[dʲɪˈvʲitʲ]}} ('to surprise'), etc.), but {{IPAblink|ɨ̞}} after hard consonants ({{lang|ru|дыша́ть}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-дышать.ogg|[dɨ̞ˈʂatʲ]|help=no}} ('to breathe'); {{lang|ru|предыстория}} {{IPA|[prʲɪdɨˈstorʲɪjə]}} (pre-1918 spelling: {{lang|ru|предъисторія}})).

There are a number of exceptions to the above vowel-reduction rules: * Vowels may not merge in foreign borrowings,{{Sfn|Avanesov|1985|p=663-666}}{{Sfn|Zarva|1993|p=12-17}}{{sfn|Halle|1959}} particularly with unusual or recently borrowed words such as {{lang|ru|ра́дио}}, {{Audio-IPA|Ru-радио.ogg|[ˈradʲɪo]}} 'radio'. In such words, unstressed {{IPA|/a/}} may be pronounced as {{IPAblink|ʌ}}, regardless of context; unstressed {{IPA|/e/}} does not merge with {{IPA|/i/}} in initial position or after vowels, so word pairs like {{lang|ru|эмигра́нт}} and {{lang|ru|иммигра́нт}}, or {{lang|ru|эмити́ровать}} and {{lang|ru|имити́ровать}}, differ in pronunciation.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} *Across certain word-final inflections, the reductions do not completely apply. For example, after soft or unpaired consonants, unstressed {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} of a final syllable may be distinguished from each other.{{Sfn|Avanesov|1975|p=121-125}}{{Sfn|Avanesov|1985|p=666}} For example, {{lang|ru|жи́тели}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жители.ogg|[ˈʐɨtʲɪlʲɪ]|help=no}} ('residents') contrasts with both {{lang|ru|(о) жи́теле}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-о жителе.ogg|[(ʌ) ˈʐɨtʲɪlʲɪ̞]|help=no}} ('[about] a resident') and {{lang|ru|жи́теля}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жителя.ogg|[ˈʐɨtʲɪlʲə]|help=no}} ('(of) a resident'). Also, {{lang|ru|хо́дит}} {{IPA|[ˈxodʲɪt]}} ('he goes') and {{lang|ru|хо́дят}} {{IPA|[ˈxodʲət]}} ('they go').<ref>Moscow pronunciation of the first half of the 20th century merged unstressed endings of the 1st and 2nd conjugations: {{lang|ru|хо́дят}} {{IPA|[ˈxodʲʊt]}} (as if spelled *{{lang|ru|хо́дют}}). See Ushakov Dictionary, vol. 1 (1935), column XXXIV. Nowadays such pronunciation is rare and often perceived as nonstandard. See {{cite book|last=Аванесов|first=Р. И.|title=Русское литературное произношение|year=1984|publisher=Просвещение|location=М.|pages=200–203}}</ref> *If the vowel {{angbr|o}} belongs to the conjunctions {{lang|ru|но}} ('but') or {{lang|ru|то}} ('then'), it is not reduced, even when unstressed.{{Sfn|Zarva|1993|p=16}}

===== Other changes ===== Unstressed {{IPA|/u/}} is generally pronounced as a lax (or near-close) {{IPAblink|ʊ}}, e.g. {{lang|ru|мужчи́на}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-мужчина.ogg|[mʊˈɕːinə]}} ('man'). Between soft consonants, it becomes centralized to {{IPAblink|ʉ̞}}, as in {{lang|ru|юти́ться}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ютиться.ogg|[jʉ̞ˈtʲitsə]|help=no}} ('to huddle').

Note a spelling irregularity in {{IPA|/s/}} of the reflexive suffix {{lang|ru|-ся}}: with a preceding {{lang|ru|-т-}} in third-person present and a {{lang|ru|-ть-}} in infinitive, it is pronounced as {{IPA|[tsə]}}, i.e. hard instead of with its soft counterpart, since {{IPA|[ts]}}, normally spelled with {{angbr|ц}}, is traditionally always hard.<ref>However, in imperatives ending in {{lang|ru|-ть-}} or {{lang|ru|-дь-}} plus {{lang|ru|-ся}}, the {{lang|ru|-ть-}} or {{lang|ru|-дь-}} remains soft in the pronunciation: {{lang|ru|пя́ться}} {{IPA|[ˈpʲætʲs⁽ʲ⁾ə]}}, imperative of {{lang|ru|пя́титься}} {{IPA|[ˈpʲætʲɪt͡sə]}} 'to move back'. </ref> In other forms both pronunciations {{IPA|[sə]}} and {{IPA|[sʲə]}} (or {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[sʲ]}} after vowels, spelled {{lang|ru|-сь}}) alternate for a speaker with some usual form-dependent preferences: in the outdated dialects, reflexive imperative verbs (such as {{lang|ru|бо́йся}}, lit. "be afraid yourself") may be pronounced with {{IPA|[sə]}} instead of modern (and phonetically consistent) {{IPA|[sʲə]}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wade|first=Terence Leslie Brian|title=A Comprehensive Russian Grammar|year=2010|page=10|isbn=978-1-4051-3639-6|edition=3rd|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Аванесов|first=Р. И.|title=Русское литературное произношение|year=1984|publisher=Просвещение|location=М.|pages=205–207}}</ref> In adverbial participles ending on {{lang|ru|-я́сь}} or {{lang|ru|-а́сь}} (with a stressed suffix), books on Russian standard pronunciation prescribe {{IPA|[sʲ]}} as the only correct variant.<ref>{{cite book|last=Аванесов|first=Р. И.|title=Русское литературное произношение|year=1984|publisher=Просвещение|location=М.|pages=205}}</ref><ref>С. В. Князев, С. К. Пожарицкая. Современный русский литературный язык. Фонетика, графика, орфография, орфоэпия. Москва, 2005. P. 240.</ref>

In weakly stressed positions, vowels may become voiceless between two voiceless consonants: {{lang|ru|вы́ставка}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-выставка.ogg|[ˈvɨstə̥fkə]|help=no}} ('exhibition'), {{lang|ru|потому́ что}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-потому что.ogg|[pə̥tʌˈmu ʂtə]|help=no}} ('because'). This may also happen in cases where only the following consonant is voiceless: {{lang|ru|че́реп}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-череп.ogg|[ˈtɕerʲɪ̥p]|help=no}} ('skull').

===== Phonemic analysis ===== Because of mergers of different phonemes in unstressed position, the assignment of a particular phone to a phoneme requires phonological analysis. There have been different approaches to this problem:{{Sfn|Avanesov|1975|p=37-40}}

*The Saint Petersburg phonology school assigns allophones to particular phonemes. For example, any {{IPAblink|ʌ}} is considered as a realization of {{IPA|/a/}}. *The Moscow phonology school uses an analysis with morphophonemes ({{lang|ru|морфоне́мы}}, singular {{lang|ru|морфоне́ма}}). It treats a given unstressed allophone as belonging to a particular morphophoneme depending on morphological alternations. For example, {{IPAblink|ʌ}} is analyzed as either {{IPA|{{!}}a{{!}}}} or {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}}. To make a determination, one must seek out instances where an unstressed morpheme containing {{IPAblink|ʌ}} in one word is stressed in another word. Thus, because the word {{wikt-lang|ru|валы́}} {{IPA|[vʌˈɫɨ]}} ('shafts') shows an alternation with {{wikt-lang|ru|вал}} {{IPA|[vaɫ]}} ('shaft'), this instance of {{IPA|[ʌ]}} belongs to the morphophoneme {{IPA|{{!}}a{{!}}}}. Meanwhile, {{wikt-lang|ru|волы́}} {{IPA|[vʌˈɫɨ]}} ('oxen') alternates with {{wikt-lang|ru|вол}} {{IPA|[voɫ]}} ('ox'), showing that this instance of {{IPAblink|ʌ}} belongs to the morphophoneme {{IPA|{{!}}o{{!}}}}. If there are no alternations between stressed and unstressed syllables for a particular morpheme, then no assignment is made, and existence of an archiphoneme is postulated. For example, the word {{wikt-lang|ru|соба́ка}} {{IPA|[sʌˈbakə]}} ('dog') is analysed as {{IPA|{{!}}s(a/o)ˈbaka{{!}}}}, where {{IPA|{{!}}(a/o){{!}}}} is an archiphoneme.<ref>С. В. Князев, С. К. Пожарицкая. Современный русский литературный язык. Фонетика, графика, орфография, орфоэпия. Москва, 2005. — Page 171. — 320 pages. — (Gaudeamus). — ISBN 5-8291-0545-4.</ref> *Some linguists<ref>e.g. {{Harvcoltxt|Avanesov|1975}}</ref> prefer to avoid making the decision. Their terminology includes strong vowel phonemes (the five) for stressed vowels plus several weak phonemes for unstressed vowels: thus, {{IPAblink|ɪ}} represents the weak phoneme {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, which contrasts with other weak phonemes, but not with strong ones.

===Diphthongs=== Russian diphthongs all end in a non-syllabic {{IPA|[i̯]}}, an allophone of {{IPA|/j/}} and the only semivowel in Russian. In all contexts other than after a vowel, {{IPA|/j/}} is considered an approximant consonant. Phonological descriptions of {{IPA|/j/}} may also classify it as a consonant even in the coda. In such descriptions, Russian has no diphthongs.

The first part of diphthongs is subject to the same allophony as their constituent vowels. Examples of words with diphthongs: {{wikt-lang|ru|яйцо́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-яйцо.ogg|[jɪjˈtso]}} ('egg'), {{lang|ru|ей}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ей.ogg|[jej]|help=no}} ('her' dat.), {{lang|ru|де́йственный}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-действенный.ogg|[ˈdʲejstvʲɪnnɨj]|help=no}} ('effective'). {{IPA|/ij/}}, written {{angbr|-ий}} or {{angbr|-ый}}, is a common inflexional affix of adjectives, participles, and nouns, where it is often unstressed; at normal conversational speed, such unstressed endings may be monophthongized to {{IPAblink|ɪ̟}}.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=37}} When stressed, this affix is spelled {{angbr|-ой}} and pronounced {{IPA|/oj/}}. Unstressed {{angbr|-ый}} may be pronounced {{IPA|[əj]}} (as if spelled {{angbr|-ой}}) in free variation with {{IPA|[ɨj]}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Аванесов|first=Р. И.|title=Русское литературное произношение|year=1984|publisher=Просвещение|location=М.|pages=194–195}}</ref><ref>С. В. Князев, С. К. Пожарицкая. Современный русский литературный язык. Фонетика, графика, орфография, орфоэпия. Москва, 2005. P. 190.</ref> In adjectives ending in {{angbr|-кий, -гий, -хий}}, traditional Moscow norm prescribed the pronunciation {{IPA|[kəj, ɡəj, xəj]}} (as if spelled {{angbr|-кой, -гой, -хой}}),<ref>Ushakov dictionary, vol. 1 (1935), column XXXIV.</ref> but now those adjectives are usually pronounced according to the spelling, thus {{IPA|[kʲɪj, ɡʲɪj, xʲɪj]}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Аванесов|first=Р. И.|title=Русское литературное произношение|year=1984|publisher=Просвещение|location=М.|pages=196–197}}</ref> The same can be said about verbs ending in {{angbr|-кивать, -гивать, -хивать}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Аванесов|first=Р. И.|title=Русское литературное произношение|year=1984|publisher=Просвещение|location=М.|pages=208}}</ref>

==Consonants== {{angbr IPA|ʲ}} denotes palatalization, meaning the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant. Phonemes that have at different times been disputed are enclosed in parentheses.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Consonant phonemes |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | Labial ! colspan="2" | Dental, Alveolar ! Post- alveolar ! Palatal ! colspan="2" | Velar |- style="font-size: small;" ! {{small|hard}} ! {{small|soft}} ! {{small|hard}} ! {{small|soft}} ! {{small|hard}} ! {{small|soft}} ! {{small|hard}} ! {{small|soft}} |- ! colspan="2" | Nasal | {{IPA link|m}} || {{IPA link|mʲ}} | {{IPA link|n̪|n}} || {{IPA link|nʲ}} | | | | |- ! rowspan="2" | Stop ! voiceless | {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|pʲ}} | {{IPA link|t̪|t}} || {{IPA link|tʲ}} | | | {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|kʲ}} |- ! voiced | {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|bʲ}} | {{IPA link|d̪|d}} | {{IPA link|dʲ}} | | | {{IPA link|ɡ}} | {{IPA link|ɡʲ}} |- ! colspan="2" | Affricate | | | {{IPA link|t̪s̪|t͡s}} || ({{IPA link|t͡sʲ}}) | | {{IPA link|t͡ɕ}} | | |- ! rowspan="2" | Fricative ! voiceless | {{IPA link|f}} || {{IPA link|fʲ}} | {{IPA link|s̪|s}} || {{IPA link|sʲ}} | {{IPA link|ʂ}} | {{IPA link|ɕː}} | {{IPA link|x}} | {{IPA link|xʲ}} |- ! voiced | {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|vʲ}} | {{IPA link|z̪|z}} | {{IPA link|zʲ}} | {{IPA link|ʐ}} | ({{IPA link|ʑː}}) | ({{IPA link|ɣ}}) | ({{IPA link|ɣʲ}}) |- ! colspan="2" | Approximant | | | {{IPA link|ɫ}}|| {{IPA link|lʲ}} | | {{IPA link|j}} | | |- ! colspan="2" | Trill | | | || {{IPA link|rʲ}} | {{IPA link|r̠|r}} | | | |}

; Notes * Most consonant phonemes come in hard–soft pairs, except for always-hard {{IPA|/ts, ʂ, ʐ/}} and always-soft {{IPA|/tɕ, ɕː, j/}} and formerly or marginally {{IPA|/ʑː/}}. There is a marked tendency of Russian hard consonants to be velarized, uvularized, or pharyngealized,{{sfn|Padgett|2001|p=9}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Litvin|first=Natallia|date=2014|title=An Ultrasound Investigation of Secondary Velarization in Russian|s2cid=134339837|language=en }}</ref><ref name="roonwhalen19">{{cite conference |first1=Kevin D. |last1=Roon |first2=D. H. |last2=Whalen |year=2019 |title=Velarization of Russian labial consonants |series=Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences |location=Melbourne |publisher=Australian Speech Science and Technology Association |pages=3488–3492 |url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS2019/papers/ICPhS_3537.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Padgett |first1=Jaye |last2=Bennett |first2=Ryan |last3=McGuire |first3=Grant |last4=Ní Chiosáin |first4=Máire |title=Russian Palatalization Is a Matter of the Tongue Body |journal=Journal of Slavic Linguistics |volume=32 |number=FASL 31 issue |year=2024 |pp=1-25 |url=https://ojs.ung.si/index.php/JSL/article/view/288 |doi=10.1353/jsl.2024.a950575}}</ref> though this is a subject of some academic dispute.{{sfn|Padgett|2001|p=7}}<ref name="ashby133">{{Harvcoltxt|Ashby|2011|p=133}}: "Note that though Russian has traditionally been described as having all consonants either palatalized or velarized, recent data suggests that the velarized gesture is only used with laterals giving a phonemic contrast between {{IPA|/lʲ/}} and {{IPA|/ɫ/}} (...)."</ref> Velarization is clearest before the front vowels {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}},{{sfn|Padgett|2003b|p=319}}<ref> Because of the acoustic properties of {{IPA|[u]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} that make velarization more noticeable before front vowels and palatalization before back vowels {{Harvcoltxt|Padgett|2003b}} argues that the contrast before {{IPA|/i/}} is between ''velarized'' and ''plain'' consonants rather than ''plain'' and ''palatalized''.</ref> and with labial and velar consonants as well as the lateral.{{sfn|Padgett|2003b|p=310, 321}}<ref name="roonwhalen19" /> As with palatalization, it results in vowel colouring and diphthongisation when stressed, in particular with {{IPA|/i~ɨ/}}, realized approximately as {{IPA|[ɯi̯]}} or {{IPA|[ɤ̯ɪ]}}. Its function is to make the contrast between hard and soft consonants perceptually more salient, and the less salient the contrast is otherwise (such as labial consonants being cross-linguistically the most resistant to palatalization<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=A Crosslinguistic Investigation of Palatalization|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/13s331md|publisher=UC San Diego|date=2007-06-29|language=en|first=Nicoleta|last=Bateman}}</ref>), the higher the velarization degree. **{{IPA|/ʐ/}} and {{IPA|/ʂ/}} are always hard in native words (even if spelling contains a "softening" letter after them, as in {{lang|ru|жена}}, {{lang|ru|шёлк}}, {{lang|ru|жить}}, and {{lang|ru|мышь}}). A few loanwords are spelled with {{angbr|жю}} or {{angbr|шю}}; authoritative pronunciation dictionaries<ref>See dictionaries of {{Harvcoltxt|Ageenko|Zarva|1993}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Borunova|Vorontsova|Yes'kova|1983}}.</ref> prescribe hard pronunciation for some of them (e.g. {{lang|ru|брошюра}}, {{lang|ru|парашют}}, {{lang|ru|амбушюр}}, {{lang|ru|шюцкор}}) but soft for other ones (e.g. {{lang|ru|пшют}}, {{lang|ru|фишю}}); {{lang|ru|жюри}} may be pronounced either way.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ageenko|Zarva|1993}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Borunova|Vorontsova|Yes'kova|1983}} prescribe the soft pronunciation, the more recent «Словарь трудностей русского произношения» (М. Л. Каленчук, Р. Ф. Касаткина, 2001) states the hard pronunciation as the main variant and the soft pronunciation as admissible but obsolescent.</ref> The letter combinations {{angbr|жю}}, {{angbr|жя}}, {{angbr|жё}}, {{angbr|шю}}, {{angbr|шя}}, and {{angbr|шё}} also occur in foreign proper names, mostly of French or Lithuanian origin. Notable examples include {{lang|ru|Гёльджюк}} (Gölcük), {{lang|ru|Жён Африк}} (Jeune Afrique), {{lang|ru|Жюль Верн}} (Jules Verne), {{lang|ru|Герхард Шюрер}} (Gerhard Schürer), {{lang|ru|Шяуляй}} (Šiauliai), and {{lang|ru|Шяшувис}} (Šešuvis). The dictionary of {{Harvcoltxt|Ageenko|Zarva|1993}} prescribes soft pronunciation in these names. However, since the cases of soft {{angbr|ж}} and {{angbr|ш}} are marginal and not universally pronounced as such, {{angbr|ж}} and {{angbr|ш}} are generally considered always-hard consonants, and the long phonemes {{IPA|/ʑː/}} and {{IPA|/ɕː/}} are not considered their soft counterparts, as they do not pattern in the same ways that other hard–soft pairs do. ** {{IPA|/ts/}} is generally listed among the always-hard consonants; however, certain foreign proper names, including those of Ukrainian, Polish, Lithuanian, or German origin (e.g. {{lang|ru|Цюрупа}}, {{lang|ru|Пацюк}}, {{lang|ru|Цявловский}}, {{lang|ru|Цюрих}}), as well as loanwords (e.g., {{lang|ru|хуацяо}}, from Chinese), contain a soft {{IPA|[tsʲ]}}.<ref>The dictionary {{Harvcoltxt|Ageenko|Zarva|1993}} explicitly says that the nonpalatalized pronunciation {{IPA|/ts/}} is an error in such cases.</ref> The phonemicity of a soft {{IPA|/tsʲ/}} is supported by neologisms that come from native word-building processes (e.g. {{lang|ru|фрицёнок}}, {{lang|ru|шпицята}}).{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} However, according to {{Harvcoltxt|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015}}, {{IPA|/ts/}} really is always hard, and realizing it as palatalized {{IPA|[tsʲ]}} is considered "emphatically non-standard", and occurs only in some regional accents.{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=223}} ** {{IPA|/tɕ/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} are always soft. ** {{IPA|/ɕː/}} is also always soft.{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=223}} A formerly common pronunciation of {{IPA|/ɕ/+/tɕ/}}<ref>See Avanesov's pronunciation guide in {{Harvcoltxt|Avanesov|1985|p=669}}</ref> indicates the sound may be two underlying phonemes: {{IPA|/ʂ/}} and {{IPA|/tɕ/}}, thus {{IPA|/ɕː/}} can be considered as a marginal phoneme. In today's most widespread pronunciation, {{IPA|[ɕtɕ]}} appears (instead of {{IPA|[ɕː]}}) for orthographical {{lang|ru|-зч-/-сч-}} where {{lang|ru|ч-}} starts the root of a word, and -з/-с belongs to a preposition or a "clearly distinguishable" prefix (e.g. {{lang|ru|без часо́в}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-без часов.ogg|[bʲɪɕtɕɪˈsof]}}, 'without a clock'; {{lang|ru|расчерти́ть}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-расчертить.ogg|[rəɕtɕɪrˈtʲitʲ]|help=no}}, 'to rule'); in all other cases {{IPA|/ɕː/}} is used ({{wikt-lang|ru|щётка}} {{audio-IPA|Ru-щётка.ogg|[ˈɕːɵtkə]|help=no}}, {{wikt-lang|ru|гру́зчик}} {{audio-IPA|Ru-грузчик.ogg|[ˈɡruɕːɪk]|help=no}}, {{lang|ru|перепи́счик}} {{IPA|[pʲɪrʲɪˈpʲiɕːɪk]}}, {{lang|ru|сча́стье}} {{audio-IPA|Ru-счастье.ogg|[ˈɕːæsʲtʲjə]|help=no}}, {{wikt-lang|ru|мужчи́на}} {{audio-IPA|Ru-мужчина.ogg|[mʊˈɕːinə]|help=no}}, {{lang|ru|исщипа́ть}} {{IPA|[ɪɕːɪˈpatʲ]}}, {{lang|ru|расщепи́ть}} {{IPA|[rəɕːɪˈpʲitʲ]}} etc.) ** The marginally phonemic{{sfn|Padgett|2003a|p=42}} sound {{IPA|[ʑː]}} is largely obsolete except in the more conservative standard accent of Moscow, in which it only occurs in a handful of words; insofar as this soft pronunciation is lost, the corresponding hard {{IPAblink|ʐ|ʐː}} replaces it: e.g. {{wikt-lang|ru|дро́жжи}} {{Audio-IPA|LL-Q7737 (rus)-Cinemantique-дрожжи.wav|[ˈdroʑːɪ]}} ~ {{Audio-IPA|LL-Q7737 (rus)-Rominf-дрожжи.wav|[ˈdroʐːɨ]}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=224}} "The {{IPA|/ʃʲː/}} consonant has no voiced counterpart in the system of phonemes. However, in conservative Moscow standard and only in a handful of lexical items the combination {{IPA|/ʒʒ/}} may be pronounced with palatalisation, e.g. ''drožži'' 'yeast' as {{IPA|[ˈd̪rʊoˑʒʲːɪ]}} instead of {{IPA|[ˈd̪rʊɔˑʒːɨ]}}, although this realisation is now also somewhat obsolete."}}</ref> This sound may derive from an underlying {{IPA|/zʐ/}} or {{IPA|/sʐ/}}: {{lang|ru|заезжа́ть}} {{IPA|[zə(ɪ̯)ɪˈʑːætʲ]}}, modern {{audio-IPA|Ru-заезжать.ogg|[zə(ɪ̯)ɪˈʐːatʲ]|help=no}}. For most speakers, it can most commonly be formed by assimilative voicing of {{IPA|[ɕː]}} (including across words): {{wikt-lang|ru|вещдо́к}} {{IPA|[vʲɪʑːˈdok]}}. For more information, see alveolo-palatal consonant and retroflex consonant. * {{IPA|/ʂ/}} and {{IPA|/ʐ/}} are somewhat concave apical postalveolar.{{sfn|Hamann|2004|p=64}} They may be described as retroflex, e.g. by {{harvtxt|Hamann|2004}}, but this is to indicate that they are not laminal nor palatalized; not to say that they are subapical.{{sfn|Hamann|2004|p=56|ps=, "Summing up the articulatory criteria for retroflex fricatives, they are all articulated behind the alveolar ridge, show a sub-lingual cavity, are articulated with the tongue tip (though this is not always discernible in the x-ray tracings), and with a retracted and flat tongue body."}} They also tend to be at least slightly labialized, including when followed by unrounded vowels.{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=223}}{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=134, 136}} * Hard {{IPA|/t, d, n/}} are laminal denti-alveolar {{IPA|[t̪, d̪, n̪]}}; unlike in many other languages, {{IPA|/n/}} does not become velar {{IPAblink|ŋ}} before velar consonants.<ref name=":0">{{Harvcoltxt|Jones|Ward|1969|pp=99 and 160}}</ref> * Hard {{IPA|/ɫ/}} has been variously described as pharyngealized apical alveolar {{IPAblink|ɫ|l̺ˤ}}<ref name="SOWL187">{{Harvcoltxt|Koneczna|Zawadowski|1956|p=?}}, cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=187}}</ref> and velarized laminal denti-alveolar {{IPAblink|ɫ|l̪ˠ}}.<ref name="ashby133"/><ref name=":1">{{Harvcoltxt|Jones|Ward|1969|p=57}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Mathiassen|1996|p=23}}</ref> * Hard {{IPA|/r/}} is postalveolar, typically a trill {{IPA|[r̠]}}.<ref name="SOWL221">{{Harvcoltxt|Skalozub|1963|p=?}}; cited in {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=221}}</ref> * Soft {{IPA|/rʲ/}} is an apical dental trill {{IPA|[r̪ʲ]}}, usually with only a single contact.<ref name="SOWL221"/> * Soft {{IPA|/tʲ, dʲ, nʲ/}} are laminal alveolar {{IPA|[t̻͡s̻ʲ, d̻͡z̻ʲ, n̻ʲ]}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jones|Ward|1969|pp=104–105 and 162}}</ref> As of the twenty-first century {{IPA|/tʲ, dʲ/}} are affricated in most contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Knyazev |first=Sergey |date=2016 |title=Affricated dental plosives in Russian: Phonological status and perceptual cues as a trigger of sound changes |url=https://publications.hse.ru/pubs/share/folder/ilu2rofz8u/198861296.pdf |journal=Linguistica Lettica |volume=24 |pages=140–49}}</ref> This phenonomenon of affrication is known in Russian as tsekan'ye and dzekan'ye, and it is paralleled in Belarusian. * Soft {{IPA|/lʲ/}} is either laminal alveolar {{IPA|[l̻ʲ]}} or laminal denti-alveolar {{IPA|[l̪ʲ]}}.<ref name="SOWL187"/><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jones|Ward|1969|p=172}}. This source mentions only the laminal alveolar realization.</ref> * {{IPA|/ts, s, sʲ, z, zʲ/}} are dental {{IPA|[t̪s̪, s̪, s̪ʲ, z̪, z̪ʲ]}},<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Zygis|2003|p=181}}</ref> i.e. dentalized laminal alveolar. They are pronounced with the blade of the tongue very close to the upper front teeth, with the tip of the tongue resting behind the lower front teeth. * The voiced {{IPA|/v, vʲ/}} are often realized with weak friction {{IPA|[v̞, v̞ʲ]}} or even as approximants {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|ʋ}}, {{IPAplink|ʋ|ʋʲ}}]}}, particularly in spontaneous speech.{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=223}} * A marginal phoneme {{IPA|/ɣ/}} occurs instead of {{IPA|/ɡ/}} in certain interjections: {{wikt-lang|ru|ага́}}, {{wikt-lang|ru|ого́}}, {{lang|ru|угу́}}, {{lang|ru|эге}}, {{lang|ru|о-го-го́}}, {{lang|ru|э-ге-ге}}, {{lang|ru|гоп}}. (Thus, there exists a minimal pair of homographs: {{lang|ru|ага́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ага (ɣ).ogg|[ʌˈɣa]}} 'aha!' vs {{lang|ru|ага́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ага_(2).ogg|[ʌˈɡa]|help=no}} 'agha'). The same sound {{IPA|[ɣ]}} can be found in {{wikt-lang|ru|бухга́лтер}} (spelled {{angbr|хг}}, though in {{lang|ru|цейхга́уз}} 'arsenal', {{angbr|хг}} is {{IPA|[x]}}), optionally in {{lang|ru|га́битус}} 'habitus' and in a few other loanwords. Also optionally (and less frequently than a century ago) {{IPA|[ɣ]}} can be used instead of {{IPA|[ɡ]}} in certain religious words (a phenomenon influenced by Church Slavonic pronunciation): {{lang|ru|Бо́га}} {{IPA|[ˈboɣə]}}, {{lang|ru|Бо́гу}} {{IPA|[ˈboɣʊ]}}... (declension forms of {{lang|ru|Бог}} {{IPA|[ˈbox]}} 'God'), {{lang|ru|Госпо́дь}} {{IPA|[ɣʌˈspotʲ]}} 'Lord' (especially in the exclamation {{lang|ru|Го́споди!}} {{IPA|[ˈɣospədʲɪ]}} 'Oh Lord!'), {{lang|ru|благо́й}} {{IPA|[bɫʌˈɣɵj]}} 'good'. * Some linguists (like I. G. Dobrodomov and his school) postulate the existence of a phonemic glottal stop {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. This marginal phoneme can be found, for example, in the word {{lang|ru|не́-а}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-не-а.ogg|[ˈnʲeʔə]}}. Claimed minimal pairs for this phoneme include {{wikt-lang|ru|су́женный}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-суженный.ogg|[ˈsʔuʐɨnɨj]|help=no}} 'narrowed' (a participle from {{wikt-lang|ru|су́зить}} 'to narrow', with prefix {{wikt-lang|ru|с-}} and root {{lang|ru|-уз-}}, cf. {{lang|ru|у́зкий}} 'narrow') vs {{lang|ru|су́женый}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-суженый.ogg|[ˈsuʐɨnɨj]|help=no}} 'betrothed' (originally a participle from {{lang|ru|суди́ть}} 'to judge', now an adjective; the root is {{lang|ru|суд}} 'court') and {{lang|ru|с А́ней}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-с Аней.ogg|[ˈsʔanʲɪj]|help=no}} 'with Ann' vs {{lang|ru|Са́ней}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-Саней.ogg|[ˈsanʲɪj]|help=no}} '(by) Alex'.{{sfn|Dobrodomov|Izmest'eva|2002}}{{sfn|Dobrodomov|Izmest'eva|2009}}

There is some dispute over the phonemicity of soft velar consonants. Typically, the soft–hard distinction is allophonic for velar consonants: they become soft before front vowels (e. g. {{wikt-lang|ru|стена́}} {{IPA|[sʲtʲɪˈna]}} 'wall', genitive {{wikt-lang|ru|стены́}} {{IPA|[sʲtʲɪˈnɨ]}}, but {{wikt-lang|ru|рука́}} {{IPA|[rʊˈka]}} 'hand, arm', genitive {{wikt-lang|ru|руки́}} {{IPA|[rʊˈkʲi]}}) unless there is a word boundary, in which case they are hard (e.g. {{lang|ru|к Ива́ну}} {{IPA|[k‿ɨˈvanʊ]}} 'to Ivan').{{sfn|Padgett|2003a|pp=44, 47}} Hard variants occur everywhere else. Exceptions are represented mostly by: * Loanwords: ** '''Soft''': {{lang|ru|гёзы}}, {{wikt-lang|ru|гюрза́}}, {{lang|ru|гяу́р}}, {{lang|ru|секью́рити}}, {{lang|ru|кекс}}, {{lang|ru|кяри́з}}, {{lang|ru|са́нкхья}}, {{lang|ru|хянга́}}; ** '''Hard''': {{lang|ru|кок-сагы́з}}, {{lang|ru|гэ́льский}}, {{lang|ru|акы́н}}, {{lang|ru|кэб}} ({{lang|ru|кеб}}), {{lang|ru|хэ́ппенинг}}. * Proper nouns of foreign origin: ** '''Soft''': {{lang|ru|Алигье́ри}}, {{lang|ru|Гёте}}, {{lang|ru|Гю́нтер}}, {{lang|ru|Гянджа́}}, {{lang|ru|Джокьяка́рта}}, {{lang|ru|Кёнигсберг}}, {{lang|ru|Кюраса́о}}, {{lang|ru|Кя́хта}}, {{lang|ru|Хью́стон}}, {{lang|ru|Хёндэ}}, {{lang|ru|Хю́бнер}}, {{lang|ru|Пюхяя́рви}}; ** '''Hard''': {{lang|ru|Мангышла́к}}, {{lang|ru|Гэ́ри}}, {{lang|ru|Кызылку́м}}, {{lang|ru|Кэмп-Дэ́вид}}, {{lang|ru|Архы́з}}, {{lang|ru|Хуанхэ́}}.

The rare native examples are fairly new, as most of them were coined in the last century: * '''Soft''': forms of the verb {{lang|ru|ткать}} 'weave' ({{lang|ru|ткёшь}}, {{lang|ru|ткёт}} etc., and derivatives like {{lang|ru|соткёшься}}); {{lang|ru|догёнок}}/{{lang|ru|догята}}, {{lang|ru|герцогёнок}}/{{lang|ru|герцогята}}; and adverbial participles of the type {{lang|ru|берегя}}, {{lang|ru|стерегя}}, {{lang|ru|стригя}}, {{lang|ru|жгя}}, {{lang|ru|пекя}}, {{lang|ru|секя}}, {{lang|ru|ткя}} (it is disputed whether these are part of the standard language or just informal colloquialisms){{citation needed|date=October 2012}}; * '''Hard''': the name {{lang|ru|гэ}} of letter {{angbr|г}}, acronyms and derived words ({{lang|ru|кагэбэшник}}, {{lang|ru|днепрогэсовский}}), a few interjections ({{lang|ru|гы, кыш, хэй}}), some onomatopoeic words ({{lang|ru|гыгыкать}}), and colloquial forms of certain patronyms: {{lang|ru|Олегыч}}, {{lang|ru|Маркыч}}, {{lang|ru|Аристархыч}} (where {{lang|ru|-ыч}} is a contraction of standard language's patronymical suffix -ович rather than a continuation of ancient {{lang|ru|-ич}}).

In the mid-twentieth century, a small number of reductionist approaches made by structuralists{{sfn|Stankiewicz|1962|p=131}} put forth that palatalized consonants occur as the result of phonological processes involving {{IPA|/j/}} (or palatalization as a phoneme in itself), so that there were no underlying palatalized consonants.<ref>see {{Harvcoltxt|Lightner|1972}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Bidwell|1962}} for two examples.</ref> Despite such proposals, linguists have long agreed that the underlying structure of Russian is closer to that of its acoustic properties, namely that soft consonants are separate phonemes in their own right.<ref>See {{Harvcoltxt|Stankiewicz|1962}} and {{Harvcoltxt|Folejewski|1962}} for a criticism of Bidwell's approach specifically and the reductionist approach generally.</ref>

== Voicing == {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ Consonants and their voiced/voiceless equivalents !Voiced !Voiceless |- |Б /b/ |П /p/ |- |В /v/ |Ф /f/ |- |Г /ɡ/ |К /k/ |- |Д /d/ |Т /t/ |- |Ж /ʐ/ |Ш /ʂ/ |- |З /z/ |С /s/ |- |Л /l/ | – |- |М /m/ | – |- |Н /n/ | – |- |Р /r/ | – |- | – |Х /x/ |- | – |Ц /ts/ |- | – |Ч /tɕ/ |- | – |Щ /ɕː/ |- |Й /j/ | – |}

===Final devoicing=== Voiced consonants ({{IPA|/b/, /bʲ/, /d/, /dʲ/ /ɡ/, /v/, /vʲ/, /z/, /zʲ/, /ʐ/}}, and {{IPA|/ʑː/}}) are devoiced word-finally unless the next word begins with a voiced obstruent.{{sfn|Halle|1959|p=22}} In other words, their voiceless equivalent will be used (see table on the right).<ref name="Sobrinho">Russian language course "Russo Sem Mestre" (Portuguese for ''Russian without Master''), by Custódio Gomes Sobrinho</ref>

Examples: * {{wikt-lang|ru|рассказ}} (story, tale) sounds like расска'''с''' {{IPA|[rɐˈskas]}} * {{wikt-lang|ru|нож}} (knife) sounds like но'''ш''' {{IPA|[noʂ]}} * {{wikt-lang|ru|Иванов}} (Ivanov) sounds like Ивано'''ф''' {{IPA|[ɪvɐˈnof]}}; and so on.

{{lang|ru|Г}} also represents voiceless {{IPA|[x]}} word-finally in some words, such as {{wikt-lang|ru|бог}} {{IPA|[ˈbox]}} ('god'). This is related to the use of the marginal (or dialectal) phoneme {{IPA|/ɣ/}} in some religious words {{See above|Consonants}}.

===Voicing elsewhere=== Generally, when a voiced consonant comes before a voiceless one, its sound will shift to its voiceless equivalent (see table).<ref name="Sobrinho" />

* Example: {{wikt-lang|ru|Ложка}} (spoon) sounds like Ло'''шк'''а {{IPA| [ˈɫoʂkə]}}.

That happens because ж is a voiced consonant, and it comes before the voiceless к.

The same logic applies when a voiceless consonant comes before a voiced one (except в). In this case, the sound of the former will change to its voiced equivalent.<ref name="Sobrinho" />

* Example: {{wikt-lang|ru|сделать}} (to do) sounds like '''зд'''елать [ˈzʲdʲeɫətʲ].

Russian features general regressive assimilation of voicing and palatalization.{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=156}} In longer clusters, this means that multiple consonants may be soft despite their underlyingly (and orthographically) being hard.{{sfn|Lightner|1972|p=377}} The process of voicing assimilation applies across word-boundaries when there is no pause between words.{{sfn|Lightner|1972|p=73}} Within a morpheme, voicing is not distinctive before obstruents (except for {{IPA|/v/}}, and {{IPA|/vʲ/}} when followed by a vowel or sonorant). The voicing or devoicing is determined by that of the final obstruent in the sequence:{{sfn|Halle|1959|p=31}} {{lang|ru|просьба}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-просьба.ogg|[ˈpro'''zʲb'''ə]}} ('request'), {{lang|ru|водка}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-водка.ogg|[ˈvo'''tk'''ə]|help=no}} ('vodka'). In foreign borrowings, this is not always the case for {{IPA|/f(ʲ)/}}, as in {{lang|ru|Адольф Гитлер}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-Адольф Гитлер.ogg|[ʌˈdolʲ'''f''' ˈɡʲitlʲɪr]|help=no}} ('Adolf Hitler') and {{lang|ru|граф болеет}} ('the count is ill'). {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/vʲ/}} are unusual in that they seem transparent to voicing assimilation; in the syllable onset, both voiced and voiceless consonants may appear before {{IPA|/v(ʲ)/}}: *{{lang|ru|тварь}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-тварь.ogg|['''t'''varʲ]|help=no}}) ('the creature') *{{lang|ru|два}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-два.ogg|['''d'''va]|help=no}} ('two') *{{lang|ru|световой}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-световой (2 vers).ogg|['''s(ʲ)'''vʲɪtʌˈvoj]|help=no}} ('of light') *{{lang|ru|звезда}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-звезда.ogg|['''z(ʲ)'''vʲɪˈzda]|help=no}} ('star')

When {{IPA|/v(ʲ)/}} precedes and follows obstruents, the voicing of the cluster is governed by that of the final segment (per the rule above) so that voiceless obstruents that precede {{IPA|/v(ʲ)/}} are voiced if {{IPA|/v(ʲ)/}} is followed by a voiced obstruent (e.g. {{lang|ru|к вдове}} {{IPA|['''ɡ'''vdʌˈvʲe]}} 'to the widow') while a voiceless obstruent will devoice all segments (e.g. {{lang|ru|без впуска}} {{IPA|[bʲɪs ˈfpuskə]}} 'without an admission').{{sfn|Lightner|1972|p=75}}

{{IPA|/tɕ/}}, {{IPA|/ts/}}, and {{IPA|/x/}} have voiced allophones ({{IPAblink|dʑ}}, {{IPAblink|d̪z̪|dz}} and {{IPAblink|ɣ}}) before voiced obstruents,{{sfn|Halle|1959|p=22}}<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Chew|2003|p=67 and 103}}</ref> as in {{lang|ru|дочь бы}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-дочь_бы.ogg|[ˈdodʑ bɨ]|help=no}}{{sfn|Lightner|1972|p=82}} ('a daughter would'), {{lang|ru|плацдарм}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-плацдарм.ogg|[pɫʌdzˈdarm]|help=no}} ('bridge-head') and {{lang|ru|горох готов}} {{IPA|[ɡɐˈroɣ ɡɐˈtof]}} ('peas are ready').

Other than {{IPA|/mʲ/}} and {{IPA|/nʲ/}}, nasals and liquids devoice between voiceless consonants or a voiceless consonant and a pause: {{lang|ru|контрфорс}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-контрфорс.ogg|[ˌkontr̥ˈfors]|help=no}}) ('buttress').{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=190}}

==Palatalization== Before {{IPA|/j/}}, paired consonants (that is, those that come in a hard-soft pair) are normally soft as in {{lang|ru|пью}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-пью.ogg|[pʲju]|help=no}} ('I drink') and {{lang|ru|бью}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-бью.ogg|[bʲju]|help=no}} ('I hit'). However, the last consonant of prefixes and parts of compound words generally remains hard in the standard language: {{lang|ru|отъезд}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-отъезд.ogg|[ʌˈtjest]|help=no}} ('departure'), {{lang|ru|Минюст}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-Минюст.ogg|[ˌmʲiˈnjust]|help=no}} ('[[Ministry of Justice (Russia)|Min[istry of] Just[ice]]]'); when the prefix ends in {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/z/}} there may be an optional softening: {{lang|ru|съездить}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-съездить.ogg|[ˈs(ʲ)jezʲdʲɪtʲ]|help=no}} ('to travel').

Paired consonants preceding {{IPA|/e/}} are also soft; although there are exceptions from loanwords, alternations across morpheme boundaries are the norm.{{sfn|Padgett|2003a|p=43}} The following examples{{sfn|Lightner|1972|pp=9–11, 12–13}} show some of the morphological alternations between a hard consonant and its soft counterpart:

{| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" | Hard ! colspan="3" | Soft |- ! Russian ! IPA/Audio ! Translation ! Russian ! IPA/Audio ! Translation |- | {{lang|ru|дом}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-дом.ogg|[do'''m''']}} | 'house' (nom) | {{lang|ru|до́ме}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-доме.ogg|[ˈdo'''mʲ'''e]}} | 'house' (prep) |- | {{lang|ru|крова́вый}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-кровавый.ogg|[krʌˈva'''v'''ɨj]}} | 'bloody' | {{lang|ru|крова́веть}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-кроваветь.ogg|[krʌˈva'''vʲ'''ɪtʲ]}} | 'to become bloody' |- | {{lang|ru|отве́т}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ответ.ogg|[ʌˈtvʲe'''t''']}} | 'answer' | {{lang|ru|отве́тить}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ответить.ogg|[ʌˈtvʲe'''tʲ'''ɪtʲ]}} | 'to answer' |- | {{lang|ru|(я) несу́}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-я несу.ogg|[(jæ) nʲɪˈ'''s'''u]}} | 'I carry' | {{lang|ru|(он, она, оно) несёт}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-несёт.ogg|[nʲɪˈ'''sʲ'''ɵt]}} | 'carries' |- | {{lang|ru|жена́}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-жена.ogg|[ʐɨˈ'''n'''a]}} | 'wife' | {{lang|ru|же́нин}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-женин.ogg|[ˈʐe'''nʲ'''ɪn]}} | 'wife's' |- | {{lang|ru|коро́ва}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-корова.ogg|[kʌˈro'''v'''ə]}} | 'cow' | {{lang|ru|коро́вий}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-коровий.ogg|[kʌˈro'''v'''ʲɪj]}} | 'bovine' |- | {{lang|ru|прямо́й}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-прямой.ogg|[prʲɪˈ'''m'''oj]}} | 'straight' | {{lang|ru|прямизна́}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-прямизна.ogg|[prʲɪ'''mʲ'''ɪˈzna]}} | 'straightness' |- | {{lang|ru|вор}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-вор.ogg|[vo'''r''']}} | 'thief' | {{lang|ru|вори́шка}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-воришка.ogg|[vʌˈ'''rʲ'''iʂkə]}} | 'little thief (diminutive)' |- | {{lang|ru|написа́л}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-написа́л.ogg|[nəpʲɪˈsa'''ɫ''']}} | 'he wrote' | {{lang|ru|написа́ли}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-написа́ли.ogg|[nəpʲɪˈsa'''lʲ'''ɪ]}} | 'they wrote' |- | {{lang|ru|горбу́н}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-горбун.ogg|[ɡʌrˈbu'''n''']}} | 'hunchback' | {{lang|ru|горбу́нья}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-горбунья.ogg|[ɡʌrˈbu'''nʲ'''jə]}} | 'female hunchback' |- | {{lang|ru|высо́к}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-высок.ogg|[vɨˈ'''s'''ok]}} | 'high' | {{lang|ru|высь}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-высь.ogg|[vɨ'''sʲ''']}} | 'height' |}

Velar consonants are soft when preceding {{IPA|/i/}}, and never occur before {{IPA|[ɨ]}} within a word.{{sfn|Padgett|2003a|p=39}}

Before hard dental consonants and {{IPA|/r/}}, labial and dental consonants are hard: {{lang|ru|орла́}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-орла.ogg|[ʌrˈɫa]|help=no}} ('eagle' gen. sg), cf. {{lang|ru|орёл}} {{IPA|[ʌˈrʲoɫ]}} ('eagle' nom. sg).

=== Assimilative palatalization === Paired consonants preceding another consonant often inherit softness from it. This phenomenon in literary language has complicated and evolving rules with many exceptions, depending on what these consonants are, in what morphemic position they meet and to what style of speech the word belongs. In old Moscow pronunciation, softening was more widespread and regular; nowadays some cases that were once normative have become low colloquial or archaic. In fact, consonants can be softened to differing extents, become semi-hard or semi-soft.

The more similar the consonants are, the more they tend to soften each other. Also, some consonants tend to be softened less, such as labials and {{IPA|/r/}}.

Softening is stronger inside the word root and between root and suffix; it is weaker between prefix and root and weak or absent between a preposition and the word following.<ref name=Avan>{{cite book|last=Аванесов|first=Р. И.|title=Русское {{lang|ru|литературное}} произношение|year=1984|publisher=Просвещение|location=М.|pages=145–167}}</ref>

*Before soft dental consonants, {{IPA|/lʲ/}} and often soft labial consonants, dental consonants (other than {{IPA|/ts/}}) are soft. *{{IPA|/x/}} is assimilated to the palatalization of the following velar consonant: {{lang|ru|лёгких}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-лёгких.ogg|[ˈlʲɵxʲkʲɪx]}}) ('lungs' gen. pl.). * Palatalization assimilation of labial consonants before labial consonants is in free variation with nonassimilation, such that {{lang|ru|��омбить}} ('to bomb') is either {{IPA|[bʌmˈbʲitʲ]}} or {{IPA|[bʌmʲˈbʲitʲ]}} depending on the individual speaker. * When hard {{IPA|/n/}} precedes its soft equivalent, it is also soft and likely to form a single long sound (see gemination). This is slightly less common across affix boundaries.

In addition to this, dental fricatives conform to the place of articulation (not just the palatalization) of following postalveolars: {{lang|ru|с частью}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-с частью.ogg|[ˈɕːæsʲtʲjʊ]|help=no}}) ('with a part'). In careful speech, this does not occur across word boundaries.

Russian has the rare feature of nasals not typically being assimilated in place of articulation. Both {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/nʲ/}} appear before retroflex consonants: {{lang|ru|деньжонки}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-деньжонки.ogg|[dʲɪnʲˈʐonkʲɪ]|help=no}}) ('money' (scornful)) and {{lang|ru|ханжой}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ханжой.ogg|[xʌnˈʐoj]|help=no}}) ('sanctimonious one' instr.). In the same context, other coronal consonants are always hard.

Assimilative palatalization may sometimes also occur across word boundaries as in {{lang|ru|других гимназий}} {{IPA|[drʊˈɡʲiɣʲ ɡʲɪmˈnazʲɪj]}},{{sfnp|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=223}} but such pronunciation is uncommon and characteristic of uncareful speech (except in preposition+main word combinations).

==Consonant clusters== As a Slavic language, Russian has fewer phonotactic restrictions on consonants than many other languages,{{sfn|Davidson|Roon|2008|p=138}} allowing for clusters that would be difficult for English speakers; this is especially so at the beginning of a syllable, where Russian speakers make no sonority distinctions between fricatives and stops.{{Sfn|Rubach|2000|p=53}} These reduced restrictions begin at the morphological level; outside of two morphemes that contain clusters of four consonants: встрет-/встреч- 'meet' ({{IPA|[ˈfstrʲetʲ/ˈfstrʲetɕ]}}), and чёрств-/черств- 'stale' ({{IPA|[ˈtɕɵrstv]}}), native Russian morphemes have a maximum consonant cluster size of three:{{sfn|Halle|1959|p=57}}

{| class="wikitable" |- |+ 3-Segment clusters ! ! Russian ! IPA/Audio ! Translation |- | CCL || {{lang|ru|'''скр'''ыва́ть}} || {{Audio-IPA|Ru-скрывать.ogg|[skrɨˈvatʲ]}} | 'to hide' |- | CCN || {{lang|ru|'''мгн'''ове́ние}} || {{Audio-IPA|Ru-мгновение.ogg|[mɡnɐˈvʲenʲɪje]}} | '(an) instant' |- | CCC* || {{lang|ru|'''ств'''ол}} || {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ствол.ogg|[stvoɫ]}} | 'tree trunk' |- | LCL || {{lang|ru|ве'''рбл'''ю́д}} || {{Audio-IPA|Ru-верблюд.ogg|[vʲɪrˈblʲut]}} | 'camel' |- | LCC || {{lang|ru|то́'''лст'''ый}} || {{Audio-IPA|Ru-толстый.ogg|[ˈtoɫstɨj]}} | 'thick' |} For speakers who pronounce {{IPA|[ɕtɕ]}} instead of {{IPA|[ɕː]}}, words like {{lang|ru|общий}} ('common') also constitute clusters of this type. {| class="wikitable" |- |+ 2-Segment clusters ! ! Russian ! IPA/Audio ! Translation |- |- | CC | {{lang|ru|ко'''сть'''}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-кость.ogg|[kosʲtʲ]}} | 'bone' |- | LC | {{lang|ru|сме'''рт'''ь}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-смерть.ogg|[smʲertʲ]}} | 'death' |- | CL | {{lang|ru|'''сл'''епо́й}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-слепой.ogg|[slʲɪˈpoj]}} | 'blind' |- | LL | {{lang|ru|го́'''рл'''о}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-горло.ogg|[ˈɡorɫə]}} | 'throat' |- | CJ | {{lang|ru|ста'''ть'''я́}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-статья.ogg|[stʌˈtʲja]}} | 'article' |- | LJ | {{lang|ru|'''рь'''я́ный}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-рьяный.ogg|[ˈrʲjanɨj]}} | 'zealous' |}

If {{IPA|/j/}} is considered a consonant in the coda position, then words like {{lang|ru|айва́}} ('quince') contain semivowel+consonant clusters.

Affixation also creates consonant clusters. Some prefixes, the best known being вз-/вс- ({{IPA|[vz-]/[fs-]}}), produce long word-initial clusters when they attach to a morpheme beginning with consonant(s) (e.g. |{{IPA|fs}}|+ |{{IPA|pɨʂkə}}| → {{lang|ru|вспы́шка}} {{IPA|[ˈfspɨʂkə]}} 'flash'). However, the four-consonant limitation persists in the syllable onset.{{Sfn|Ostapenko|2005|p=143}}{{Sfn|Proctor|2009|pp=2, 126}}

Clusters of three or more consonants are frequently simplified, usually through syncope of one of them,{{Sfn|Cubberley|2002|p=80}} especially in casual pronunciation.{{Sfn|Shapiro|1993|p=11}}

All word-initial four-consonant clusters begin with {{IPA|[vz]}} or {{IPA|[fs]}}, followed by a stop (or, in the case of {{IPA|[x]}}, a fricative), and a liquid:

{| class="wikitable" |- |+ 4-Segment clusters ! Russian ! IPA/Audio ! Translation |- |- | ({{lang|ru|ему}}) {{lang|ru|'''взбр'''ело}} ({{lang|ru|в голову}}) | {{IPA|[vzbrʲɪˈɫo]}} | '(he) took it (into his head)' |- | {{lang|ru|'''взгл'''яд}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-взгляд.ogg|[ˈvzɡlʲat]}} | 'gaze' |- | {{lang|ru|'''взгр'''омоздиться}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-взгромоздиться.ogg|[vzɡrəmʌˈzʲdʲitsə]}} | 'to perch' |- | {{lang|ru|'''вздр'''огнуть}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-вздрогнуть.ogg|[ˈvzdroɡnʊtʲ]}} | 'to flinch' |- | {{lang|ru|'''вскл'''окоченный}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-всклокоченный.ogg|[fskɫʌˈkotɕɪnːɨj]}} | 'disheveled' |- | {{lang|ru|'''вскр'''ыть}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-вскрыть.ogg|[ˈfskrɨtʲ]}} | 'to unseal' |- | {{lang|ru|'''вспл'''еск}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-всплеск.ogg|[ˈfsplʲesk]}} | 'splash' |- | {{lang|ru|'''вспр'''ыгнуть}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-вспрыгнуть.ogg|[ˈfsprɨɡnʊtʲ]}} | 'to jump up' |- | {{lang|ru|'''встл'''еть}} | {{IPA|[ˈfstlʲetʲ]}} | 'to begin to smolder' |- | {{lang|ru|'''встр'''ечать}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-встречать.ogg|[fstrʲɪˈtɕætʲ]}} | 'to meet' |- | {{lang|ru|'''всхл'''ип}} | {{IPA|[ˈfsxlʲip]}} | 'whimper' |- | {{lang|ru|'''всхр'''апывать}} | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-всхрапывать.ogg|[ˈfsxrapɨvətʲ]}} | 'to snort' |}

Because prepositions in Russian act like clitics,{{Sfn|Rubach|2000|p=51}} the syntactic phrase composed of a preposition (most notably, the three that consist of just a single consonant: к, с, and в) and a following word constitutes a phonological word that acts like a single grammatical word.{{sfn|Bickel|Nichols|2007|p=190}} This can create a 4-consonant onset cluster not starting in {{IPA|[vz]}} or {{IPA|[fs]}}; for example, the phrase {{lang|ru|в мгнове́ние}} ('in an instant') is pronounced [{{IPA|vmɡnɐˈvʲenʲɪje}}].

In the syllable coda, suffixes that contain no vowels may increase the final consonant cluster of a syllable (e.g. {{lang|ru|Ноя́брьск}} 'city of Noyabrsk' |{{IPA|noˈjabrʲ}}|+ |{{IPA|sk}}| → {{IPA|[nʌˈjabrʲsk]}}), theoretically up to seven consonants: *{{lang|ru|мо́нстрств}} {{IPA|[ˈmonstrstf]}} ('of monsterhoods').{{sfn|Toporov|1971|p=155}} There is usually an audible release of plosives between these consecutive consonants at word boundaries, the major exception being clusters of homorganic consonants.{{Sfn|Zsiga|2003|p=403}}

Consonant cluster simplification in Russian includes degemination, syncope, dissimilation, and weak vowel insertion. For example, {{IPA|/sɕː/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ɕː]}}, as in {{lang|ru|расще́лина}} ('cleft'). There are also a few isolated patterns of apparent cluster reduction (as evidenced by the mismatch between pronunciation and orthography) arguably the result of historical simplifications.{{Sfn|Cubberley|2002|p=82}} For example, dental stops are dropped between a dental continuant and a dental nasal or lateral: {{lang|ru|ле́с'''т'''ный}} {{IPA|[ˈlʲesnɨj]}} 'flattering' (from {{lang|ru|ле́с'''т'''ь}} {{IPA|[ˈlʲesʲtʲ]}} 'flattery').{{Sfn|Halle|1959|p=69}} Other examples include:

{| class="wikitable" | {{IPA|/vstv/}} > {{IPA|[stv]}} | {{lang|ru|чу́вство}} | 'feeling' | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-чувство.ogg|[ˈtɕustvə]}} (not {{IPA|[ˈtɕu'''f'''stvə]}}) |{{Sfn|Cubberley|2002|p=82}} |- | {{IPA|/ɫnts/}} > {{IPA|[nts]}} | {{lang|ru|со́лнце}} | 'sun' | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-солнце.ogg|[ˈsontse]}} (not {{IPA|[ˈso'''ɫ'''ntse]}}) |{{Sfn|Cubberley|2002|p=82}} |- | {{IPA|/rdts/}} > {{IPA|[rts]}} | {{lang|ru|се́рдце}} | 'heart' | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-сердце.ogg|[ˈsʲertse]}} (not {{IPA|[ˈsʲer'''t'''tse]}}) | |- | {{IPA|/rdtɕ/}} > {{IPA|[rtɕ]}} | {{lang|ru|сердчи́шко}} | 'heart' (diminutive) | {{IPA|[sʲɪrˈtɕiʂkə]}} (not {{IPA|[sʲɪr'''t'''tɕiʂkə]}}) | |- | {{IPA|/ndsk/}} > {{IPA|[nsk]}} | {{lang|ru|шотла́ндский}} | 'Scottish' | {{Audio-IPA|Ru-шотландский.ogg|[ʂʌtˈɫanskʲɪj]}} (not {{IPA|[ʂʌtˈɫan'''t'''skʲɪj]}}) |{{Sfn|Cubberley|2002|p=82}} |- | {{IPA|/stsk/}} > {{IPA|[sk]}} | {{lang|ru|маркси́стский}} | 'Marxist' (adj.) | {{IPA|[mʌrkˈsʲisːkʲɪj]}} (not {{IPA|[mʌrkˈsʲis'''t'''skʲɪj]}}) |{{Sfn|Cubberley|2002|p=82}} |}

Compare: {{lang|ru|со́лнечный}} {{IPA|[ˈsoɫnʲɪt͡ɕnɨj]}} 'solar, sunny', {{lang|ru|серде́чный}} {{IPA|[sʲɪrˈdʲet͡ɕnɨj]}} 'heart (adj.), cordial', {{lang|ru|Шотла́ндия}} {{IPA|[ʂɐtˈɫanʲdʲɪjə]}} 'Scotland', {{lang|ru|маркси́ст}} {{IPA|[mʌrkˈsʲist]}} 'Marxist' (person).

The simplifications of consonant clusters are done selectively; bookish-style words and proper nouns are typically pronounced with all consonants even if they fit the pattern. For example, the word {{lang|ru|голла́ндка}} is pronounced in a simplified manner {{IPA|[ɡʌˈɫankə]}} for the meaning of 'Dutch oven' (a popular type of oven in Russia) and in a full form {{IPA|[ɡʌˈɫantkə]}} for 'Dutch woman' (a more exotic meaning). The orthographic combination {{angbr|вств}} is pronounced {{IPA|[stv]}} in the words {{lang|ru|здра́вствуй(те)}} [ˈzdrastvʊj(tʲe)] 'hello', {{lang|ru|чу́вство}} [ˈt͡ɕustvə] 'feeling' (does not have related words with pronounced {{angbr|в}} in the modern language, so the first {{angbr|в}} in the spelling exists only for historical reasons), {{lang|ru|безмо́лвствовать}} [bʲɪzˈmoɫstvəvətʲ] 'to be silent', and related words, otherwise pronounced {{IPA|[fstv]}}: {{lang|ru|баловство́}} [bəɫɐfstˈvo] 'naughtiness'.

In certain cases, this syncope produces homophones, e.g. {{lang|ru|ко́стный}} ('bony') and {{lang|ru|ко́сный}} ('rigid'), both are pronounced {{Audio-IPA|Ru-костный.ogg|[ˈkosnɨj]|help=no}}.

Another method of dealing with consonant clusters is inserting an epenthetic vowel (both in spelling and in pronunciation), {{angbr|о}} after most prepositions and prefixes that normally end in a hard consonant. This includes both historically motivated usage (from historical extra-short vowel {{angbr|ъ}}) and cases of its modern extrapolations. There are no strict limits when the epenthetic {{angbr|о}} is obligatory, optional, or prohibited. One of the most typical cases of the epenthetic {{angbr|о}} is between a morpheme-final hard consonant and a cluster starting with the same or similar consonant. E.g. {{lang|ru|со среды́}} 'from Wednesday' |{{IPA|s}}|+|{{IPA|srʲɪˈdɨ}}| → {{IPA|[səsrʲɪˈdɨ]}}, not *с среды; {{lang|ru|ототру́}} 'I'll scrub' |{{IPA|ot}}|+|{{IPA|tru}}| → {{IPA|[ʌtʌˈtru]}}, not *оттру. The interfix {{angbr|о}} (spelled {{angbr|е}} after soft consonants) is also used in compound words: {{lang|ru|пищево́д}} 'oesophagus' (lit. food path) |{{IPA|пища}}|+|{{IPA|вод}}| → {{IPA|[pʲɪɕːɪˈvot]}}.

== Stress == Stress in Russian is phonemic and therefore unpredictable. It may fall on any syllable, and can vary drastically in similar or related words. For example, in the following table, in the numbers 50 and 60, the stress moves to the last syllable, despite having a structure similar to, say, 70 and 80: {| class="wikitable" |+ !Word !No. |- |д'''е́'''сять |10 |- |дв'''а́'''дцать |20 |- |тр'''и́'''дцать |30 |- |с'''о́'''рок |40 |- |пятьдес'''я́'''т |50 |- |шестьдес'''я́'''т |60 |- |с'''е́'''мьдесят |70 |- |в'''о́'''семьдесят |80 |- |девян'''о́'''сто |90 |} Words can also contrast based just on stress (e.g. {{lang|ru|му́ка}} {{IPA|[ˈmukə]}} 'ordeal, pain, anguish' vs. {{lang|ru|мука́}} {{IPA|[mʊˈka]}} 'flour, meal, farina'). Stress shifts can even occur within an inflexional paradigm: {{lang|ru|до́ма}} {{IPA|[ˈdomə]}} ('house' gen. sg., or 'at home') vs {{lang|ru|дома́}} {{IPA|[dʌˈma]}} ('houses'). The place of the stress in a word is determined by the interplay between the morphemes it contains, as morphemes may be obligatorily stressed, obligatorily unstressed, or variably stressed.

Generally, only one syllable in a word is stressed; this rule, however, does not extend to most compound words, such as {{lang|ru|моро́зоусто́йчивый}} {{IPA|[mʌˌrozəʊˈstojtɕɪvɨj]}} ('frost-resistant'), which have multiple stresses, with the last of them being primary.{{sfn|Lightner|1972|p=4}}

Phonologically, stressed syllables are mostly realised not only by the lack of aforementioned vowel reduction, but also by a somewhat longer duration than unstressed syllables. More intense pronunciation is also a relevant cue, although this quality may merge with prosodical intensity. Pitch accent has only a minimal role in indicating stress, mostly due to its prosodical importance, which may prove a difficulty for Russians identifying stressed syllables in more pitched languages.{{sfn|Chrabaszcz|Winn|Lin|Idsardi|2014|pp=1470–1}}

A stress defines a phonological concept of phonetic word — a sequence of morphemes clustered around one nuclear stress. A phonetic word may contain multiple lexical items.<ref name=pacu>Paul Cubberley, ''Russian: A Linguistic Introduction'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=yOGzAyN3V88C&pg=PA67 p. 67]</ref>

== Supplementary notes ==

There are numerous ways in which Russian spelling does not match pronunciation. The historical transformation of {{IPA|/ɡ/}} into {{IPA|/v/}} in genitive case endings and the word for 'him' is not reflected in the modern Russian orthography: the pronoun {{lang|ru|его}} {{IPA|[jɪˈvo]}} 'his/him', and the adjectival declension suffixes -ого and -его. Orthographic г represents {{IPA|/x/}} in a handful of word roots: легк-/лёгк-/легч- 'easy' and мягк-/мягч- 'soft'. There are a handful of words in which consonants which have long since ceased to be pronounced even in careful pronunciation are still spelled, e.g., the 'l' in {{lang|ru|солнце}} {{IPA|[ˈsontsɨ]}} ('sun').

The phoneme {{IPA|/j/}} is often realized as {{IPA|[ʝ]}} before stressed vowels, especially in emphatic speech.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=223}}</ref> Between any vowel and {{IPA|/i/}} (excluding instances across affix boundaries but including unstressed vowels that have merged with {{IPA|/i/}}), {{IPA|/j/}} may be dropped: {{lang|ru|мои}} {{IPA|[mʌˈi]}}('my', pl.), {{lang|ru|аист}} {{IPA|[ˈa.ɪst]}} ('stork'), {{lang|ru|делает}} {{IPA|[ˈdʲe.ɫə.ɪt]}} ('does').{{sfn|Lightner|1972|p=130}} ({{Harvcoltxt|Halle|1959}} cites {{lang|ru|заезжать}} and other instances of intervening prefix and preposition boundaries as exceptions to this tendency.) Unstressed sequences {{IPA|/ja/}} and {{IPA|/ju/}} after vowels may be realized as {{IPA|[æ]}}, {{IPA|[y]}}: {{lang|ru|большая}} {{IPA|[bʌlʲˈʂa.æ]}} ('big', f.), {{lang|ru|знаю}} {{IPA|[ˈzna.y]}} ('(I) know').<ref>С. В. Князев, С. К. Пожарицкая. Современный русский литературный язык. Фонетика, графика, орфография, орфоэпия. Москва, 2005. Pp. 39, 182.</ref>

{{IPA|/i/}} velarizes hard consonants: {{lang|ru|ты}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-ты.ogg|[tˠɨ]}} ('you' sing.). {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} velarize and labialize hard consonants and labialize soft consonants: {{lang|ru|бок}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-бок.ogg|[bˠʷok]|help=no}} ('side'), {{lang|ru|нёс}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-нёс.ogg|[nʲʷɵs]|help=no}} ('(he) carried').{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|pp=79–80}} {{IPA|/o/}} is a diphthong {{IPA|[ʊ̯o]}} or even a triphthong {{IPA|[ʊ̯ɔʌ̯]}}, with a closer lip rounding at the beginning of the vowel that gets progressively weaker, particularly when occurring word-initially or word-finally under stress.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Yanushevskaya|Bunčić|2015|p=225}}</ref>

A weak palatal offglide may occur between certain soft consonants and back vowels (e.g. {{lang|ru|ляжка}} 'thigh' {{IPA|[ˈlʲi̯aʂkə]}}).{{sfn|Jones|Ward|1969|p=?}}

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==Further reading== {{refbegin|35em}} * {{Citation |title=Introduction to Russian Phonology and Word Structure |last= Hamilton |first=William S. |year=1980 |publisher=Slavica Publishers }} *{{citation |last1 = Gasanov |first1 = A.A. |last2 = Babayev |first2 = I.A. |year = 2010 |title = Курс лекций по фонетике современного русского языка |trans-title = Lectures on modern Russian phonetics |url = http://bsu-edu.org/ders_vesaitleri/16.pdf |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111111191420/http://bsu-edu.org/ders_vesaitleri/16.pdf |archive-date = 2011-11-11 }} *{{citation |last=Hamann |first=Silke |year=2002 |contribution=Postalveolar Fricatives in Slavic Languages as Retroflexes |contribution-url=http://www.let.uu.nl/~Silke.Hamann/personal/Hamann2002SlavicRet.pdf |editor-last=Baauw |editor-first=S. |editor2-last=Huiskes |editor2-first=M. |editor3-last=Schoorlemmer |editor3-first=M. |title=OTS Yearbook 2002 |pages=105–127 |place=Utrecht |publisher=Utrecht Institute of Linguistics |access-date=2008-02-07 }} * {{citation |last=Press |first=Ian |year=1986 |title=Aspects of the phonology of the Slavonic languages: the vowel y and the Consonantal Correlation of Palatalization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYBgH2yEjR0C |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=90-6203-848-4 }} *{{citation |last=Shcherba |first=Lev Vladimirovich |author-link=Lev Shcherba |year=1912 |title=Russkie glasnye v kachestvennom i kolichestvennom otnoshennii |place=St. Petersburg |publisher=Tipografiia IU. }} *{{citation |last=Sussex |first=Roland |year=1992 |chapter=Russian |editor-last=Bright |editor-first=W. |title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics |edition=1st |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=New York }} {{refend}}

Category:Russian language Category:Slavic phonologies