List of ancient watermills

{{Short description|none}} {{For|an overview of early medieval European watermills from 500 to 1000 AD|List of early medieval watermills}} [[File:Barbegal mill 02.jpg|thumb|250px|The Barbegal mill, located on a steep slope in southern France, is considered the biggest ancient mill complex. Its capacity was sufficient to feed the whole nearby city of Arles.<ref>{{harvnb|Greene|2000|p=39}}</ref>]] [[File:Römische Sägemühle.svg|thumb|250px|Scheme of a water-driven sawmill at Hierapolis, Roman Asia. The 3rd century mill is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.<ref name="Ritti, Grewe, Kessener 2000, 161"/>]]

This '''list of ancient watermills''' presents an overview of water-powered grain-mills and industrial mills in classical antiquity, including the Hellenistic period through the Roman period up until ''circa'' 500 AD.

The water wheel and watermill are the earliest instances of machines harnessing natural forces to replace human muscular labour (apart from the sail).<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=9}}</ref> As such, it holds a special place in the history of technology and also in economic studies where it is associated with growth.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=371}}</ref>

The invention of the watermill is a question open to scholarly discussion,<ref name=":1">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pages=394–6}}</ref> but is generally agreed to have occurred in the ancient Near East,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Selin |first1=Helaine |author-link=Helaine Selin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282 |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |date=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9789401714167 |page=282}}</ref> either before<ref name=":0" /> or during the Hellenistic period.<ref name="invention"/> In the subsequent Roman period, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel as well as the horizontal water wheel.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pp=373–378}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|pp=12–15}}</ref> Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,<ref name="Trip hammer">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=158}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|p=403}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=16}}</ref> crushing ore,<ref name="Wikander 2000b, 407"/> sawing stones<ref name="Sawmill"/> and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|pp=406f.}}</ref>

An increased research interest has greatly improved our knowledge of Roman watermill sites in recent years. Numerous archaeological finds in the western half of the empire now complement the surviving documentary material from the eastern provinces; they demonstrate that the breakthrough of watermill technology occurred as early as the 1st century AD and was not delayed until the onset of the Middle Ages as previously thought.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|pp=151–154}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pp=370–373}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2002|pp=9–17}}; {{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=7–9}}</ref> The data shows a wide spread of grain-mills over most parts of the empire, with industrial mills also being in evidence in both halves.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pp=397–400}}</ref> Although the prevalence of grain-mills naturally meant that watermilling remained primarily a rural phenomenon, it began gaining importance in urban environments during late antiquity.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=379}}</ref>

The data below spans the period until ''circa'' 500 AD. The vast majority are dated to Roman times.

== Earliest evidence == Below the earliest ancient evidence for different types of watermills and the use of water-power for various industrial processes. This list is continued for the early Middle Ages here.

{| class="wikitable sortable" ! width="25%" | Date ! width="40%" | Water-powered mill types ! width="25%" | Reference (or find spot) ! width="10%" | Modern country |- |Possibly before c. 350 BC |Possible horizontal-wheeled corn mill<ref name=":0" /> |Persian Empire (hypothesized place of invention)<ref name=":0" /> |Iran, Iraq, Turkey |- |Possibly first half of 3rd century BC |Horizontal-wheeled mill <ref name="invention">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pp=396f.}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=11}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2002|pp=7f.}}</ref> |Byzantium (hypothesized place of invention)<ref name=":1" /> |Turkey |- |Possibly c. 240 BC |Vertical-wheeled mill <ref name="invention"/> |Alexandria (hypothesized place of invention)<ref name=":1" /> |Egypt |- |Before 71 BC? |Grain-mill ("watermill") <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=160}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=396}}</ref> |Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556 |Turkey |- |40/10 BC |Undershot wheel mill <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pp=373f.}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=12}}</ref> |Vitruvius, X, 5.2 |Unspecified |- |40/10 BC |Possible kneading machine <ref name="Wikander 2000b, 402">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|p=402}}</ref> |Vitruvius, X, 5.2 |Unspecified |- |20 BC/10 AD |Overshot wheel mill <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=375}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=13}}</ref> |Antipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6 |Unspecified |- |c. 20 AD |Trip hammer<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Needham |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencecivilisat0004jose/page/n585/mode/2up |title=Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology (Part II: Mechanical Technology) |date= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1965 |isbn=978-0-521-05803-2 |pages=390–2}}</ref> |Huan Tan, ''Xin Lun'' |China |- |73/4 AD |Possible fulling mill<ref name="Wikander 2000b, 406">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|p=406}}</ref> |Antioch |Syria |- |2nd century AD |Multiple mill complex <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|pp=154–162}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=11}}</ref> |Barbegal mill |France |- |Late 2nd century AD |Breastshot wheel mill <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 375"/> |Les Martres-de-Veyre |France |- |Second half of 3rd century AD |Sawmill; crank and connecting rod system with gear train <ref>{{harvnb|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007|p=154}}</ref> |Hierapolis sarcophagus |Turkey |- |Late 3rd or early 4th century AD |Turbine mill <ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1995|pp=507f.}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=377}}; {{harvnb|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=13}}</ref> |Chemtou and Testour |Tunisia |- |Late 3rd or early 4th century AD |Possible tanning mill <ref name="Saepinum">{{harvnb|Brun|Leguilloux|2014|pp=160–170}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|2020|p=171}}</ref> |Saepinum |Italy |- |? |Possible furnace<ref name="Wikander 2000b, 407">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|p=407}}</ref> |Marseille |France |- |}

<gallery class="center"> Image:Undershot water wheel schematic.svg|Undershot water wheel Image:Breastshot water wheel schematic.svg|Breastshot water wheel Image:Overshot water wheel schematic.svg|Overshot water wheel </gallery>

== Written sources == In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.

{| class="wikitable sortable" ! width="20%" | Reference ! width="10%" | Location ! width="25%" | Date ! width="15%" | Type of evidence ! width="30%" | Comments on |- |Ammianus Marcellinus, 18.8.11 <ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2001}}</ref> |Amida |359 AD |History |Multiple mill complex |- |Antipater of Thessalonica, IX, 418.4–6 <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 375">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=375}}</ref> |Unspecified |20 BC/10 AD |Poem |Earliest reference to overshot wheel mill <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 375"/> |- |Ausonius, Mosella, 362–364 <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|pp=404f.}}</ref> |Ruwer river |c. 370 AD |Poem |Water-powered marble saws and grain-mills |- |Beroea<ref name="Wilson 2001, 235">{{harvnb|Wilson|2001|p=235}}</ref> |Macedonia |2nd century AD |Decree |Tax revenue from watermills |- |Cedrenus, Historiarum compendium, p. 295 [516] <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=163, fn. 109}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=400}}</ref> |India |c. 325 AD |History | |- |CG-CI, pp. 86–90, no. 41 <ref name="Wikander 1985, 160">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=160}}</ref> |Corinth |6th century AD | | |- |CIL, III, 5866 <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=169, fn. 41}}</ref> |Günzburg |1st/3rd century AD |Epigraphy |Miller’s guild <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 398">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=398}}</ref> |- |CIL, III, 14969, 2 <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=160}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=398}}</ref> |Promona |1st/4th century AD |Epigraphy | |- |CIL, VI, 1711 <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 400, 123"/> | |c. 480 AD |Epigraphy | |- |Codex Justinianus, XI, 43, 10, 3 <ref name="Wikander 1985, 160"/> |Constantinople |474/491 AD |Legal code | |- |Codex Theodosianus, XIV, 15.4 <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 400, 123">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=400, fn. 123}}</ref> | |398 AD |Legal code | |- |Diocletian, XV, 54 <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 398"/> | |301 AD |Price edict | |- |Euchromius, VII, pp. 138–9, no. 169 <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=171, fn. 82}}; {{harvnb|Brun|2006|p=105}}</ref> |Sardis |4th to 5th/6th century AD |Epigraphy |Watermill engineer |- |Gregory of Nyssa, In Ecclesiasten, III, 656A Migne <ref name="Wikander 1985, 171, 82"/> | |c. 370/390 AD |Theology |Water-powered marble saws? <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|p=405}}</ref> |- |Huan Tan, ''Xin Lun <ref name=":2" />'' |China |c. 20 AD |Treatise |Trip hammer |- |John Cassian, Conlationes Patrum, I, 18 <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=399, fn. 121}}</ref> | |426 AD? |Theology | |- |Letter <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=171, fn. 69}}</ref> |Egypt |5th century AD | |Possible watermill |- |Libanius, Or. 4.29 <ref name="Wilson 2001, 235"/> |Antioch |380s AD |Rhetoric |Tax on watermills |- |MAMA, VII, p. 70, no. 305, lines 29–32 <ref name="Wikander 1985, 171, 82">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=171, fn. 82}}</ref> |Orcistus |c. 329 AD <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=399}}</ref> |Epigraphy |Town privilege |- |Mar. Aur. Apollodotos Kalliklianos <ref>{{harvnb|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007|pp=143–146}}</ref> |Hierapolis |Second half of 3rd century AD |Epigraphy |Member of guild of water-millers |- |Molitor <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 398"/> |Châteauneuf |1st century AD |Epigraphy | |- |Palladius, Opus agriculturae, I, 41, (42) <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|p=82}}</ref> | |4th/5th century AD |Treatise |Use of waste water to drive watermills |- |Pliny, Naturalis Historia, XVIII, 23.97 <ref name="Wikander 1985, 158">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=158}}</ref> |Italy |c. 70 AD |Encyclopedia |Water-powered pestles <ref name="Wikander 2000b, 403"/> |- |Sabinianus I, 18 | |c. 450 AD |Hagiography | |- |Strabon, XII, 3, 30 C 556 <ref name="Wikander 1985, 160"/> |Cabira |Before 71 BC? <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=396}}</ref> |Geography | |- |Talmud, Shabbat, I, 5 <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=397, fn. 104}}</ref> | |Before 70 AD? | | |- |Two inscriptions <ref name="Wikander 2000b, 406"/> |Antioch |73/4 AD |Epigraphy |Possibly fulling mills |- |Visigothic Code, VII, 2, 12 and VIII, 4, 29–30 <ref name="Wikander 1985, 158"/> | |Late 5th century AD |Legal code | |- |Vita S. Romani abbatis, 17–18 <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=170, fn. 45}}</ref> | |c. 450 AD |Hagiography |Water-powered pestles <ref name="Wikander 2000b, 403">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000b|p=403}}</ref> |- |Vitruvius, X, 5.2 <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 373f.">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pp=373f.}}</ref> | |40/10 BC |Engineering |Earliest description of undershot wheel mill <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 373f."/> |- |Vitruvius, X, 5.2 <ref name="Wikander 2000b, 402"/> | |40/10 BC |Engineering |Possible kneading machine |- |}

== Graphical representations == This section deals with depictions of watermills which are preserved in ancient paintings, reliefs, mosaics, etc.

{| class="wikitable sortable" ! width="20%" | Place (or object) ! width="10%" | Country ! width="25%" | Date ! width="15%" | Type of evidence ! width="30%" | Identification/Remains |- |Coemeterium Maius at Rome<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=170, fn. 61}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=375}}</ref> |Italy |Late 3rd century AD? |Wall painting | |- |Utica<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=159}}</ref> |Tunisia |4th century AD |Mosaic <ref group="A">Character as watermill disputed ({{harvnb|Wilson|1995|p=375}})</ref> | |- |Great Palace of Constantinople<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=171, fn. 77}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|pp=384f.}}</ref> |Turkey |c. 450/500 AD |Mosaic |One probable and one possible representation |- |Hierapolis sarcophagus<ref name="Sawmill">{{harvnb|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007}}</ref> |Turkey |Second half of 3rd century AD |Relief |Water-powered stone sawmill; earliest known crank and connecting rod system <ref name="Ritti, Grewe, Kessener 2000, 161">{{harvnb|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007|p=161}}</ref> |- |}

== Archaeological finds ==

=== Watermill sites === Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the ancient period.

{| class="wikitable sortable" ! width="20%" | Site ! width="10%" | Country ! width="30%" | Date ! width="40%" | Identification/Remains |- |Mouzaïa des Mines, near <ref name="Wilson 1995, 507f.">{{harvnb|Wilson|1995|pp=507f.}}</ref> |Algeria |Unspecified |Unspecified remains |- |Oued Bou Ardoun <ref name="Wilson 1995, 507f."/> |Algeria |Possibly 2nd to 3rd century AD |Unspecified remains |- |Oued Bou Ya'koub <ref name="Wilson 1995, 507f."/> |Algeria |Unspecified |Drop-tower mill |- |Oued Mellah <ref name="Wilson 1995, 507f."/> |Algeria |Possibly 4th century AD |Drop-tower mill |- |Ardleigh, Spring Valley Mill <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|1984|pp=111–112}}</ref> |England |Unspecified |Possible Roman watermill site including millstones |- |Chesters<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=35–36}}</ref> |England |Possibly 3rd century AD |Mill-race, mill-chamber, tail-race, millstones |- |Fullerton<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=25–27}}</ref> |England |Unspecified |Two watermills |- |Haltwhistle Burn Head<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=43–46}}</ref> |England |225–70 AD |Entire establishment |- |Ickham I <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|1984b|pp=143–180}}</ref> |England |150–280 AD |Mill-race, mill-building, fragments of millstones |- |Ickham II <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=33–35}}</ref> |England |3rd and 4th centuries AD |Mill-race, sluice-gate, mill-building, fragments of millstones |- |Nettleton<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=28–29}}</ref> |England |230 AD |Mill-race, sluice-gate, wheel-pit, tail-race |- |Wherwell<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|1984|pp=115–116}}</ref> |England |Late 3rd or early 4th century AD |Mill-channel, mill-building (?), fragments of millstones |- |Willowford <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=36–37}}</ref> |England |Late 2nd or 3rd century AD? <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=397, fn. 106}}</ref> |Water-channels, sluices (?), fragments of millstones |- |Barbegal mill<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=14–25}}</ref> |France |2nd century AD <ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=11}}</ref> |Multiple mill complex with sixteen overshot wheels on two mill-races, fed by aqueduct |- |Fontvieille, Calade du Castellet <ref>{{harvnb|Amouric|Thernot|Vacca-Goutouli|Bruneton|2000}}</ref> |France |5th/6th century AD |Horizontal-wheeled mill |- |Gannes <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|pp=154–162}}</ref> |France |Presumably 4th or 5th century AD |Horizontal (?) water-wheel |- |La Bourse<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=29–31}}</ref> |France |Late 5th century AD |Remains of waterwheel and curved trough. |- |La Crau<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=21–22}}</ref> |France |2nd century AD |Vertical-wheeled mill |- |La Garde (Var)<ref name="Brun 2006, 113">{{harvnb|Brun|2006|p=113}}</ref> |France |Unspecified |Vertical-wheeled mill |- |Lattes<ref name="Brun 2006, 113"/> |France |Unspecified |Unspecified |- |Le Cannet-des-Maures<ref>{{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=107, 113}}</ref> |France |5th century AD |Two horizontal-wheeled mills |- |Les Arcs (Var)<ref>{{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=113}}</ref> |France |2nd/3rd century AD |Vertical-wheeled mill |- |Les Martres-de-Veyre I <ref name="Spain 2008 46–48">{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=46–48}}</ref> |France |1st century AD |Unspecified remains |- |Les Martres-de-Veyre II <ref name="Spain 2008 46–48"/> |France |Late 2nd century AD <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 375"/> |Entire establishment; breastshot wheel <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 375"/> |- |Lyon-Vaise<ref>{{harvnb|Brun|Borréani|1998|p=315}}; {{harvnb|Brun|2006|p=112}}</ref> |France |Late 1st century AD abandoned |Millstones, mill-chamber timbers |- |Paulhan I–III <ref>{{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=113, 116}}</ref> |France |40/50–early 3rd century AD |Three consecutive mills |- |Pézenas<ref>{{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=107, 116}}</ref> |France |2nd century AD |Horizontal-wheeled mill |- |Saint-Doulchard<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=51}}</ref> |France |1st century AD |Wooden paddles. |- |Taradeau<ref name="Brun 2006, 113"/> |France |Late 2nd–4th century AD |Horizontal-wheeled mill |- |Bobingen<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2014|p=207}}</ref> |Germany |117/138 AD |Posts, boards, mill-race |- |Dasing<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=40–41}}</ref> |Germany |Merovingian |Timber posts and mill race, remains of wheel and paddles, millstones. |- |Inden<ref>{{harvnb|Geilenbrügge|2010|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Geilenbrügge|Schürmann|2010}}; Images: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ehemalige_r%C3%B6mische_Wasserm%C3%BChle_Inde-1.JPG?uselang=de 1] and [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:R%C3%B6mische_Wasserm%C3%BChle_Inde.JPG?uselang=de 2]</ref> |Germany |End of 1st century BC |Millstones, wheel-shaft bearings, paddle fragments |- |Lösnich I <ref name="Spain 2008 61–63">{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=61–63}}</ref> |Germany |2nd/4th century AD? <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 375"/> |Mill-race, wheel-pit, fragment of a millstone |- |Lösnich II <ref name="Spain 2008 61–63"/> |Germany |2nd/4th century AD? <ref name="Wikander 2000a, 375"/> |Mill-race |- |Munich-Perlach <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=41f.}}; {{harvnb|Wikander|2014|p=207}}</ref> |Germany |End of 2nd century AD |Mill-chamber, mill-race, millstone fragments; possibly duplex drive |- |Athens, Agora I <ref name="Spain 2008 55–59">{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=55–59}}</ref> |Greece |5th and 6th centuries AD |Aqueduct, wheel-pit, mill-chamber, tail-race |- |Athens, Agora II <ref name="Spain 2008 55–59"/> |Greece |460/75 to c.580 AD |Entire establishment |- |Athens, Agora III <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Greece |Unspecified |Unspecified remains |- |Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saatsaz |first=Masoud |last2=Rezaei |first2=Abolfazl |date=2023-04-04 |title=The technology, management, and culture of water in ancient Iran from prehistoric times to the Islamic Golden Age |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-023-01617-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1057/s41599-023-01617-x |issn=2662-9992|doi-access=free }}</ref> |Iran |3rd century AD |About 40 watermills |- |El-Qabu <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |Possibly Roman |Unspecified remains |- |En Shoqeq <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |2nd century AD |Masonry dam with mills |- |Farod I–III <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |5th or 6th century AD |Three drop-tower mills |- |Farod IV–V <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |Unspecified |Two mills |- |Ma'agan Michael<ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |3rd century AD? |Masonry dam, with eleven mills |- |Nahal Tanninim<ref>{{harvnb|Ad|Saʿid|Frankel|2005}}; {{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=59–61}}</ref> |Israel |Early 4th/mid-7th century AD |Six vertical-wheeled mills with duplex drives and underdriven Pompeian millstones |- |Wadi Fejjas I–III <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |Probably Roman |Three drop-tower mills |- |Wadi Serrar <ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |Probably Roman |Unspecified remains |- |Yarkon<ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Israel |2nd century AD |Unspecified remains |- |Oderzo<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=42f.}}</ref> |Italy |2nd century AD |Mill-race |- |Rome, Baths of Caracalla I <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=22–24}}</ref> |Italy |Between 212/235 to mid-3rd century AD |Two vertical-wheeled mills |- |Rome, Baths of Caracalla II <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=51–55}}</ref> |Italy |Mid-3rd century to 5th century AD |Two vertical-wheeled mills |- |Rome, Janiculum<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=37–40}}</ref> |Italy |Early 3rd century AD <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=393}}</ref> |Aqueducts, reservoirs, sluices, millstones |- |Saepinum<ref name="Saepinum"/> |Italy |Late 3rd or early 4th century AD <ref name="Saepinum"/> |Aqueduct, sluice-gates, wheel-pit, tail-race.<ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> Recently identified as tanning mill.<ref name="Saepinum"/> |- |San Giovanni di Ruoti <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=374}}</ref> |Italy |Early 1st century AD |Unspecified remains |- |Venafro<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=64–67}}</ref> |Italy |Possibly early Empire |Undershot water wheel,<ref name="Wikander 2000a, 385">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=385}}</ref> millstones |- |Gerasa<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|2002|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007|pp=149–151}}</ref> |Jordan |6th century AD |Water-powered stone sawmill with two four-bladed saws; crank and connecting rod system without gear train |- |Jarash<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=24–25}}</ref> |Jordan |527-65 AD |Wheel-pit walls, bearing emplacements, supply cistern, partly sawn stone drums. |- |Wadi al-Hasa<ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Jordan |Probably late Roman |At least nineteen possible drop-tower mills |- |Oued es Soueïr <ref name="Wilson 1995, 507f."/> |Morocco |Unspecified |Unspecified remains |- |Avenches <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=31–32}}</ref> |Switzerland |57/58–80 AD |Mill-race timbers |- |Rodersdorf, Klein Büel <ref>{{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=111f.}}</ref> |Switzerland |1st century AD |Millstone, mill-race |- |Palmyra<ref name="Wikander 1985 154–162"/> |Syria |Possibly Roman |Unspecified remains |- |Chemtou<ref name="Wilson 1995, 507f."/> |Tunisia |Late 3rd or early 4th century AD |Triple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels |- |Testour<ref name="Wilson 1995, 507f."/> |Tunisia |Late 3rd or early 4th century AD |Triple helix turbine mill with horizontal wheels |- |Colossae <ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=59}}</ref> |Turkey |Unspecified |Possible multiple-mill complex <ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=394, fn. 95}}</ref> |- |Kurşunlu Waterfall, near Perge<ref>{{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=105, 107}}</ref> |Turkey |Unspecified |Unspecified remains |- |Lamus river<ref name="Wilson 2001, 235"/> |Turkey |Apparently late antique |Seven horizontal-wheeled mills |- |}

=== Millstones === The following list comprises stray finds of ancient millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a capstan. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills.<ref name="Wikander 2000a, 372">{{harvnb|Wikander|2000a|p=372}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" ! width="20%" | Site ! width="10%" | Country ! width="30%" | Date (or find context) ! width="40%" | Remains |- |Barton Court Farm <ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165">{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|pp=163–165}}</ref> |England |4th century AD well |Fragments of four millstones |- |Chedworth<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Roman villa |One lower stone, fragment of another |- |Chew Park <ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Late 3rd or early 4th century AD |One complete upper stone, part of another |- |Dicket Mead<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Roman building |Fragments of millstones |- |Leeds<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Roman pottery dated to 1st and 2nd centuries AD |Fragment of millstone |- |Littlecote Roman Villa<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |2nd century AD timber building |Fragment of millstone |- |London<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |1st-2nd century AD |Several millstones |- |London<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Late 2nd century AD Roman ship |One unfinished millstone |- |Selsey<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Unspecified |Fragment of millstone |- |Vindolanda<ref name="Wilson 2002 10">{{harvnb|Wilson|2002|pp=10}}</ref> |England |Possibly Roman |Four millstones |- |Wantage<ref name="Wilson 2002 10"/> |England |On display in museum |Two millstones |- |Woolaston<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |c. 320 AD |Two upper millstones |- |La Chapelle-Taillefert<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |France |Pottery and coins from 2nd century AD |Pair of millstones |- |Lyon<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |France |On display in museum |Many unpublished millstones |- |Paris<ref name="Wilson 2002 10"/> |France |On display in museum |Six millstones |- |Aalen<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Germany |On display in museum |Five millstones |- |Cologne<ref name="Wilson 2002 10"/> |Germany |On display in museum |Three millstones |- |Dasing<ref>{{harvnb|Czysz|1994|p=152}}</ref> |Germany |Unspecified |Fragments of millstones |- |Koblenz<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Germany |On display in museum |Several millstones |- |Mayen<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Germany |Quarry |Unfinished Roman millstones |- |Budapest<ref name="Wilson 2002 10"/> |Hungary |On display in museum |Six millstones |- |Iran<ref name=":0" /> |Iran |c. 350 BC |Fragments of millstones |- |Beit She'an<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Israel |Late 4th or early 5th century AD |Upper millstone |- |Buqueiah <ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Israel |Allegedly from ancient watermill |Upper millstone |- |Bologna<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Italy |On display in museum |Six millstones |- |Naples<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Italy |Probably Roman |Several millstones |- |Palatine, Rome<ref>{{harvnb|Brun|2006|pp=107, 110}}</ref> |Italy |4th or 5th century AD |47 millstones from at least five watermills |- |Apulum<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Romania |2nd or 3rd century AD |Pair of millstones |- |Cluj-Napoca<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Romania |2nd or 3rd century AD |Upper millstone |- |Micia<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Romania |2nd or 3rd century AD |Pair of millstones |- |Upper Tigris<ref name=":0" /> |Turkey |c. 350 BC |Fragments of millstones |- |Caerwent<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Wales |Smithy |Millstones |- |Whitton <ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |Wales |Unspecified |Fragment of millstone |- |}

=== Water wheels and other components === Although more rare than the massive millstones, finds of wooden and iron parts of the mill machinery can also point to the existence of ancient watermills.<ref>{{harvnb|Wikander|1985|p=165}}</ref> Large stone mortars have been found at many mines; their deformations suggest automated crushing mills worked by water wheels.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnham|1997|pp=332–336}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" ! width="20%" | Site ! width="10%" | Country ! width="30%" | Date (or find context) ! width="40%" | Remains |- |Great Chesterford<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Early 5th century AD hoard |Iron spindle with three winged rynds |- |Silchester<ref name="Wikander 1985, 163–165"/> |England |Mid-4th century AD hoard |Iron spindle |- |Saint-Doulchard<ref>{{harvnb|Champagne|Ferdière|Rialland|1997}}; {{harvnb|Brun|2006|p=112}}</ref> |France |1/10 to c.50 AD |Paddles, mill-chamber posts |- |Conimbriga<ref name="Wilson 2002 10"/> |Portugal |On display in museum, allegedly 1st century AD |Mill-wheel |- |Hagendorn<ref>{{harvnb|Spain|2008|pp=49–50}}</ref> |Switzerland |Late 2nd century AD |Three undershot wheels |- |Dolaucothi<ref name="Wikander 2000b, 407"/> |Wales |1st and 2nd centuries AD |Stone anvil (Carreg Pumsaint) nearby  |- |}

== References == {{reflist|2}}

== Notes == {{reflist|group="A"}}

== Sources == Watermill lists which summarize the rapidly developing state of research are provided by Wikander 1985 and Brun 2006, with additions by Wilson 1995 and 2002. Spain 2008 undertakes a technical analysis of around thirty known ancient mill sites.

*{{Citation | last1 = Ad | first1 = Uzi | last2 = Saʿid | first2 = ʿAbd al-Salam | last3 = Frankel | first3 = Rafael | year = 2005 | title = Water-mills with Pompeian-type Millstones at Nahal Tanninim | periodical = Israel Exploration Journal | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 156–171 }} *{{Citation | last1 = Amouric | first1 = Henri | last2 = Thernot | first2 = Robert | last3 = Vacca-Goutouli | first3 = Mireille | last4 = Bruneton | first4 = Hélène | editor1-last = Leveau | editor1-first = Philippe | editor-link = Philippe Leveau | editor2-last = Saquet | editor2-first = J. P. | contribution = Un moulin à turbine de la fin de l'Antiquité. La Calade du Castellet (Fontvieille) | title = Milieu et sociétés dans la Vallée des Baux. 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An Interim Report | periodical = History of Technology | volume = 10 | pages = 151–179 }} *{{Citation | last = Wikander | first = Örjan | editor-last = Wikander | editor-first = Örjan | contribution = The Water-Mill | title = Handbook of Ancient Water Technology | series = Technology and Change in History | volume = 2 | year = 2000a | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden | isbn = 90-04-11123-9 | pages = 371–400 }} *{{Citation | last = Wikander | first = Örjan | editor-last = Wikander | editor-first = Örjan | contribution = Industrial Applications of Water-Power | title = Handbook of Ancient Water Technology | series = Technology and Change in History | volume = 2 | year = 2000b | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden | isbn = 90-04-11123-9 | pages = 401–410 }} *{{Citation | last = Wikander | first = Örjan | editor1-last = Karlsson | editor1-first = Lars | editor2-last = Carlsson | editor2-first = Susanne | editor3-last = Kullberg | editor3-first = Jesper | contribution = Early Water-mills East of the Rhine | title = ΛΑΒΡΥΣ. Studies presented to Pontus Hellström | series = Boreas. 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Chronological Trends and Geographical Spread | title = Capital, Investment, and Innovation in the Roman World | year = 2020 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-884184-5 | pages = 147–194 }}

== Further reading == *{{Citation | last = Kessener | first = Paul | year = 2010 | title = Stone Sawing Machines of Roman and Early Byzantine Times in the Anatolian Mediterranean | url = https://www.academia.edu/7326869/Stone_Sawing_Machines_of_Roman_and_Early_Byzantine_Times_in_the_Anatolian_Mediterranean | periodical = Adalya | volume = 13 | pages = 283–303 | issn = 1301-2746 }}

== External links == {{Commons category-inline|Ancient Roman mills|Roman mills}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080528061612/http://traianus.rediris.es/ Traianus] – Technical investigation of Roman public works *The Oxford Roman Economy Project: [http://oxrep.classics.ox.ac.uk/oxrep/index.php?t=10&pg=23 The uptake of mechanical technology in the ancient world: the water-mill] – Quantitative data on watermills up to 700 AD

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Ancient Watermills}} Watermills Ancient