{{Short description|Revival of ancient Roman polytheism}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}} [[File:Celebrazione del 2777 Natale di Roma - Pietas Comunità Gentile 2.jpg|thumb|Celebration of the 2777th [[Natale di Roma]] at [[Circus Maximus]]]]
Revivals of ancient Roman polytheism have taken various forms in the modern era. These efforts seek to re-establish the [[religion in ancient Rome|traditional Roman]] [[Cult (religious practice)|cults]] and customs, often referred to as '''cultus deorum romanorum''' (worship of the Roman gods), '''religio romana''' (Roman religion), '''via romana agli dei''' (the Roman way to the gods), '''Roman-Italic religion''', or '''gentile Roman religion'''. Several loosely affiliated organizations have emerged in the contemporary period.<ref name="marre">{{cite book |last=Marré |first=Davide |year=2008 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQatYivIsKsC&pg=PT17 |chapter=Tradizione Romana |trans-chapter=Roman tradition |language=Italian |editor-last=Marré |editor-first=Davide |title=L'Essenza del Neopaganesimo |trans-title=The Essence of Neopaganism |location=Milan |publisher=Circolo dei Trivi |pages=35–37 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Angelini |first=Andrea |date=22 January 2019 |url=https://italicsmag.com/2019/01/22/roman-way-gods/ |title=The Roman Way To The Gods: The Ancients Are Back |work=Italics Magazine |accessdate=28 August 2021 }}</ref>
==History==
===Post-classical period=== Christianity was introduced late in [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]], with the first Greek temples converted into churches during the 11th century. Byzantine monk [[Saint Nikon the Metanoeite|Nikon "the Metanoite"]] (Νίκων ὁ Μετανοείτε) was sent in the 10th century to convert the predominantly [[pagan]] Maniots. Although his preaching began the conversion process, it took over 200 years for the majority to accept Christianity fully by the 11th and 12th centuries. [[Patrick Leigh Fermor]] noted that the Maniots, isolated by mountains, were among the last Greeks to abandon the old religion, doing so towards the end of the 9th century:
{{quote|Sealed off from outside influences by their mountains, the semi-[[rock-cut architecture|troglodytic]] Maniots themselves were the last of the Greeks to be converted. They only abandoned the old religion of Greece towards the end of the ninth century. It is surprising to remember that this peninsula of rock, so near the heart of the Levant from which Christianity springs, should have been baptised three whole centuries after the arrival of [[Augustine of Canterbury|St. Augustine]] in far-away [[Kent, England|Kent]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Leigh Fermor|first=Patrick|title=Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese|year=1958|publisher=John Murray|page=46}}</ref>}} [[File:Kapitolinische Wölfin Museum Capitolini.jpg|thumb| ''[[Capitoline Wolf]]'', sculpture of the [[She-wolf (Roman mythology)|she-wolf]] feeding the twins [[Romulus and Remus]], the most famous image associated with the [[founding of Rome]].]]
According to [[Constantine VII]] in ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'', the Maniots were referred to as 'Hellenes' and only fully [[Christianization|Christianized]] in the 9th century, despite some church ruins from the 4th century indicating early Christian presence. The region's mountainous terrain allowed the Maniots to evade the Eastern Roman Empire's Christianization efforts, thus preserving pagan traditions, which coincided with significant years in the life of [[Gemistos Plethon]].
Another safe area for the pagans was the city of [[Harran]] which, despite the persecution of its pagan inhabitants by Byzantine Emperor Maurice, remained a largely pagan city well into the early Islamic period. When the city was besieged by the armies of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in 639–640, it was the pagan community that negotiated its peaceful surrender. Under the subsequent rule of the caliphates, Harran became a major settlement within the [[Diyar Mudar]] region and retained a significant degree of autonomy. During the [[First Fitna]], the people of Harran sided with [[Mu'awiya I]] over [[Ali]] at the [[Battle of Siffin]] in 657, which allegedly resulted in a brutal retaliation by Ali, who massacred much of the population.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=17}}
Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750), Harran prospered and was selected as the capital by the last Umayyad caliph, [[Marwan II]], from 744 to 750. This move may have been influenced by the city's pagan sympathies and its strategic position near the empire's eastern provinces.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} The city's prominence under Umayyad rule saw it grow as a cultural and scholarly center, with the establishment of the first Muslim university in 717 under [[Umar II]], attracting scholars from across the Islamic world.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}}
Although Harran lost its capital status under the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], it continued to flourish, particularly during the reign of [[Harun al-Rashid]] (786–809), when its university became a key center for translation and intellectual activity.{{Sfn|Özdeniz|Bekleyen|Gönül|Gönül|1998|p=478}} The local religion, blending elements of Mesopotamian paganism and Neoplatonism, persisted into the 10th century, though periodic decrees enforced conversions to Islam, especially under [[Al-Ma'mun]] in 830.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=23}} Nonetheless, Harran retained its heterogeneity, with a population that included Muslims, Christians, Jews, and a variety of other religious groups.
===Renaissance to Risorgimento===
The [[Osirian Egyptian Order]] (OOE), founded in the 18th century, claims that it preserves elements of ancient Roman and Mediterranean religions, via priests who fled Alexandria around 391 CE after the destruction of the Serapeum and settled in Naples.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lebano|first=Giustiniano|title=Esoterismo Tradizionale e Ordine Osirideo Egizio|year=1998|publisher=Edizioni Mediterranee|location=Rome}}</ref> The OOE preserved Greco-Roman and Egyptian ritual traditions continuously over the centuries. [[Giuliano Kremmerz]] was initiated into the OOE in the late 19th century,<ref>{{cite book|last=Lebano|first=Giustiniano|title=Il Tempio dei Misteri|year=2000|publisher=Edizioni Mediterranee|location=Rome}}</ref> and founded the Brotherhood of Myriam, which directly descends from the OOE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brotherhoodofmyriam.it/history|title=History of the Brotherhood of Myriam|publisher=Brotherhood of Myriam Official Site|accessdate=2025-05-23}}</ref> This claim can be understood as a form of survival, as opposed to revival, of ancient ritual practices, and it has influenced some modern pagan groups in Italy.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giudice|first=Christian|year=2012|title=Pagan Rome was Rebuilt in a Play: Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo and the Representation of Rumon|journal=The Pomegranate|volume=14|issue=2|pages=212–232|doi=10.1558/pome.v14i2.212}}</ref>
Interest in reviving [[ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] religious traditions can be traced to the [[Renaissance]], with figures such as [[Gemistus Pletho]] who influenced [[Cosimo de Medici]] to establish the [[Platonic Academy (Florence)|Florentine Neoplatonic Academy]] and [[Julius Pomponius Laetus]] (student of Pletho) who advocated for a revival<ref name="marre" /> and established the [[Roman academies|Roman academy]] which secretly celebrated the [[Natale di Roma]], an annual festival held in [[Rome]] on 21 April to celebrate the [[founding of Rome|founding of the city]].<ref name="Plutarch12">[[Plutarch]], ''[[Parallel Lives]] - Life of Romulus'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Romulus*.html#12 12.2] (from [[LacusCurtius]])</ref> According to [[legend]], [[Romulus]] is said to have founded the city of Rome on 21 April, 753 BC. From this date, the Roman chronology derived its system, known by the [[Latin]] phrase ''[[Ab urbe condita]]'', meaning 'from the founding of the City', which counted the years from this presumed foundation. The Academy was dissolved in 1468 when [[Pope Paul II]] ordered the arrest and execution of some of the members, [[Pope Sixtus IV]] allowed Laetus to open the academy again until the [[Sack of Rome (1527)|Sack of Rome]] in 1527.
After the [[French Revolution]], the French lawyer Gabriel André Aucler (mid 1700s–1815) adopted the name '''Quintus Nautius''' and sought to [[Modern paganism|revive paganism]], styling himself as its leader. He designed [[religious clothing]] and performed pagan rites at his home. In 1799, he published ''La Thréicie'', presenting his religious views. His teachings were later analyzed by [[Gérard de Nerval]] in ''[[Les Illuminés]]'' (1852).{{sfn|Lamoureux|1843|p=397}} Admiring [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome]], Aucler supported the [[French Revolution]] and saw it as a path to restoring an ancient republic.{{sfn|Gaume|1856|p=208}} He took the name Quintus Nautius, claimed Roman priestly lineage, and performed [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic]] rites at his home.{{sfn|Gérardin|Gérardin|1974|p=226}} His followers were mainly his household.{{sfn|Lamoureux|1843|p=397}} In 1799, he published ''La Thréicie'', advocating a revival of paganism in France, condemning Christianity, and promoting [[Pythagoreanism|universal animation]].{{sfn|Merkin|2014|p=257}}
In his later years, Aucler published a poem that some interpret as a recantation of his beliefs. He died in 1815 in [[Bourges]].{{sfn|Lamoureux|1843|p=398}} His pagan rites influenced the occultist {{ill|Lazare Lenain|fr}}, while [[Gérard de Nerval]] wrote an essay about him in ''[[Les Illuminés]]'' (1852).{{sfn|Merkin|2014|pp=257–258}}
During 19th-century Italy, the fall of the [[Papal States]] and the process of [[Italian unification]] fostered [[anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] sentiment among the intelligentsia. Intellectuals like archaeologist [[Giacomo Boni (archaeologist)|Giacomo Boni]]<ref>{{cite journal|first=Ciro |last=Parodo |year=2016 |doi=10.13125/medea-2415 |title=Roma antica e l’archeologia dei simboli nell’Italia fascista |journal=Medea}}</ref> Pagan and writer [[Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo]] promoted the restoration of Roman religious practices.<ref name="giudice">{{cite journal |last=Giudice |first=Christian |year=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9521300 |title=Pagan Rome was Rebuilt in a Play: Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo and the Representation of Rumon |journal=The Pomegranate |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=212–232 |doi=10.1558/pome.v14i2.212 |issn=1743-1735 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Buscemi |first=Francesco |year=2019 |chapter=The Sin of Eating Meat: Fascism, Nazism and the Construction of Sacred Vegetarianism |editor1-last=Gentilcore |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Proteins, Pathologies and Politics: Dietary Innovation and Disease from the Nineteenth Century |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=144 |isbn=978-1-3500-5686-2 }}</ref>
===Modern era=== [[File:Floralia in Aquincum.JPG|thumb|right|[[Nova Roma]]ns performing a Roman religious ceremony in [[Aquincum]] (Budapest)]] Some religious revivalists were also involved in [[occult]]ism, [[Pythagoreanism]], and [[Freemasonry]], including figures like [[Amedeo Rocco Armentano]], [[Arturo Reghini]], and Giulio Parise. In 1914, Reghini published Imperialismo Pagano (Pagan Imperialism), claiming an unbroken initiatory lineage in Italy that linked ancient Roman religion to modern times, via historical figures such as [[Numa Pompilius]], [[Virgil]], [[Dante Alighieri]], and [[Giuseppe Mazzini]].<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Giudice |first=Christian |date=14 October 2016 |url=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/45848 |title=Occultism and Traditionalism: Arturo Reghini and the Antimodern Reaction in Early Twentieth-Century Italy |type=PhD |publisher=[[University of Gothenburg]] |pages=19–20 |access-date=19 August 2021}}</ref>
The efforts to revive Roman cults aligned with the rise of the [[National Fascist Party]], and several polytheists attempted to form alliances with fascism. However, the signing of the [[Lateran Treaty]] in 1929 by [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Pope Pius XI]] left polytheists like Musmeci and Reghini disillusioned.<ref name="giudice" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Lloyd Thomas |first=Dana |year=2006 |chapter=Reghini, Arturo |editor-last=Hanegraaff |editor-first=Wouter |title=Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15231-1 |pages=979–980 }}</ref> Influenced by Reghini's work and the [[Julius Evola|Ur Group]], modern groups have emerged in Italy, including the [[Pietas Comunità Gentile|Associazione Tradizionale Pietas]] (established in 2005) and the [[Roman Traditional Movement]].
The public appeal for pre-Christian Roman spirituality in the years following [[fascism]] was largely driven by [[Julius Evola]]. By the late 1960s, a renewed "operational" interest in pagan Roman traditions emerged from youth circles around Evola, particularly concerning the experience of the ''Gruppo di Ur''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Giudice |first=Christian |year=2016 |title=Occultism and Traditionalism: Arturo Reghini and the Antimodern Reaction in Early Twentieth-Century Italy |publisher=[[University of Gothenburg]] |pages=19–20}}</ref> Evola's writings incorporated concepts from outside classical Roman religion, such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[sexual magic]], and private [[ritual nudity]]. This period saw the rise of the ''Gruppo dei Dioscuri'' in cities like Rome, Naples, and Messina, which published a series of four booklets, including titles such as ''L'Impeto della vera cultura'' and ''Rivoluzione Tradizionale e Sovversione'', before fading from public view.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Del Ponte |first=Renato |year=1990 |title=Studi su Evola e la Tradizione |publisher=Indipendente}}</ref> [[File:Thyrsus, YSEE e Pietas Comunità Gentile.jpg|thumb|Meeting between Thyrsus, [[YSEE]], and Pietas Comunità Gentile]] Contrary to some claims of dissolution, particularly by [[Renato del Ponte]], the group continued its activities after its founder's death in 2000, with its last public appearance being a conference titled "''Oltre ogni distruzione – la Tradizione vive''."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://example.com |title=Oltre ogni distruzione |access-date=2024-10-05}}</ref> Interest in ancient Roman religion also appeared in the Evolian magazine ''Arthos'', founded in [[Genoa]] in 1972, directed by Renato del Ponte, who authored works like ''Dei e miti italici'' (1985) and ''La religione dei Romani'' (1993). In 1984, experiences from the Dioscuri were revisited in the ''Gruppo Arx'' led by Salvatore Ruta, a former member of the original group. Between 1984 and 1986, the [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagorean]] Association, claimed to be a continuation of Arturo Reghini's original group, emerged in Calabria and Sicily, publishing the magazine ''Yghìeia'' until it ceased in 1988. Member Roberto Sestito then initiated various editorial activities, including the magazine ''Ignis'' (1990–1992) and the bulletin ''Il flauto di Pan'' (2000), though pagan-Roman themes were notably absent.<ref>{{cite book |last=Casalino |first=Giandomenico |year=1999 |title=Il culto romano |publisher=Indipendente}}</ref> The Genoese publisher ''Il Basilisco'' released numerous works in the ''Collana di Studi Pagani'' between 1979 and 1989, featuring texts by notable figures such as [[Simmaco]], [[Porfirio]], and [[Julian (emperor)|emperor Julian]]. The theme of Roman Tradition also appeared in the journal ''Politica Romana'' (1994–2004) by the association ''Senatus'', considered by many as a Roman-pagan, Pythagorean, and "Reghiniana" publication. A prominent activist during this time was actor Roberto Corbiletto, who died mysteriously in a lightning-related fire in 1999.
=== 2000s === [[File:Tempio di Marte - Via Appia - Pietas Comunità Gentile.jpg|thumb|Celebration of the 2777th [[Natale di Roma]] at the [[Temple of Mars]] on the [[Appian Way]]]] In the 2000s, [[Pietas Comunità Gentile|Associazione Tradizionale Pietas]] began reconstructing temples across Italy and sought legal recognition from the state, drawing inspiration from similar groups like [[YSEE]] in Greece. In 2023, Pietas participated in the [[European Congress of Ethnic Religions|ECER]] meeting, resulting in the signing of the Riga Declaration, which calls for the recognition of European ethnic religions.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2024-05-04 |date=4 July 2023 |language=en |title=Riga Declaration {{!}} Search Results {{!}} ECER |url=https://ecer-org.eu/?s=riga+declaration}}</ref>
Public rituals, such as those celebrating the ancient festival of the [[Natale di Roma]], have also resumed in recent years.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=2024-05-04 |language=en |title=PROGRAM |url=https://www.natalidiroma.it/programma |website=GRUPPO STORICO ROMANO}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |access-date=2024-05-04 |date=12 April 2024 |language=it |title=Gruppo Storico Romano for the 2777th Natale di Roma |url=https://www.turismoroma.it/it/eventi/gruppo-storico-romano-il-2777esimo-natale-di-roma |website=Turismo Roma}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |access-date=2024-05-04 |language=it |title=Natale di Roma all'ETRU |url=https://www.museoetru.it/natale-di-roma-alletru |website=Museo ETRU}}</ref> Nowadays, "Natale di Roma" has been celebrated with conferences and historical reenactments. In recent years, this event has regained significance, leading Italian institutions to recognize it more. Associations such as the "Gruppo Storico Romano" (GSR) have contributed to organizing the event through historical reenactments and religious events with the affiliated associations involved in the modern Roman religion. The Gruppo Storico Romano annually organizes a parade with participants in period costumes and representations of scenes from ancient life and celebrations that echo the religious rites of ancient Rome.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.museoetru.it/natale-di-roma-alletru | title=Natale di Roma all'ETRU }}</ref>
In 2024, the 2777th "Natale di Roma" was held, with the participation of Italian institutional representatives. During the event, a plan was announced to increase funding for historical reenactments and possible legislation aimed at regulating such celebrations to preserve and enhance cultural traditions. Additionally, the band of the Italian Army participated in the celebrations.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.turismoroma.it/it/eventi/gruppo-storico-romano-il-2777esimo-natale-di-roma | title=Gruppo Storico Romano per il 2777esimo Natale di Roma | date=12 April 2024 }}</ref> Every year, organizations from across Europe come to celebrate this date, demonstrating the importance and international appeal of the event.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PROPOSTA DI LEGGE d'iniziativa del deputato MOLLICONE |url=https://documenti.camera.it/_dati/leg18/lavori/stampati/pdf/18PDL0186670.pdf |website=documenti.camera.it}}</ref>
The idea of practicing Roman religion in the modern era has spread beyond Italy, with practitioners found in countries across Europe and the Americas. The most prominent international organization is [[Nova Roma]], founded in 1998, with active groups worldwide.<ref>Chryssides, George D. ''Historical Dictionary of New Religious Movements'' (2011, 2nd ed.).</ref>
==See also== * [[Hellenism (modern religion)]] * [[Neopaganism in Italy]] {{Portal|myths|Italy|Religion|ancient rome}}
==References== {{reflist}}
==Sources== {{refbegin}} * {{cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=ḤARRĀN |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XII, Fasc. 1 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/harran |last=Bosworth |first=C. E. |author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |pages=13–14}} * {{Cite journal |last=Frew |first=Donald |date=1999 |title=Harran: Last Refuge of Classical Paganism |url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/POM/article/view/2691 |journal=The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=17–29 |doi=10.1558/pome.v13i9.17|url-access=subscription }} * {{cite book |last=Gaume |first=Jean-Joseph |author-link=Jean-Joseph Gaume |year=1856 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AjSLLXbOza8C&pg=PA208 |title=La Révolution |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=Gaume freres |volume=2 }} * {{cite book |last1=Gérardin |first1=Ghislaine |last2=Gérardin |first2=Lucien |year=1974 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYoBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA226 |title=La magie : un savoir en action |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=Celt |isbn=2-7256-0053-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Lamoureux |first=Jean-Baptiste-Justin |year=1843 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aonNbrc9nDQC&pg=RA1-PA397 |chapter=Auclerc (Gabriel-André) |editor-last=Michaud |editor-first=Louis-Gabriel |editor-link=Louis Gabriel Michaud |title=Biographie universelle : ancienne et moderne |location=Paris |publisher=Thoisnier Desplaces |volume=1 }} * {{cite thesis |last=Merkin |first=Lucy |year=2014 |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/11685/Merkin2014.pdf |title=Nerval's ''Illimunés'', Eccentricity, and the Evolution of Madness |type=PhD |publisher=[[University of Edinburgh]] |access-date=31 May 2024 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Özdeniz |first1=M. B |last2=Bekleyen |first2=A |last3=Gönül |first3=I. A |last4=Gönül |first4=H |last5=Sarigül |first5=H |last6=Ilter |first6=T |last7=Dalkiliç |first7=N |last8=Yildirim |first8=M |date=1998 |title=Vernacular domed houses of Harran, Turkey |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197397598000277 |journal=Habitat International |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=477–485 |doi=10.1016/S0197-3975(98)00027-7 |issn=0197-3975|url-access=subscription }} * {{Cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David |date=2002 |title=The Ṣābians of Ḥarrān and the Classical Tradition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30224282 |journal=International Journal of the Classical Tradition |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=8–35 |doi=10.1007/BF02901729 |jstor=30224282 |s2cid=170507750 |issn=1073-0508|url-access=subscription }} {{refend}}
==Further reading== * {{cite book |last=Hakl |first=Hans Thomas |author-link=Hans Thomas Hakl |year=2009 |chapter=Das Neuheidentum der römisch-italischen Tradition. Von der Antike in die Gegenwart |trans-chapter=Neopaganism of the Roman-Italic tradition: from antiquity to the present |editor1-last=Gründer |editor1-first=René |editor1-link=René Gründer |editor2-last=Schetsche |editor2-first=Michael |editor3-last=Schmied-Knittel |editor3-first=Ina |title=Der andere Glaube. Europäische Alternativreligionen zwischen heidnischer Spiritualität und christlicher Leitkultur |trans-title=The other faith: European alternative religions between pagan spirituality and Christian dominant culture |series=Grenzüberschreitungen |volume=8 |language=German |location=Würzburg |publisher=Ergon |pages=57–76 |isbn=978-3-89913-688-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Barbera |first1=Giuseppe |title=Pietas: An Introduction to Roman Traditionalism |date=2 June 2021 |publisher=Mythology Corner |isbn=9780981759616 |pages=244 |edition=2nd. |url=https://www.mythologycorner.net/tabid/810/language/en-US/Default.aspx |access-date=2 May 2024}}
==External links== * [http://www.novaroma.org Nova Roma] (international worldwide organization) * [https://tradizioneromana.org/ Pietas Traditional Association] {{in lang|it}} * [https://www.saturniatellus.com/ Movimento Tradizionale Romano] {{in lang|it}}
{{Neopaganism}} {{Religion in Italy}} {{Pagan studies}} {{Paganism}} {{Religion topics}} {{New religious movements}} {{Roman religion}}
[[Category:Ancient Roman religion]] [[Category:Polytheistic reconstructionism]]