{{Short description|Artistic style in Europe and colonies, c. 1730–1780}} {{Other uses}} {{Use British English|date=September 2018}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}} {{Infobox art movement | name = Rococo | image = {{photomontage | photo1a = Salon de la princesse hotel de soubise.jpg | alt1a = The upper white walls and gold panelling of an oval room, curving seamlessly into a domed ceiling adorned with gilded stucco vines and framed oil paintings. | photo2a = Fragonard, The Swing.jpg | alt2a = A young woman in a billowing pink dress swings high in a lush, overgrown garden, while a young man hidden in the bushes looks up at her. | photo2b = The Music Lesson MET DP-14272-001.jpg | alt2b = A porcelain figurine of a young couple sitting under a flowering tree, with the boy teaching the girl to play a flute, surrounded by sheep and dogs. | photo3a = Mariä Geburt innen (Rottenbuch).jpg | alt3a = A symmetrical view straight down the aisle of a highly ornate church interior with towering white columns, extensive pastel and gold stucco decorations, and a vaulted ceiling covered in elaborate frescoes. | size = 300 }} | caption = '''Top:''' Ceiling vault of the {{lang|fr|Salon de la Princesse}} at the [[Hôtel de Soubise]], Paris (1735–1740); '''Middle left:''' ''[[The Swing (Fragonard)|The Swing]]'' by [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]] (1767); '''Middle right:''' ''The Music Lesson'', [[Chelsea porcelain factory|Chelsea porcelain]] ({{circa|1765}}); '''Bottom:''' Interior of the {{lang|de|Pfarrkirche Mariä Geburt}} at [[Rottenbuch Abbey]], Bavaria (1737–1746) | branch = [[Architecture]], [[decorative arts]], [[interior design]], [[painting]], [[sculpture]], [[music]], [[theatre]], [[literature]], [[fashion]] | yearsactive = {{circa|1730s – 1780s}} | location = Originated in [[Paris]], spreading across [[Europe]] (especially [[Central Europe]] and [[Italy]]) and [[South America]] | majorfigures = [[Jean-Antoine Watteau]], [[François Boucher]], [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], [[Johann Balthasar Neumann]], [[Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier]] | influences = [[Baroque]] | influenced = [[Rococo Revival]], [[Art Nouveau]] }}
'''Rococo''', less commonly '''Roccoco''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Vealhurl-rococo.wav|r|ə|ˈ|k|oʊ|k|oʊ}} {{respell|rə|KOH|koh}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˌ|r|oʊ|k|ə|ˈ|k|oʊ}} {{respell|ROH|kə|KOH}}; <small>[[French language|French]]:</small> {{IPAc-fr|audio=LL-Q150 (fra)-WikiLucas00-rococo.wav|ʁ|ɔ|k|ɔ|k|o}}, <small>also</small> {{IPAc-fr|ʁ|o|k|o|k|o}}), is a Western style of architecture, art, and [[Decorative arts|decoration]] that emerged in France in the 1730s as a reaction against the [[Louis XIV style]]. It is characterized by extensive ornamentation, fluid curves, asymmetry, and a smaller scale designed to foster intimacy. It employs {{lang|fr|[[rocaille]]}} {{gloss|mode=def|shell- and pebble-like motifs}} and often blends white and pastel colours with [[gilding]] and sculpted [[Molding (decorative)|moulding]], using {{lang|fr|[[trompe-l'œil]]}} frescoes to create spatial illusion. In the visual arts, prevalent themes are aristocratic leisure and the [[pastoral]], depicted in stage-like settings. It is often regarded as the final expression of the [[Baroque]] movement{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|page=92}} and is sometimes called '''Late Baroque'''.
Originally known as {{lang|fr|style rocaille}} {{gloss|rock-work style}},{{sfn|Ducher|1988|page=136}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Chilvers |first=Ian |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953294-0 |page=551 |edition=4th |chapter=Rocaille |quote=Literally 'rock-work' or 'pebble-work', a term applied to a style of interior decoration.}}</ref> Rococo spread from French domestic interiors to other parts of Europe, particularly northern Italy, Austria, southern Germany, broader Central Europe, and Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/video-rococ-writing-table|title=Rococo writing table |publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum|access-date=20 October 2018 |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021024648/http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/video-rococ-writing-table/ |archive-date= Oct 21, 2018 }}</ref> It also influenced painting, sculpture, furniture, silverware, glassware, music, theatre,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |entry-url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/506448/Rococo-style |entry=Rococo style (design) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] Online |access-date=24 April 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828055054/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/506448/Rococo-style |archive-date=Aug 28, 2012}}</ref> and literature.{{sfn|Baldick|2015}} It was later adapted for [[church architecture]] and became widespread in this form, particularly in Central Europe, Portugal, and South America.{{sfn|Bailey|2014}} By the late 18th century, Rococo was largely replaced by [[Neoclassicism]].
==Etymology== The word {{lang|fr|[[wikt:rococo#French|rococo]]}} is a satirical derivation of the French word {{lang|fr|[[wikt:rocaille#French|rocaille]]}}, coined by the Neoclassical painter [[Pierre-Maurice Quays]] (1777–1803).<ref>Merriam-Webster Dictionary On-Line</ref><ref>Monique Wagner, ''From Gaul to De Gaulle: An Outline of French Civilization.'' Peter Lang, 2005, p. 139. {{ISBN|0-8204-2277-0}}</ref> Historically, ''rocaille'' referred to a method of decorating [[Grotto#Garden grottoes|grotto]]es and artificial fountains with pebbles, seashells, and cement, used since the [[Renaissance]].<ref>Larousse dictionary on-line</ref><ref>Marilyn Stokstad, ed. ''Art History''. 4th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005. Print.</ref> During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the term came to describe a decorative motif of interlaced seashells and [[Acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves that emerged in the late Louis XIV style. In 1736, the designer and jeweller Jean Mondon published ''{{lang|fr|Premier Livre de forme rocquaille et cartel}}'' (First Book of Rocaille and Cartel Form), a collection of designs for furniture and interiors. This publication was the first time ''rocaille'' appeared in print to describe the style.{{sfn|de Morant|1970|page=355}} Artisans consequently integrated carved or moulded shell motifs with palm fronds or sinuous vines to embellish doorways, wall panelling, furnishings, and other architectural elements.{{sfn|Renault|2006|p=66}}[[File:Antoine Aveline after Jean Mondon, Troisieme livre de formes Cartels et Rocailles (Title Page), 1736, NGA 144639.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|alt=An 18th-century title page engraving featuring the French text "Troisieme livre de formes Cartels et Rocailles" surrounded by asymmetrical, shell-like ornamental designs.|The title page from Jean Mondon's 1736 publication of rocaille designs, engraved by [[Antoine Aveline]]. This series marked the first time the word ''rocaille'' appeared in print to describe an aesthetic style.]]The word ''rococo'' first appeared in print in 1825, used by critics as a pejorative term for decoration deemed "out of style and old-fashioned". By 1828, it described decorations "which belonged to the style of the 18th century, overloaded with twisting ornaments". In 1829, the author [[Stendhal]] defined ''rococo'' as "the rocaille style of the 18th century", signalling a shift toward a more objective historical description.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/rococo|title=Etymology of Rococo|publisher=Ortolong: site of the Centre National des Resources Textuelles et Lexicales|language=fr|access-date=12 January 2019}}</ref>
Throughout the 19th century, it was often used dismissively for architecture or music characterized by heavy ornamentation.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/his/CoreArt/art/ancien.html Ancien Regime Rococo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411162829/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/his/CoreArt/art/ancien.html |date=11 April 2018}}. Bc.edu. Retrieved on 2011-05-29.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2007 |title=Rococo (1700–1760) |url=http://www.huntfor.com/arthistory/c17th-mid19th/rococo.htm|access-date=2023-02-08|publisher=HuntFor.com|archive-date=7 October 2009|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091007210702/http://www.huntfor.com/arthistory/c17th-mid19th/rococo.htm|url-status=usurped}}</ref> By the mid-19th century, art historians widely accepted the term.<ref name="Park1992">{{cite book |last=Park |first=William |year=1992 |title=The Idea of Rococo |location=Newark |publisher=University of Delaware Press |isbn=978-0-87413-434-6}}</ref> Today, art historians recognize Rococo as a distinct period in European art.<ref name="Park1992" />{{sfn|Kimball|1980|pp=3–5}}
==Characteristics== [[File:Zwiefalten 28 04 2011 23.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Detail of the ceiling at [[Zwiefalten Abbey]], Germany (1739–1745), showing the Rococo synthesis of illusionistic fresco, gilded architecture, and moulded stucco]] Rococo ornamentation relies on curves, counter-curves, undulating forms, and [[Motif (visual arts)|motifs]] from nature. Buildings often feature simple exteriors to contrast with heavily decorated interiors designed to surprise the viewer.{{sfn|Ducher|1988|page=144}} Church [[floor plan]]s use interlocking ovals to create complex interior spaces. In palaces, large staircases serve as central focal points that offer multiple views of the decorations.{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|page=92}} Rooms often feature {{lang|fr|[[boiserie]]}} {{gloss|mode=def|carved wood panelling}} and mirrors placed above fireplaces or opposite windows to reflect natural light.{{sfn|Kimball|1980|page=45}} Common motifs include [[rocaille]], acanthus and foliate [[Scroll (art)|scrolls]], birds, flowers, fruits, musical instruments, and [[putti]]. Rococo also includes {{lang|fr|[[chinoiserie]]}}, with stylized [[pagoda]]s, [[Chinese dragon|dragons]], exotic flowers, idealized East Asian figures, and {{lang|fr|[[singerie]]}} {{gloss|mode=def|depictions of monkeys}}.{{sfn|Graur|1970|pp=193–194}}
In contrast with the Baroque period, Rococo replaces bilateral symmetry and heavy forms with lighter, asymmetrical designs. Instead of bold, high-contrast [[chiaroscuro]], Rococo uses pastel colours such as soft yellows, creams, pearl greys, and pale blues.{{sfn|Graur|1970|pp=160–163}}{{sfn|Graur|1970|p=192}} In spatial organization, the focus shifts from grand public spaces to private rooms. Large state galleries are often divided into smaller apartments. Furniture is scaled down to suit these spaces and designed to match the carved wall panelling, creating a unified interior known as {{lang|fr|en suite}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kostof |first=Spiro |title=A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals |year=1995 |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508378-1 |page=558}}</ref>
[[File: Engelszell Stiftskirche - Nepomukaltar 4 Kapitell.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Rococo [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] at [[Engelszell Abbey]], Austria (1754–1764)]] These interiors commonly combine moulded [[stucco]], carved wood, and {{lang|it|[[quadratura]]}} {{gloss|mode=def|illusionistic ceiling frescoes}}. These frescoes simulate open skies populated by putti and allegorical figures. Common materials include painted or white stucco, wood marquetry (mainly oak, beech, or walnut), [[Japanning|japanned lacquerwork]], [[ormolu]] {{gloss|mode=def|gilded bronze}}, and marble.{{sfn|Graur|1970|p=194}} Art historians [[Stephan Tschudi-Madsen]] and [[Debora L. Silverman]] cite the Rococo usage of asymmetrical, curvilinear, and botanical elements as a source for the late-19th-century [[Art Nouveau]] movement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tschudi-Madsen |first=Stephan |title=Sources of Art Nouveau |year=1976 |orig-date=1956 |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-306-70733-9 |pages=67–75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Silverman |first=Debora L. |title=Art Nouveau in Fin-de-Siècle France: Politics, Psychology, and Style |year=1989 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-08088-1 |pages=142–158 |chapter=The Rococo Revival and the New Art}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Greenhalgh |editor-first=Paul |title=Art Nouveau 1890–1914 |year=2000 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8109-4219-6 |pages=43–45 |chapter=The Historical Sources of Art Nouveau}}</ref>
==France== {{See also|Rocaille|Louis Quinze}}
The ''[[Rocaille]]'' style, or French Rococo, appeared in Paris during the reign of [[Louis XV]], and flourished between about 1723 and 1759.<ref>Lovreglio, Aurélia and Anne, ''Dictionnaire des Mobiliers et des Objets d'art'', Le Robert, Paris, 2006, p. 369</ref> The characteristics of French Rococo include exceptional artistry and the use of vegetal forms (vines, leaves, flowers) intertwined in complex designs.{{Sfn|Hopkins|2014|pp=92–93}} The style was used particularly in salons, a new type of room designed to impress and entertain guests, the most prominent example being the salon of the Princess in [[Hôtel de Soubise]] in Paris, designed by [[Germain Boffrand]] and [[Charles-Joseph Natoire]] between 1735 and 1740.
Furniture from the era also features the sinuous curves and vegetal designs characteristic of the style, especially in the complex frames made for mirrors and paintings, which were sculpted in plaster and often gilded. The leading furniture designers and craftsmen in the style included [[Juste-Aurele Meissonier]], [[Charles Cressent]], and [[Nicolas Pineau]].{{Sfn|de Morant|1970|page=382}}<ref name="Kleiner2010">{{cite book|last=Kleiner|first=Fred|title=Gardner's art through the ages: the western perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJrN8rDirxkC&pg=PA587|access-date=21 February 2011|date=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-57355-5|pages=583–584}}</ref>
French Rococo never achieved the extravagance of the style seen in Bavaria, Austria, or Italy. Lasting until the mid-18th century, the discoveries of Roman antiquities at [[Herculaneum]] in 1738 and [[Pompeii]] in 1748 turned French architecture in the direction of the more symmetrical and less flamboyant [[Neoclassicism in France#Architecture|neo-classicism]]. <gallery mode="packed" heights="150"> File:Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier - Table de Cabinet., 6th Plate (Study for a Table), pl. 47 in Oeuvre de Juste-Aurele Meissonnier - Google Art Project (down table cropped).jpg|Table design by [[Juste-Aurele Meissonier]] (1730) File:Hotel de Soubise - Grande chambre de la princesse 3.JPG|Grand Chamber of the Prince, Hôtel de Soubise (1735–1740) File:Boiserie from the Hôtel de Varengeville MET DP214174.jpg|Woodwork in the Hôtel de Varengeville by [[Nicolas Pineau]] (1735) File:Charles Cressent, Chest of drawers, c. 1730 at Waddesdon Manor.jpg|Chest of drawers by [[Charles Cressent]] (1730), [[Waddesdon Manor]] File:Paris Hôtel de Samuel Bernard 34.JPG|Detail of a door of the [[Hôtel de Samuel Bernard]] from Paris (1740s) Consoleklok van verguld en geciseleerd brons, BK-NM-12289-2.jpg|Gilt and hammered bronze [[corbel]] of a clock by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain and J. Boullé ({{circa|1745|1749}}) File:Hotel de Marsilly, July 4, 2007.jpg|The door of the [[Hôtel de Marsilly]], with two [[corbel]]s and a [[cartouche (design)|cartouche]] above it, all of them being rococo File:Bordeaux Notre-Dame R01.jpg|Eglise Notre-Dame, [[Bordeaux]] (1684–1707) </gallery>
==Italy== Artists in Italy, particularly [[Venice]], produced their own version of the Rococo style. Venetian [[commode]]s imitated the curving lines and carved ornaments of the French Rocaille, but with a particular Venetian variation; the pieces were painted—often with landscapes, flowers, scenes from [[Guardi]] or other painters, or [[Chinoiserie]]—against a blue or green background, matching the colours of the [[Venetian school (art)|Venetian school]] of painters whose work decorated salons.
Notable decorative painters included [[Giovanni Battista Crosato]], who painted the ballroom ceiling of the [[Ca' Rezzonico]] in the [[illusionistic ceiling painting|quadraturo]] manner, and [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], who painted ceilings and murals in both churches and palazzos. Tiepolo travelled to Germany with [[Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo|his son]] from 1750 to 1753, decorating the ceilings of the [[Würzburg Residence]], one of the major landmarks of Bavarian Rococo. Another celebrated Venetian painter was [[Giovanni Battista Piazzetta]], who painted several notable church ceilings.{{Sfn|de Morant|1970|page=383}}
Venetian Rococo also featured exceptional glassware, particularly [[Murano glass]], which was often engraved and coloured, and was exported across Europe. Works included multicolour chandeliers and mirrors with extremely ornate frames.{{Sfn|de Morant|1970|page=383}} <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> File:Interior of Santi Giovanni e Paolo (Venice) - The Glory of St. Dominic by Piazzetta.jpg|Ceiling of [[Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice]], by [[Piazzetta]] (1727) File:Giovanni Battista Tiepolo - Juno and Luna - Google Art Project.jpg|''Juno and Luna'' by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] (1735–1745) File:Lampadario in vetro di Murano - Ca' Rezzonico, Venice.jpg|[[Murano glass]] chandelier at the [[Ca' Rezzonico]] (1758) File:Ca' Rezzonico (Venice) - Ceiling of the Ballroom.jpeg|Ballroom ceiling of the Ca' Rezzonico with ceiling by [[Giovanni Battista Crosato]] (1753) </gallery>
==Southern Germany== The Rococo decorative style reached its summit in southern Germany and Austria from the 1730s until the 1770s. There it dominates the church landscape to this day and is deeply anchored in popular culture. It was first introduced from France through the publications and works of French architects and decorators, including sculptor [[Claude III Audran]], interior designer [[Gilles-Marie Oppenordt]], architect [[Germain Boffrand]], sculptor Jean Mondon, and draftsman and engraver [[Pierre Lepautre (1652–1716)|Pierre Lepautre]]. Their work had an important influence on the German Rococo style, but does not reach the extravagance of buildings in southern Germany.{{Sfn|de Morant|1970|pages=354–355}}
German architects adapted the Rococo style by making it far more asymmetrical and ornate than the original French. The German style was characterized by an explosion of forms that cascaded down the walls. It featured molding formed into curves and counter-curves, twisting and turning patterns, and stucco foliage which seemed to be creeping up the walls and across the ceiling. The decoration was often gilded or silvered to give it contrast with the white or pale pastel walls.{{Sfn|Ducher|1988|pages=150–153}}
One of the first Rococo buildings in Germany, the pavilion of [[Amalienburg]] in Munich (1734–1739), was created by the Belgian-born architect and designer [[François de Cuvilliés]], who was inspired by the pavilions of the [[Grand Trianon]] and the [[Château de Marly]] in France. It was built as a hunting lodge, with a platform on the roof for shooting pheasants. The interior Hall of Mirrors by painter and stucco sculptor [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]] is far more elaborate than any French Rococo.{{Sfn|Ducher|1988|page=150}}
Another notable example of early German Rococo is the [[Würzburg Residence]] (1720–1744), commissioned by Prince-Bishop [[Johann Philipp Franz von Schönborn]]. Early in the palace's construction, court architect [[Balthasar Neumann]] travelled to Paris and consulted with the French rocaille decorative artists [[Germain Boffrand]] and [[Robert de Cotte]]. While the exterior of the palace is in the more sober Baroque style, the interior, particularly the stairways and ceilings, is much more extravagant. Neumann described the interior of the residence as "a theatre of light." From 1750–1753, the Italian Rococo painter [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] was imported to create a mural over the top of the three-level ceremonial stairway.{{sfn|Prina|Demartini|2006|pp=222–223}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Würzburg Residence |url=https://www.bavaria.by/experiences/city-country-culture/castles-palaces/wuerzburg-residence |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030090927/https://www.bavaria.by/experiences/city-country-culture/castles-palaces/wuerzburg-residence/ |archive-date=30 October 2018 |website=Bavaria}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Field |first=B. M. |title=The World's Greatest Architecture: Past and Present |date=2001 |publisher=Regency House Publishing Ltd}}</ref> Neumann also designed the iconic Rococo stairway at [[Augustusburg and Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl|Augustusburg Castle]] in Brühl (1725–1768), which leads visitors up through a fantasy of painting, sculpture, and ironwork, with surprising views at every turn.{{sfn|Prina|Demartini|2006|pp=222–223}}
In the 1740s and 1750s, a number of pilgrimage churches were constructed in [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]] with interiors decorated in a distinctive variant of Rococo style. One of the most notable examples is the [[Wieskirche]] (1745–1754) designed by [[Dominikus Zimmermann]]. Like most Bavarian pilgrimage churches, the exterior is very simple, with pastel walls and little ornament. Entering the church, the visitor encounters an astonishing harmony of art and form. The oval-shaped sanctuary, preceded to the west by a semicircular antechamber, fills the church with light from all sides. The white walls are contrasted with columns of blue and pink stucco in the choir, and the domed ceiling is painted in the appearance of an open sky, across which, angels fly. Other notable Bavarian pilgrimage churches include the [[Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers]] by [[Balthasar Neumann]] (1743–1772),{{Sfn|Ducher|1988| page=152}}{{Sfn|Cabanne|1988|pp=89–94}} and [[Ottobeuren Abbey]] (1748–1766) by [[Johann Michael Fischer]], which features, like much of German Rococo architecture, a remarkable contrast between the regularity of its facade and the overabundance of decoration in its interior.{{sfn|Prina|Demartini|2006|pp=222–223}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> File:Schloss Amalienburg (6317867213).jpg|[[Amalienburg]] pavilion in Munich by [[François de Cuvilliés]] (1734–1739) File:Amalienburg Spiegelsaal-1.jpg|Hall of Mirrors of [[Amalienburg]] by [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]] (1734–1739) File:NRW, Bruhl, Augustusburg 01.jpg|Looking up the central stairway at [[Augustusburg and Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl|Augustusburg Palace in Brühl]] by [[Balthasar Neumann]] (1741–1744) File:Wieskirche 003.JPG|The [[Wieskirche]] by [[Dominikus Zimmermann]] (1745–1754) File:Vierzehnheiligen-Basilika3-Asio.JPG|Interior of the [[Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers]] by Balthasar Neumann (1743–1772) File:Kaisersaal Würzburg.jpg|Kaisersaal in the [[Würzburg Residence]] by Balthasar Neumann (1749–1751) File:Festsaal im Schaezlerpalais.jpg|Festival Hall of the [[Schaezlerpalais]] in [[Augsburg]] by [[Carl Albert von Lespilliez]] (1765–1770) </gallery>
==England== In Great Britain, rococo had less influence on design and the decorative arts than in continental Europe, although its influence was still felt in such areas as silverwork, porcelain, and furniture.
Throughout the early 18th-century, English furniture followed the [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] [[Palladian]] model under designer [[William Kent]], who designed for [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington|Lord Burlington]] and other important patrons of the arts.{{Sfn|de Morant|1970|page=382}} As a result, Rococo was slow to arrive in England, first appearing in the 1730s through the work of immigrant artists and Huguenot refugees from France, including the silversmith [[Paul de Lamerie]]. The [[St Martin's Lane Academy]], founded by [[William Hogarth]] in 1735, was also integral to introducing Rococo style to designers and artists in England.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-rococo-style-an-introduction?srsltid=AfmBOoqPEUlF6pjeiH6svcoo-j01eXpIJnM5huLaegwKLhkMI98M30Ml#slideshow=74976771&slide=0|title=The Rococo Style–an introduction|work=V&A|access-date=2025-09-09|language=en-US}}</ref>
The Rococo flourished in England between 1740 and 1770. In an effort to compete with imported French goods, furniture designers developed a distinctly British style of Rococo most commonly used in woodcarving. The most influential of these designers was [[Thomas Chippendale]], whose 1754 book ''The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director'', a catalogue of designs for rococo, ''chinoiserie,'' and Gothic furniture, achieved wide popularity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-rococo-style-an-introduction?srsltid=AfmBOoqPEUlF6pjeiH6svcoo-j01eXpIJnM5huLaegwKLhkMI98M30Ml#slideshow=74976771&slide=0|title=The Rococo Style–an introduction|work=V&A|access-date=2025-09-09|language=en-US}}</ref> Unlike French designers, Chippendale did not employ marquetry or inlays in his furniture. The predominant designers of inlaid furniture were Vile and Cob, the cabinet-makers for King [[George III]]. Another important figure in British furniture was [[Thomas Johnson (designer)|Thomas Johnson]], who in 1761, published a catalogue of Rococo furniture designs. This included furnishings based on rather fantastic Chinese and Indian motifs, including a canopy bed crowned by a Chinese pagoda (now in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]).{{Sfn|de Morant|1970|page=383}}
Another notable figure of the British Rococo is the silversmith Charles Friedrich Kandler.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150"> File:Cupandcover.jpg|Cup and Cover, made by [[Paul de Lamerie]], 1736–7 [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] no. 819-1890<ref>{{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/s/paul-de-lamerie-objects/ |title= Cup and Cover |work=Metalwork |accessdate= 2007-12-09}}</ref> File:Silver Candlesticks by Paul de Lamerie.jpg|Silver Candlesticks by Paul de Lamerie. Hallmarked London, circa 1747–49 File:Brazier MET 202187.jpg|Brazier by silversmith Charles Friedrich Kander (1735), Metropolitan Museum File:A Design for a State Bed From Chippendale's Director.jpg|Design for a State Bed by [[Thomas Chippendale]] (1753–1754) File:French Commode and Lamp Stands.jpg|Design for Commode and lamp stands by Thomas Chippendale (1753–1754) File:Pair of side chairs MET DP111238.jpg|Side chair; Thomas Chippendale; {{circa|1755|1760}}; mahogany; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City) File:Thomas Johnson - Three Designs for Torcheres in the Chinese Taste (Plate 13 of "One Hundred and Fifty New Designs") - Google Art Project.jpg|Design for candlesticks in the "Chinese Taste" by [[Thomas Johnson (designer)|Thomas Johnson]] (1756) </gallery>
==Russia== {{See also|Elizabethan Baroque}} [[File:GrandChurch.jpg|thumb|[[Grand Church of the Winter Palace|The Winter Palace's Grand Church]] today retains its original rococo decoration. The [[onion dome]] above it is one of the few concessions to an older Russian architecture allowed to be visible from the exterior. Painting by [[Eduard Hau]].]] The Russian rococo style was introduced largely by Empress [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elisabeth]] and [[Catherine the Great]] during the eighteenth century, by court architects such as [[Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rossi |first=Federica |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/francesco-rastrelli_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/ |title=Biographical Dictionary of Italians |date=2016 |publisher=Trecanni |year=2016 |volume=86 |chapter=RASTRELLI, Francesco}}</ref>
Rastrelli's work at palaces such as the [[Winter Palace]] in Saint Petersburg and the [[Catherine Palace]] in [[Tsarskoye Selo]] incorporated many features of western European rococo architecture, including grand rooms ornamented with gold leaf, mirrors, and large windows for natural light on the interiors, and soft pastel colours framed with large hooded windows and [[cornice]]s on the exteriors featuring rocaille motifs, such as asymmetrical shells and rocks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wga.hu/bio_m/r/rastrell/francesc/biograph.html|title=Biography of Rastrelli, Francesco Bartolomeo in the Web Gallery of Art|website=www.wga.hu}}</ref> [[Plafond]]s often featured rococo scrollwork surrounding allegorical paintings of ancient Greek and Roman gods and goddesses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tzar.ru/en/science/architects/rastrelli|title=Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli|website=Tsarskoe Selo State Museum and Heritage Site}}</ref> Flooring was often inlaid with parquetry formed from different woods to create elaborate designs in the woodwork.
Russian orthodox church architecture was also heavily influenced by rococo designs during the eighteenth century, often featuring a square Greek cross design with four equidistant wings. Exteriors were painted in light pastel colours such as blues and pinks, and bell towers were often topped with gilded onion domes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://webhome.auburn.edu/~mitrege/russian-culture/church-architecture.html|title=Russian Orthodox Church Architecture|website=Auburn University}}</ref>
==Frederician Rococo== {{further interlanguage link|Friderizianisches Rokoko|de}} [[File:Friedrich II., mit Dreispitz, grüßend (Franke).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Frederick the Great]], from Johann H. C. Franke, about 1781]] '''Frederician Rococo''' is a form of Rococo which developed in [[Prussia]] during the reign of [[Frederick the Great]] and combined influences from France, Germany (especially [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]]) and the [[Dutch Republic|Netherlands]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Locker |first=Tobias |date=2017 |title=Frederician Rococo at the Service of the German Empire: The 1900 Paris World's Fair and the Decorative Arts |url=https://revistes.ub.edu/index.php/ActaArtis/article/view/19634 |journal=ACTA ARTIS: Estudis d'Art Modern |language=en |issue=4–5 |pages=89–97 |doi=10.1344/actaartis.4-5.2017.19634 |issn=2014-1912|doi-access=free }}</ref> Its most famous adherent was the architect [[Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff]]. Furthermore, the painter [[Antoine Pesne]] and even King Frederick himself influenced Knobelsdorff's designs. Famous buildings in the Frederician style include [[Sanssouci Palace]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sanssouci Palace |date=2012 |author1=Michael Scherf |author2=Hans Bach |author3=Joan Clough |isbn=978-3-422-04036-6 |edition=2nd |location=Berlin |oclc=796240061}}</ref> the [[Potsdam City Palace]], and parts of [[Charlottenburg Palace]].
==Decline and end== {{See also|Neoclassicism|Empire style}}
{{multiple image <!-- Essential parameters --> | align = | total_width = 350 | direction = horizontal | footer = Comparison between an 18th century [[etching]], by [[Jacques de Lajoue]], of a Rococo [[Krater#Calyx krater|calyx krater]]; and a 1st century [[Roman Empire|Roman]] calyx krater which has exactly the same shape as a [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] stone garden vase <!-- Image 1 --> | image1 = Title Page from Book of Vases MET DP290845.jpg | width1 = | height1 = | alt1 = | caption1 = <!-- Image 2 --> | image2 = Marble calyx-krater with reliefs of maidens and dancing maenads MET DT4541.jpg | width2 = | height2 = | alt2 = | caption2 = }}
The art of [[François Boucher]] and other painters of the period, with its emphasis on decorative mythology and gallantry, soon inspired a reaction, and a demand for more "noble" themes. While the Rococo continued in Germany and Austria, the [[French Academy in Rome]] began to teach the classic style. This was confirmed by the nomination of [[Jean François de Troy]] as director of the academy in 1738, and then in 1751 by [[Charles-Joseph Natoire]].
[[Madame de Pompadour]], the mistress of [[Louis XV]] contributed to the decline of the Rococo style. In 1750 she sent her brother, [[Abel-François Poisson|Abel-François Poisson de Vandières]], on a two-year mission to study artistic and archeological developments in Italy. He was accompanied by several artists, including the engraver [[Charles-Nicolas Cochin]] and the architect [[Soufflot]]. They returned to Paris with a passion for classical art. Vandières became the Marquis of Marigny, and was named director general of the [[Bâtiments du Roi|King's Buildings]]. He turned official French architecture toward the neoclassical. Cochin became an important art critic; he denounced the ''petit style'' of Boucher, and called for a grand style with a new emphasis on antiquity and nobility in the academies of painting and architecture.{{sfn|Cabanne|1988|p=106}}
The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures such as [[Voltaire]] and [[Jacques-François Blondel]] began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the "ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants" in contemporary interiors.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/sammlung6/allg/buch.xml?docname=blondel1737 |website=UB Heidelberg |title= Die aufgerufene Seite existiert nicht auf dem Server |access-date=8 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317160351/http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/sammlung6/allg/buch.xml?docname=blondel1737 |archive-date=17 March 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists such as [[Jacques-Louis David]]. In Germany, late 18th-century Rococo was ridiculed as ''Zopf und Perücke'' ("pigtail and periwig"), and this phase is sometimes referred to as ''Zopfstil''. Rococo remained popular in certain German provincial states and in Italy, until the second phase of neoclassicism, "[[Empire style]]", arrived with Napoleonic governments and swept Rococo away.
==Furniture and decoration== The ornamental style called ''[[rocaille]]'' emerged in France between 1710 and 1750, mostly during the [[Régence|regency]] and reign of [[Louis XV]]; the style was also called ''[[Louis Quinze]]''. Its principal characteristics were picturesque detail, curves and counter-curves, asymmetry, and a theatrical exuberance. On the walls of new Paris salons, the twisting and winding designs, usually made of gilded or painted stucco, wound around the doorways and mirrors like vines. One of the earliest examples was the [[Hôtel Soubise]] in Paris (1704–1705), with its famous oval salon decorated with paintings by Boucher, and [[Charles-Joseph Natoire]].{{Sfn|Cabanne|1988|page=102}}
The best known French furniture designer of the period was [[Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier]] (1695–1750), who was also a sculptor, painter. and goldsmith for the royal household. He held the title of official designer to the Chamber and Cabinet of Louis XV. His work is well known today because of the enormous number of engravings made of his work which popularized the style throughout Europe. He designed works for the royal families of [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]] and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].
Italy was another place where the Rococo flourished, both in its early and later phases. Craftsmen in Rome, Milan and Venice all produced lavishly decorated furniture and decorative items.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> File:Juste-aurèlie messonier, candelabro d'argento, Parigi, 1734-1735 , 02.JPG|Candelabrum by [[Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier]] (1735–1740) File:Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier - "Chariot of Apollo," Ceiling Design for Count Bielinski's Cabinet, Warsaw, Poland - Google Art Project.jpg|''Chariot of Apollo'' design for a ceiling of Count Bielinski by [[Meissonier]], Warsaw, Poland (1734) File:Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier - Canapé executé pour Mr. le Comte de Bielinski Grand M.al de la Couronne de Pologne, en 1735.; Canapé... - Google Art Project.jpg|Canapé designed by Meissonnier for Count Bielinski, Warsaw, Poland (1735) File:Bottega romana, console, 1710 ca., base in legno e piano di marmo.JPG|Console table, Rome, Italy ({{circa|1710}}) </gallery>
The sculpted decoration included fleurettes, palmettes, seashells, and foliage, carved in wood. The most extravagant rocaille forms were found in the [[Console table|consoles]], tables designed to stand against walls. The [[Commode]]s, or chests, which had first appeared under Louis XIV, were richly decorated with rocaille ornament made of gilded bronze. They were made by master craftsmen including [[Jean-Pierre Latz]] and also featured marquetry of different-coloured woods, sometimes placed in draughtsboard cubic patterns, made with light and dark woods. The period also saw the arrival of [[Chinoiserie]], often in the form of lacquered and gilded commodes, called ''falcon de Chine'' of ''Vernis Martin'', after the ebenist who introduced the technique to France. [[Ormolu]], or gilded bronze, was used by master craftsmen including [[Jean-Pierre Latz]]. Latz made a particularly ornate clock mounted atop a cartonnier for [[Frederick the Great]] for his palace in [[Potsdam]].{{clarify|Which one?|date=April 2024}} Pieces of [[Chinese export porcelain|imported Chinese porcelain]] were often mounted in [[ormolu]] (gilded bronze) rococo settings for display on tables or consoles in salons. Other craftsmen imitated [[Japanese lacquer]]ed furniture, and produced commodes with Japanese motifs.{{Sfn|Ducher|1988|page=144}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200" perrow="4"> File:Secretaire - Bernard II van Risamburgh - Münchner Residenz - DSC07490.JPG|Desk for the [[Munich Residenz]] by [[Bernard II van Risamburgh]] (1737) File:Kambli Cartonnier with a clock of Frederick II.jpg|Clock-chest for [[Frederick the Great]] (1742) File:Chinese - Bowl Mounted with Two Fish - Walters 492266.jpg|A Chinese porcelain bowl and two fish mounted in gilded bronze, France (1745–1749) File:LatzEncoignure1a.jpg|An [[encoignure]] by royal cabinetmaker [[Jean-Pierre Latz]] ({{circa|1750}}) File:Commode.jpg|Lacquered Commode in Chinoiserie style, by Bernard II van Risamburgh, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] (1750–1760) </gallery>
[[Great Britain|British]] Rococo tended to be more restrained. [[Thomas Chippendale]]'s furniture designs kept the curves and feel, but stopped short of the French heights of whimsy. The most successful exponent of British Rococo was probably [[Thomas Johnson (designer)|Thomas Johnson]], a gifted carver and furniture designer working in London in the mid-18th century.
==Painting== {{Main|Rococo painting}}
Elements of the ''Rocaille'' style appeared in the work of some French painters, including a taste for the picturesque in details; curves and counter-curves; and dissymmetry which replaced the movement of the baroque with exuberance, though the French ''rocaille'' never reached the extravagance of the Germanic rococo.{{Sfn|Cabanne|1988|page=98}} The leading proponent was [[Antoine Watteau]], particularly in ''[[The Embarkation for Cythera]]'' (1717), [[Louvre]], in a genre called ''[[Fête galante]]'' depicting scenes of young nobles gathered together to celebrate in a pastoral setting. Watteau died in 1721 at the age of thirty-seven, but his work continued to have influence through the rest of the century. A version of Watteau's painting titled ''Pilgrimage to Cythera'' was purchased by [[Frederick the Great]] of Prussia in 1752 or 1765 to decorate his palace of [[Schloss Charlottenburg|Charlottenburg]] in Berlin.{{Sfn|Cabanne|1988|page=98}}
The successor of Watteau and the ''Féte Galante'' in decorative painting was [[François Boucher]] (1703–1770), the favorite painter of [[Madame de Pompadour]]. His work included the sensual ''Toilette de Venus'' (1746), which became one of the best known examples of the style. Boucher participated in all of the genres of the time, designing tapestries, models for porcelain sculpture, set decorations for the [[Paris Opera]] and ''[[Opéra-Comique]]'', and decor for the [[Théâtre de la foire#Foire Saint-Laurent|Fair of Saint-Laurent]].{{Sfn|Cabanne|1988|page=104}} Other important painters of the ''Fête Galante'' style included [[Nicolas Lancret]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Pater]]. The style particularly influenced [[François Lemoyne]], who painted the lavish decoration of the ceiling of the Salon of Hercules at the [[Palace of Versailles]], completed in 1735.{{Sfn|Cabanne|1988|page=98}} Paintings with fétes gallant and mythological themes by Boucher, [[Pierre-Charles Trémolières]] and [[Charles-Joseph Natoire]] decorated the famous salon of the [[Hôtel Soubise]] in Paris (1735–1740).{{Sfn|Cabanne|1988|page=104}} Other Rococo painters include: [[Jean François de Troy]] (1679–1752), [[Jean-Baptiste van Loo]] (1685–1745), his two sons [[Louis-Michel van Loo]] (1707–1771) and [[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] (1719–1795), his younger brother [[Charles-André van Loo]] (1705–1765), [[Nicolas Lancret]] (1690–1743), and [[Jean Honoré Fragonard]] (1732–1806).
In Austria and Southern Germany, Italian painting had the largest effect on the Rococo style. The Venetian painter [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], assisted by his son, [[Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo]], was invited to paint frescoes for the [[Würzburg Residence]] (1720–1744). The most prominent painter of Bavarian rococo churches was [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]], who painted the ceiling of the [[Wieskirche]] (1745–1754).
<gallery widths="220px" heights="220px"> File:L'Embarquement pour Cythere, by Antoine Watteau, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|[[Antoine Watteau]], ''[[The Embarkation for Cythera]]'' (1717) File:Déjeuner de jambon - Nicolas Lancret - musée Condé.jpg|"[[The Ham Dinner]]" by [[Nicolas Lancret]] (1735) File:François Lemoyne - L'Apothéose d'Hercule - Google Art Project.jpg|Ceiling of the Salon of Hercules by [[François Lemoyne]] (1735) File:The Toilet of Venus, by François Boucher.jpg|''The Toilet of Venus'' by [[François Boucher]] (1746) File:Tiepolo-residenz-wuerzburg.jpg|Ceiling fresco in the [[Würzburg Residence]] (1720–1744) by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]] File:Kuppelfreskowieskirche.jpg|Ceiling of the [[Wieskirche]] by [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]] (1745–1754) </gallery>
==Sculpture== <gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> Antonio Corradini - Dama Velata (Puritas) - Museo del Settecento Veneziano - Ca' Rezzonico, Venice.jpg|''The "Veiled Dame (Puritas)'' by [[Antonio Corradini]] (1722) Edme Bouchardon, Cupid, 1744, NGA 41708.jpg|''Cupid'' by [[Edmé Bouchardon]], [[National Gallery of Art]] (1744) Prometheus Adam Louvre MR1745 edit atoma.jpg|''Prometheus'' by [[Nicolas-Sébastien Adam]] (1762) Vertumnus Pomona Lemoyne Louvre RF2716.jpg|''Vertumnus and Pomone'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne (sculptor)|Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne]] (1760) Falconet - Pygmalion & Galatee (1763)-black bg.jpg|Pygmalion et Galatee by [[Étienne-Maurice Falconet]] (1763) The Intoxication of Wine MET DP254072.jpg|''The intoxication of wine'' by [[Claude Michel]] (Clodion), terracotta, 1780s–1790s </gallery>
Rococo sculpture was theatrical, sensual and dynamic, giving a sense of movement in every direction. It was most commonly found in the interiors of churches, usually closely integrated with painting and the architecture. Religious sculpture followed the Italian baroque style, as exemplified in the theatrical altarpiece of the [[Karlskirche]] in Vienna.
Early Rococo or [[Rocaille]] sculpture in France was lighter and offered more movement than the classical style of Louis XIV. It was encouraged in particular by [[Madame de Pompadour]], mistress of Louis XV, who commissioned many works for her chateaux and gardens. The sculptor [[Edmé Bouchardon]] represented [[Cupid]] engaged in carving his darts of love from the club of [[Hercules]]. Rococo figures also crowded the later [[Gardens of Versailles|fountains at Versailles]], such as the Fountain of Neptune by [[Lambert-Sigisbert Adam]] and [[Nicolas-Sebastien Adam]] (1740). Based on their success at Versailles, they were invited to Prussia by [[Frederick the Great]] to create fountain sculpture for [[Sanssouci Park]], Prussia (1740s).{{sfn|Duby|Daval|2013|pp=789–791}}
[[Étienne-Maurice Falconet]] (1716–1791) was another leading French sculptor during the period. Falconet was most famous for his [[Bronze Horseman]] statue of [[Peter the Great]] in St. Petersburg, but he also created a series of smaller works for wealthy collectors, which could be reproduced in a series in [[terracotta]] or cast in bronze. The French sculptors, [[Jean-Louis Lemoyne]], [[Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne (sculptor)|Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne]], [[Louis-Simon Boizot]], [[Michel Clodion]], [[Lambert-Sigisbert Adam]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Pigalle]] all produced sculpture in series for collectors.{{sfn|Duby|Daval|2013|p=819}}
In Italy, [[Antonio Corradini]] was among the leading sculptors of the Rococo style. A Venetian, he travelled around Europe, working for Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, for the courts in [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] and [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]]. He preferred sentimental themes and made several skilled works of women with faces covered by veils, one of which is now in the [[Louvre]].{{sfn|Duby|Daval|2013|pp=781–832}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> File:Wien-Landstraße, Oberes Belvedere, Trägerfigur.JPG|Atlantides in the upper [[Belvedere Palace]], Vienna, by [[Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt]] (1721–1722) File:Kloster Rohr in Nby Detail Hochaltar.JPG|[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]] scene by [[Egid Quirin Asam]] (1722–1723) former monastery church, [[Rohr in Niederbayern]] File:El Transparente.jpg|''El Transparente'' altar in [[Toledo Cathedral]] by [[Narciso Tomé]] (1721–1732) File:Façana del Palau del Marqués de Dosaigües.JPG|Portal of the [[Palace of the Marqués de Dos Aguas]], Valencia, Spain (1740–1744) File:Versalles Fuente de Neptuno 02.JPG|Fountain of Neptune and Amphitrite [[Palace of Versailles]], by [[Lambert-Sigisbert Adam]] and [[Nicolas-Sebastien Adam]] (1740) File:8002.Element Luft-2 Nymphen mit erlegtem Reiher(1739)-Lambert Sigisbert Adam-Sanssouci Steffen Heilfort.JPG|Fountain nymphs by Lambert-Sigisbert Adam at [[Sanssouci]] palace, Prussia (1740s) File:Vierzehnheiligen Gnadenaltar P3RM0723-HDR.jpg|Mercy Altar depicting statues of the [[Fourteen Holy Helpers]] at [[Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers]] </gallery>
The most elaborate examples of rococo sculpture were found in Spain, Austria and southern Germany, in the decoration of palaces and churches. The sculpture was closely integrated with the architecture; it was impossible to know where one stopped and the other began. In the [[Belvedere Palace]] in Vienna, (1721–1722), the vaulted ceiling of the Hall of the Atlantes is held up on the shoulders of muscular figures designed by [[Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt]]. The portal of the [[Palace of the Marqués de Dos Aguas]] in Valencia (1715–1776) was completely drenched in sculpture carved in marble, from designs by Hipolito Rovira Brocandel.{{sfn|Duby|Daval|2013|pp=782–783}}
The ''El Transparente'' altar, in the major chapel of [[Toledo Cathedral]] is a towering sculpture of [[polychrome]] marble and gilded stucco, combined with paintings, statues and symbols. It was made by [[Narciso Tomé]] (1721–1732), Its design allows light to pass through, and in changing light it seems to move.{{sfn|Duby|Daval|2013|pp=802–803}}
==Porcelain== A new form of small-scale sculpture appeared, the [[porcelain]] figure, or small group of figures, initially replacing sugar sculptures on grand dining room tables, but soon popular for placing on mantelpieces and furniture. The number of European factories grew steadily through the century, and some made porcelain that the expanding middle classes could afford. The amount of colourful [[overglaze decoration]] used on them also increased. They were usually modelled by artists who had trained in sculpture. Common subjects included figures from the [[commedia dell'arte]], city street vendors, lovers and figures in fashionable clothes, and pairs of birds.
[[Johann Joachim Kändler]] was the most important modeller of [[Meissen porcelain]], the earliest European factory, which remained the most important until about 1760. The Swiss-born German sculptor [[Franz Anton Bustelli]] produced a wide variety of colourful figures for the [[Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory]] in Bavaria, which were sold throughout Europe. The French sculptor [[Étienne-Maurice Falconet]] (1716 – 1791) followed this example. While also making large-scale works, he became director of the [[Sevres Porcelain]] manufactory and produced small-scale works, usually about love and gaiety, for production in series.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200"> File:Karlskirche October 2006 005.jpg|High altar of the [[Karlskirche]] in Vienna (1737) File:Cup and Saucer LACMA 47.35.6a-b (1 of 3).jpg|Cup with saucer; {{circa|1753}}; soft-paste porcelain with glaze and enamel; [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] File:Mezzetin, Johann Joachim Kaendler, Meissen Porcelain Factory, c. 1739, hard-paste porcelain - Wadsworth Atheneum - Hartford, CT - DSC05311.jpg|[[Mezzetin]], by [[Johann Joachim Kaendler]], [[Meissen porcelain|Meissen]], {{circa|1739}} File:Harlequin and Columbine MET DP169015 (cropped).jpg|''[[Harlequin]] and [[Columbina|Columbine]]'', [[Capodimonte porcelain]], {{circa|1745}} File:Bustelli Liebesgruppe Der gestörte Schläfer BNM.jpg|''Pair of lovers'' group of [[Nymphenburg porcelain]], {{circa|1760}}, modelled by [[Franz Anton Bustelli]] File:Bustelli Käsmann BNM.jpg|Figure of a cheese seller by [[Franz Anton Bustelli]], Nymphenburg porcelain (1755) </gallery>
==Music== A Rococo period existed in [[music history]], although it is not as well known as the earlier Baroque and later Classical forms. The Rococo music style itself developed out of baroque music both in France, where the new style was referred to as [[Galante music|''style galant'']] ("gallant" or "elegant" style), and in Germany, where it was referred to as ''[[empfindsamer Stil]]'' ("sensitive style"). It can be characterized as light, intimate music with extremely elaborate and refined forms of [[ornamentation (music)|ornamentation]].
In the second half of the 18th century, a reaction against the Rococo style occurred, primarily against its perceived overuse of ornamentation and decoration. Led by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], this reaction ushered in the [[Classical period (music)|Classical era]]. By the early 19th century, Catholic opinion had turned against the suitability of the style for ecclesiastical contexts because it was "in no way conducive to sentiments of devotion".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Rococo Style|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13106a.htm|access-date=2023-02-08|website=New Advent |last1=Gietmann |first1=G. |date=1912 |others=Transcribed by Germani, Ferruccio }}</ref>
Russian composer of the [[Romantic music|Romantic era]] [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] wrote The ''[[Variations on a Rococo Theme]]'', Op. 33, for cello and orchestra in 1877. Although the theme is not Rococo in origin, it is written in Rococo style.
==Fashion== [[File:Sackbackgown.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Sack-back gown and petticoat, 1775–1780 V&A Museum no. T.180&A-1965]]
Rococo fashion was based on extravagance, elegance, refinement and decoration. Women's fashion of the seventeenth-century was contrasted by the fashion of the eighteenth-century, which was ornate and sophisticated, the true style of Rococo.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Fashion: A history from the 18th to the 20th century|last1=Fukui |first1=A. |last2=Suoh |first2=T. |name-list-style=amp |date=2012}}</ref> These fashions spread beyond the royal court into the salons and cafés of the ascendant bourgeoisie.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://historyofeuropeanfashion.wordpress.com/category/baroquerococo-1650-1800/|title=Baroque/Rococo 1650–1800|website=History of Costume}}</ref> The exuberant, playful, elegant style of decoration and design that we now call 'Rococo' was then known as ''le style rocaille, le style moderne, le gout.''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rococo: The continuing curve, 1730–2008|last=Coffin|first=S.|date=2008|location=New York}}</ref>
A style that appeared in the early eighteenth-century was the ''robe volante'',<ref name=":0" /> a flowing gown, that became popular towards the end of King Louis XIV's reign. This gown had the features of a bodice with large pleats flowing down the back to the ground over a rounded petticoat. The colour palette was rich, dark fabrics accompanied by elaborate, heavy design features. After the death of Louis XIV the clothing styles began to change. The fashion took a turn to a lighter, more frivolous style, transitioning from the baroque period to the well-known style of Rococo.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2016/09-10/daily-life-france-fashion-marie-antoinette/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401025657/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2016/09-10/daily-life-france-fashion-marie-antoinette/|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 April 2017|title=Marie Antoinette's Style Revolution|date=November 2016|website=National Geographic|access-date=22 April 2018}}</ref> The later period was known for their pastel colours, more revealing frocks, and the plethora of frills, ruffles, bows, and lace as trims. Shortly after the typical women's Rococo gown was introduced, ''robe à la Française,''<ref name=":0" /> a gown with a tight bodice that had a low cut neckline, usually with a large ribbon bows down the centre front, wide panniers, and was lavishly trimmed in large amounts of lace, ribbon, and flowers.
The ''Watteau pleats''<ref name=":0" /> also became more popular, named after the painter Jean-[[Antoine Watteau]], who painted the details of the gowns down to the stitches of lace and other trimmings with immense accuracy. Later, the ''<nowiki/>'pannier'<nowiki/>'' and ''<nowiki/>'mantua''<nowiki/>' became fashionable around 1718. They were wide hoops under the dress to extend the hips out sideways and they soon became a staple in formal wear. This gave the Rococo period the iconic dress of wide hips combined with the large amount of decoration on the garments. Wide panniers were worn for special occasions, and could reach up to {{convert|16|ft|m|abbr=off}} in diameter,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/18sil/hd_18sil.htm|title=Eighteenth-Century Silhouette and Support|last=Glasscock|first=J.|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=October 2004 |access-date=22 April 2018}}</ref> and smaller hoops were worn for the everyday settings. These features originally came from seventeenth-century Spanish fashion, known as ''guardainfante'', initially designed to hide the pregnant stomach, then reimagined later as the pannier.<ref name=":2" /> 1745 became the Golden Age of the Rococo with the introduction of a more exotic, oriental culture in France called ''a la turque''.<ref name=":0" /> This was made popular by Louis XV's mistress, [[Madame de Pompadour]], who commissioned the artist, [[Charles-André van Loo]], to paint her as a Turkish sultana.
In the 1760s, a style of less formal dresses emerged and one of these was the ''polonaise'', with inspiration taken from Poland. It was shorter than the French dress, allowing the underskirt and ankles to be seen, which made it easier to move around in. Another dress that came into fashion was the ''robe a l'anglais'', which included elements inspired by the males' fashion; a short jacket, broad lapels and long sleeves.<ref name=":1" /> It also had a snug bodice, a full skirt without panniers but still a little long in the back to form a small train, and often some type of lace kerchief worn around the neck. Another piece was the 'redingote', halfway between a cape and an overcoat.
Accessories were also important to all women during this time, as they added to the opulence and the decor of the body to match their gowns. At any official ceremony ladies were required to cover their hands and arms with gloves if their clothes were sleeveless.<ref name=":1" />
==Literature== In literature the term is "unhelpfully vague, but usually suggests a cheerful lightness and intimacy of tone, and an elegant playfulness."{{sfn|Baldick|2015}} Principal Rococo [[literary genre]]s were small forms, such as erotic [[light poetry]] ({{langx|fr|poésie légère}} or ''poésie fugitive''), [[sonnet]], [[madrigal]] and other songs, [[pastoral]], fairy tail, [[novella]], but there were also long [[narrative poem]]s, for example, [[Christoph Martin Wieland]]'s German-language masterpiece ''[[Oberon (poem)|Oberon]]''.
Predominantly an [[18th-century French literature]] style, influenced by the 17th-century ''[[Précieuses]]'' school, is represented by [[Anne Claude de Caylus]], the author of the ''Art of Love'' P. J. Bernard, [[Alexandre-Frédéric-Jacques Masson de Pezay|Alexandre Masson de Pezay]] (the narrative poem ''Zélis' Bathing''), Abbé de Favre (the poem ''Les quatre heures de la toilette des dames''), [[Évariste de Parny]], [[Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvray]], and other writers. The Rococo had also followers in Italy ([[Paolo Rolli]], [[Pietro Metastasio]]) and Germany ([[Friedrich von Hagedorn]], [[Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim]], [[Johann Uz]], [[Johann Nikolaus Götz]]),{{sfn|Ermatinger|1928}} and to a lesser extent, within English and Russian ([[Ippolit Bogdanovich]]) writings.
==Gallery==
===Architecture=== {{Main|Rococo architecture}}
<gallery widths="220" heights="220"> File:Igreja de São Francisco de Assis (Ouro Preto, MG) por Rodrigo Tetsuo Argenton.jpg|[[Church of São Francisco de Assis, Ouro Preto]], Brazil, 1749–1774, by [[Aleijadinho]] File:Pałac Czapskich w Warszawie 2021.jpg|[[Czapski Palace]] in [[Warsaw]], Poland, 1712–1721, reflects the rococo fascination with [[orient]]al architecture File:St. Andriy's Church in Kyiv.jpg|[[St Andrew's Church, Kyiv]], 1744–1767, designed by [[Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli]] File:Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg|[[Zwinger (Dresden)]] File:Esterházy-kastély (4051. számú műemlék) 2.jpg|[[Eszterháza]] in [[Fertőd]], [[Hungary]], 1720–1766, sometimes called the "''Hungarian Versailles''" File:150913 Branicki Palace in Białystok - 09.jpg|The Rococo [[Branicki Palace, Białystok]], sometimes referred to as the "''Polish Versailles''" File:Trier Kurfuerstliches Palais BW 1.JPG|[[Electoral Palace, Trier]] File:Convento Santo Domingo - Lima.jpg|[[Basilica of Santo Domingo, Lima]], Peru, completed in 1766, by [[Manuel de Amat y Junyent]] File:Klosterkirche Fürstenzell 2.JPG|[[Fürstenzell Abbey]] church, 1739–1744 </gallery>
===Engravings=== <gallery widths="220px" heights="220px"> File:Allegories of astronomy and geography.jpg|Unknown artist. Allegories of astronomy and geography. France (?), {{Circa|1750s}} File:A. Avelin after Mondon le Fils.jpg|A. Avelin after Mondon le Fils. L′Heureux moment. 1736 File:Mondon le Fils.jpg|A. Avelin after Mondon le Fils. Chinese God. An engraving from the ouvrage «Quatrieme livre des formes, orneė des rocailles, carteles, figures oyseaux et dragon» 1736 </gallery>
===Painting=== <gallery widths="220" heights="220"> File:Pierrot - Antoine Watteau - Musée du Louvre Peintures MI 1121 - après restauration 2024.jpg|[[Antoine Watteau]], ''[[Pierrot (Watteau)|Pierrot]]'', 1718–1719 File:Antoine Watteau - L'imbarco per Citera.jpg|Antoine Watteau, ''[[The Embarkation for Cythera]]'', 1718–1721 File:Vanloo, Triumph of Galatea.jpg|[[Jean-Baptiste van Loo]], ''The Triumph of [[Galatea (mythological statue)|Galatea]]'', 1720 File:FdeTroyLectureMoliere.jpg|[[Jean François de Troy]], ''A Reading of [[Molière]]'', 1728 File:Francis Hayman - Reigen der Milchmädchen oder das Manifest.jpg|[[Francis Hayman]], ''Dancing Milkmaids'', 1735 File:Charles-André, dit Carle Vanloo - Halte de chasse (1737).JPG|[[Charles-André van Loo]], ''Halt to the Hunt'', 1737 File:François Boucher - The Triumph of Venus - Google Art Project.jpg|[[François Boucher]], ''[[The Triumph of Venus]]'', 1740 File:Boucher par Gustav Lundberg 1741.jpg|[[Gustaf Lundberg]], ''Portrait of [[François Boucher]]'', 1741 File:Boucher Diane sortant du bain Louvre 2712.jpg|François Boucher, ''[[Diana Bathing (Boucher)|Diana Leaving the Bath]]'', 1742 File:Giambattista Tiepolo - The Banquet of Cleopatra - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], ''[[The Banquet of Cleopatra (Tiepolo)|The Banquet of Cleopatra]]'', 1743 File:Resting Girl by François Boucher (1753) - Alte Pinakothek - Munich - Germany 2017 (crop).jpg|François Boucher, ''[[Marie-Louise O'Murphy]]'', 1752 File:Maurice Quentin de La Tour - Madame de Pompadour dans son cabinet de travail.jpg|[[Maurice Quentin de La Tour]], ''Full-length portrait of the [[Marquise de Pompadour]]'', 1748–1755 File:Madame de Pompadour.jpg|François Boucher ''Portrait of the Marquise de Pompadour'', 1756 File:Jean-Honoré Fragonard - Inspiration.jpg|Jean-Honoré Fragonard, ''Inspiration'', 1769 File:Denisdiderot.jpg|Jean-Honoré Fragonard, ''Portrait of a man, formerly mistakenly identified as [[Denis Diderot]]'', 1769 File:José Campeche (Puerto Rican, 1751-1809). Doña María de los Dolores Gutiérrez del Mazo y Pérez, ca. 1796..jpg|[[José Campeche]], ''Doña María de los Dolores Gutiérrez del Mazo y Pérez'', {{Circa|1796}} <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/209953|title=Doña María de los Dolores Gutiérrez del Mazo y Pérez|author=[[José Campeche]]|year=1796|website=[[Brooklyn Museum]] website|location=New York}}</ref> File:Louise Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - Marie-Antoinette dit « à la Rose » - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun]], ''[[Marie Antoinette with a Rose]]'', 1783 File:1770 Fragonard Maedchen mit Hund anagoria.jpg|Jean-Honoré Fragonard, ''[[La Gimblette]]'', 1770–1775 </gallery>
===Rococo era painting=== <gallery widths="220px" heights="220px"> File:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 029.jpg|[[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]], ''Still Life with Glass Flask and Fruit'', {{Circa|1750}} File:Thomas Gainsborough - Mr and Mrs Andrews.jpg|[[Thomas Gainsborough]], ''[[Mr and Mrs Andrews]]'', 1750 File:Greuze, Jean-Baptiste - The Spoiled Child - low res.jpg|[[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], ''The Spoiled Child'', {{circa|1765}} File:Joshua Reynolds - George Clive and his Family with an Indian Maid - WGA19338.jpg|[[Joshua Reynolds]], ''[[George Clive (died 1779)|George Clive]] and his family with an Indian maid,'' 1765 File:Kauffman-Garrick.jpg|[[Angelica Kauffman]], ''[[Portrait of David Garrick (Kauffman)|Portrait of David Garrick]]'', {{circa|1765}} File:Denis Diderot by Louis-Michel van Loo.jpg|[[Louis-Michel van Loo]], ''[[Portrait of Denis Diderot]]'', 1767 File:The Blue Boy.jpg|Thomas Gainsborough, ''[[The Blue Boy]]'', 1770 File:Thomas_Gainsborough_-_The_Honourable_Mrs_Graham_(1757_-_1792)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|Thomas Gainsborough, ''[[Portrait of Mrs Mary Graham]]'', 1777 </gallery>
==See also== {{Portal|Visual arts}} * [[Italian Rococo art]] * [[Rococo Painting|Rococo painting]] * [[Rococo in Portugal]] * [[Rococo in Spain]] * [[Cultural movement]] * [[Gilded woodcarving]] * [[History of painting]] * [[Template:Timeline of Italian artists to 1800|Timeline of Italian artists to 1800]] * [[Illusionistic ceiling painting]] * [[Louis Quinze|Louis XV style]] * [[Louis XV furniture]] * {{ill|Liège–Aachen Baroque furniture|de|Aachen-Lütticher Möbelstil}}
==Notes and citations==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography== * {{cite book|last=Bailey |first=Gauvin Alexander|author-link=Gauvin Alexander Bailey |title=The Spiritual Rococo: Décor and Divinity from the Salons of Paris to the Missions of Patagonia|location=Farnham|publisher=Ashgate|date=2014 |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Spiritual-Rococo-Decor-and-Divinity-from-the-Salons-of-Paris-to-the/Bailey/p/book/9781409400639}} * {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Baldick |given=Chris |authorlink=Chris Baldick |entry=Rococo |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms |edition=4th |format=Online Version |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191783234 |entry-url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198715443.001.0001/acref-9780198715443-e-991?rskey=2CYS4p&result=1015 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198715443.001.0001/acref-9780198715443 |url-access=subscription}} * {{cite book |last=Cabanne |first=Perre|title=L'Art Classique et le Baroque |location=Paris |publisher=Larousse|date=1988|isbn=978-2-03-583324-2}} * {{cite book|title=Dictionnaire Historique de Paris |date=2013|publisher=Le Livre de Poche|isbn=978-2-253-13140-3}} * {{cite book|last=Droguet |first=Anne|title=Les Styles Transition et Louis XVI|publisher=Les Editions de l'Amateur|date=2004|isbn=2-85917-406-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Duby |first1=Georges |last2=Daval |first2=Jean-Luc |title=La Sculpture de l'Antiquité au XX<sup>e</sup> siècle |language=fr |publisher=Taschen |location=Cologne |year=2013 |isbn=978-3-8365-4483-2}} French translation from German. * {{cite book|last=Ducher |first=Robert|title=Caractéristique des Styles |location=Paris |publisher=Flammarion|date=1988|isbn=2-08-011539-1}} * {{cite book |surname=Ermatinger |given=Emil |authorlink=Emil Ermatinger |title=Barock und Rokoko in der deutschen Dichtung |language=de |url=https://archive.org/details/barockundrokokoi0000erma/page/n6/mode/1up |place=Leipzig; Berlin |publisher=B. G. Teubner |year=1928}} * {{cite book|last=Fierro |first=Alfred|title=Histoire et dictionnaire de Paris |date=1996 |publisher=Robert Laffont|isbn=2-221--07862-4}} * {{cite book |last=Graur |first=Neaga |title=Stiluri în arta decorativă |year=1970 |publisher=Cerces |language=ro}} * {{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=Owen |title=Les styles en architecture |publisher=Dunod |year=2014|isbn=978-2-10-070689-1}} * {{cite book |last=Kimball |first=Fiske |author-link1=Fiske Kimball |title=The Creation of the Rococo Decorative Style |year=1980 |orig-date=1943 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |isbn=978-0-486-23989-7}} * {{cite book|last=de Morant|first=Henry|title=Histoire des arts décoratifs|publisher=Librairie Hachette|date=1970}} * {{cite book|title=Petite encylopédie de l'architecture |first1=Francesca |last1=Prina|first2=Elena|last2=Demartini|publisher=Solar|location=Paris|date=2006|isbn=2-263-04096-X}} * {{cite book| last=Renault |first=Christophe |title=Les Styles de l'architecture et du mobilier |location=Paris|publisher=Gisserot |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-877-4746-58}} * {{cite book |last=Texier |first=Simon |title=Paris- Panorama de l'architecture de l'Antiquité à nos jours |location=Paris |publisher=Parigramme|date=2012|isbn=978-2-84096-667-8}} * {{cite book|last=Vila|first=Marie Christine|title=Paris Musique- Huit Siècles d'histoire|date=2006|publisher=Parigramme|location=Paris|isbn=978-2-84096-419-3}}
==Further reading== * {{cite book |last1=Schönberger |first1=Arno |last2=Soehner |first2=Halldor |title=The Rococo Age: Art and Civilization of the 18th Century |orig-date=1959 |year=1960 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |oclc=16361841}} Published in the UK as ''The Age of Rococo''. Originally published in German. * {{cite book |last=Levey |first=Michael |title=Painting in Eighteenth-Century Venice |url =https://archive.org/details/paintingineighte0000leve |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |location=Ithaca |date=1980 |isbn=0-8014-1331-1}} * {{cite book |last=Kelemen |first=Pál |title=Baroque and Rococo in Latin America |url=https://archive.org/details/baroquerococoinl01kele |url-access=registration |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |date=1967 |isbn=0-486-21698-5}}
==External links== {{Commons category|Rococo architecture}} {{Commons category|Rococo art}} {{wiktionary}} * [http://www.all-art.org/history252_contents_Baroque_Rococo.html All-art.org: Rococo in the "History of Art"] * {{cite web |publisher=[[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/Style04a/index.html |title=Rococo Style Guide |work=British Galleries |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714133500/http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/Style04a/index.html |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=16 July 2007 |url-status=dead }} * [https://latgale.academy/history-of-rococo/ History of Rococo. Art, architecture & luxury] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521162216/https://latgale.academy/history-of-rococo/ |date=21 May 2021 }} History & Culture Academy of Latgale * [http://www.bergerfoundation.ch/Vertige/english/index.html Bergerfoundation.ch: Rococo style examples] * [http://digital.lib.uh.edu/collection/frare/item/675 Barock- und Rococo- Architektur, Volume 1, Part 1, 1892(in German)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731221526/http://digital.lib.uh.edu/collection/frare/item/675 |date=31 July 2017 }} Kenneth Franzheim II Rare Books Room, William R. Jenkins Architecture and Art Library, University of Houston Digital Library.
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