Rhind Lectures

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}} {{More citations needed|date=December 2017}}

'''Rhind Lectures''' are a series of lectures on ‘some branch of archaeology, ethnology, ethnography, or allied topic’ in order ‘to assist in the general advancement of knowledge’.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://journals.socantscot.org/index.php/psas/article/view/9571 | doi=10.9750/PSAS.131.1.2 | title=Presenting the Scottish Past: The Rhind Lectures for the Session 1999 - 2000, part 1 | date=2002 | last1=Ritchie | first1=J N G. | journal=Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland | volume=131 | pages=1–2 }}</ref> They have been hosted by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland since 1876. The content of the lectures is usually published in journals or expanded into new works by their authors.

The name commemorates Alexander Henry Rhind, whose bequest to the society funded this lectureship. Rhind directed that his estate be used for this purpose, once the interests of living parties were extinguished, which took place 11 years after his death in 1863.<ref>{{cite DNB|wstitle=Rhind, Alexander Henry}}</ref> The speaker and subject are selected some three years in advance, allowing the speaker to give a detailed exposition of a topic in their area of expertise.

The Rhind Lectures have continued into the 21st century, and since 2009 the society has published a video file that is freely available to the public.<ref name="SAS">{{cite web|url=http://www.socantscot.org/articles.asp?pubid=87|title=The Rhind Lectures|work=Society's Website|publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland|accessdate=27 November 2010|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206135533/http://www.socantscot.org/articles.asp?pubid=87|archivedate=6 December 2010}}</ref>

==Lecturers 1876–2008 == The total number of lectures in the series in 2012 was 133. The following is a list of all lecturers to 2012, with the title of their lectures where known.<ref name="listing">{{cite web|url=http://www.socantscot.org/content/documents/public_rhind_lecturers_list.doc|title=List of 133 Lecturers|work=The Rhind Lectures|publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland|accessdate=27 November 2010| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722055840/http://www.socantscot.org/content/documents/public_rhind_lecturers_list.doc| archivedate=22 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |+ Rhind Lectures |- ! No. !! Year(s) !! Title !! Lecturer |- | 1 || 1874/76 || ''The past in the Present'' || Arthur Mitchell, MD, LLD |- | 2 || 1876/78 || ''The past in the Present'' || Arthur Mitchell, MD., LLD |- | 3 || 1879 || ''Scotland in Early Christian Times'' || Joseph Anderson<ref name="clarke">{{cite journal|last1=Clarke|first1=DV|title=The foremost figure in all matters relating to Scottish archaeology': aspects of the work of Joseph Anderson|journal=Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland|date=2002|volume=132|pages=1–18|doi=10.9750/PSAS.132.1.18 |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_132/132_001_018.pdf|accessdate=1 January 2018}}</ref> |- | 4 || 1880 || ''Scotland in Early Christian Times'' || Joseph Anderson |- | 5 || 1881 || ''Scotland in Pagan Times: The Iron Age'' || Joseph Anderson |- | 6 || 1882 || ''Scotland in Pagan Times: The Bronze and Stone Ages'' || Joseph Anderson |- | 7 || 1883 || ''The Roman Occupation of Britain'' || Rev J Collingwood Bruce, LLD, FSA |- | 8 || 1884 || ''Ogham inscriptions in Ireland and Scotland'' || Sir Samuel Ferguson, QC., LLD., President of the Royal Irish Academy |- | 9 || 1885 || ''Early Christian symbolism in Great Britain and Ireland'' || J Romilly Allen, CE |- | 10 || 1886 || ''Register of Privy Council of Scotland'' || David Masson, MA LLD., Professor of Rhetoric & English Literature, University of Edinburgh |- | 11 || 1887 || ''Greek Antiquities'' || Alexander Stuart Murray, LLD., Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, London |- | 12 || 1888 || ''The Lake Dwellings of Europe'' || Robert Munro, MA MD., Author of ''Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings'' |- | 13 || 1889 || ''Early Ethnology of the British Isles'' || John Rhys, MA, Professor of Celtic at Oxford |- | 14 || 1890 || ''Archaeological Aspects of Scottish Zoology'' || Professor J. Duns, DD., New College, Edinburgh |- | 15 || 1891 || ''The Anthropological History of Europe'' || John Beddoe, MD LLD FRS, Vice-President of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |- | 16 || 1892 || ''The Early Christian Monuments of Scotland'' || Joseph Anderson, LLD., Assistant Secretary and Keeper of the Scottish National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh |- | 17 || 1893 || ''The Place-names of Scotland'' || Sir Herbert Maxwell, 7th Baronet<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxkuAAAAYAAJ | title=Scottish Land-names: Their Origin and Meaning. The Rhind lectures in archaeology | publisher=Blackwood and Sons | author=Sir Herbert Maxwell | year=1894}}</ref> |- | 18 || 1894 || ''Early fortifications in Scotland'' || David Christison, MD |- | 19 || 1895 || ''The Origins of Celtic Art'' || Arthur Evans, MA., Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford |- | 20 || 1896 || ''Industrial arts of Scandinavia in pagan times'' || Dr Hans Hildebrand, Royal Antiquary of Sweden |- | 21 || 1897 || ''The Evidence for a Roman Occupation of North Britain'' || James MacDonald, LLD |- | 22 || 1898 || ''Heraldry'' || James Balfour Paul, Lyon King-of-Arms |- | 23 || 1899|| ''Architecture in Scotland'' || Thomas Ross |} 24 1900 ''The Edwards in Scotland, 1296–1377'' Joseph Bain, FSA Scot<ref name="NMS">{{cite web|title=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Internal Manuscripts|url=http://www.nms.ac.uk/media/269233/sas_internal_manuscripts.pdf|publisher=National Museums Scotland|accessdate=16 February 2018}}</ref> 25 1901 ''The Constitution, Organisation, and Law of the Mediaeval Church in Scotland'' Bishop Dowden 26 1902 ''Castellated architecture of Scotland'' Thomas Ross 27 1903 ''Scotland in the Time of Queen Mary'' P Hume Brown, MA LLD., Fraser Professor of Ancient (Scottish) History and Palaeography in the University of Edinburgh 28 1904 ''Roman Scotland'' George Macdonald, MA 29 1905 ''Roman Britain'' Dr F Haverfield, MA LLD 30 1906 ''The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions'' Professor Archibald Sayce 31 1907 ''Roman Britain'' Dr F Haverfield, MA LLD 32 1908 ''The Roman Station at Newstead'' Mr James Curle 33 1909 ''The Occupation and use of the land in Scotland in Early Times'' Dr David Murray<ref>{{cite web | url=http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/manuscripts/search/detail_c.cfm?ID=5459 | title=David Murray. The Occupation and use of the land in Scotland in early times. The Rhind lectures in Archaeology, 1908 | publisher=University of Glasgow Manuscripts Catalogue Item Details | accessdate=10 February 2018}}</ref> 34 1910 ''Art of the Period of the Teutonic Migrations'' Professor Gerard Baldwin Brown<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/artsandcraftsou00browgoog | title=The Arts & Crafts of Our Teutonic Forefathers: Being the Substance of the Rhind Lectures for 1909| publisher=A. C. McClurg | author=Brown, Gerard Baldwin | authorlink=Gerard Baldwin Brown | year=1911}}</ref> 35 1911 ''The Records of Scotland'' J Maitland Thomson, LLD 36 1912 ''The Early Chronicles relating to Scotland'' Rt Hon Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., President of the Society<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/earlychroniclesr00maxwuoft | title=The early chronicles relating to Scotland; being the Rhind lectures in archaeology for 1912 in connection with the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland | publisher=James MacLehose and Sons | author=Maxwell, Herbert, Sir | year=1912 | location=Glasgow}} [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b757252;view=1up;seq=11 Copy] at HathiTrust Digital Library</ref> 37 1913 ''Some aspects of Scottish Feudalism'' Dr George Neilson 38 1913 ''The Development of writing and printing in Western Europe'' Dr W K Dickson 39 1914 ''The Liturgy and Ceremonial of The Mediaeval Church in Scotland'' Mr F C Eeles<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eeles|first1=Francis|title=The Holyrood Ordinale: a Scottish Version of a Directory of English Augustinian Canons, with Manual and Other Liturgical Forms|journal=The Book of the Old Edinburgh Club|date=1914|volume=VII|url=http://www.oldedinburghclub.org.uk/BOEC/OriginalSeries.shtml|accessdate=16 February 2018}}</ref> 40 1915 ''Medals of the Renaissance'' Mr George Francis Hill, Keeper of Coins & Medals, British Museum<ref name="NMS"/> 41 1916 ''Celtic Place-Names in Scotland'' Professor W J Watson, LLD<ref name="NMS"/> 42 1917 ''Arms and Armour'' Mr Charles J. ffoulkes, Curator of the Royal Armouries, Tower of London<ref name="NMS"/> 43 1918 ''The Prehistoric Monuments of Scotland'' Mr A O Curle 44 1919 ''House Furnishing and Domestic Life in Scotland 1488–1688'' Mr John Warrack<ref>{{cite book | url=http://www.electricscotland.com/history/domestic/domesticlifendx.htm | title=Domestic Life in Scotland, 1488 – 1688 | publisher=E. P. Dutton / Electric Scotland | author=John Warrack | year=1924}}</ref> 45 1920 ''Painting in the Roman Empire (from the last century of the Republic to about 800 AD)'' Mrs Arthur (Eugénie) Strong, British School at Rome<ref name="NMS"/> 46 1921 ''Egyptian Science'' Professor W M Flinders Petrie<ref name="NMS"/> 47 1922 ''Monastic Building in Britain'' Mr C R Peers 48 1923 ''The Civilisation of Greece in the Bronze Age'' Dr H R Hall 49 1924 ''Early Races of Scotland'' Professor Thomas H Bryce 50 1925 ''The Mediaeval Castle in Scotland'' Mr W M Mackenzie, Secretary RCAHMS 51 1926 ''Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance'' Mr Eric Maclagan, director, V & A Museum 52 1927 ''Roman Britain'' Sir George Macdonald, KCB FBA LLD 53 1928 ''The Ancient Connections between Scotland and Norway'' Professor A W Brøgger<ref name="NMS"/> 54 1929 ''The History of the Brooch'' Mr Reginald A Smith, BA FSA 55 1930 ''The Hittites'' Professor Garstang 56 1931 ''Monastic Life and its influence on the Civilisation of Scotland'' Mr George Gordon Coulton, Litt D DLitt LLD FBA 57 1932 ''The Megalithic Culture of Northern Europe'' Dr C A Nordman, Helsingfors 58 1933 ''English Illumination from AD 700 to the end of the Fifteenth Century'' Mr Eric G Millar, DLitt 59 1934 ''Augustan Civilisation in Western Europe'' Mr Ian A Richmond 60 1935 ''Early Anglo Saxon Art and Archaeology'' Mr E T Leeds, Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum 61 1936 ''The Archaeology of the Iberian Peninsula'' Professor P Bosch Gimpera 62 1937 ''Mediaeval Edinburgh'' Dr C A Malcolm 63 1938 ''Excavations at Ras Shamra'' Monsieur Claude Shaeffer 64 1939 ''Early Art of Scandinavia'' Professor Haakon Shetelig '''1940 Postponed (delivered in April 1942)''' 65 1941 ''The Province of Mar'' Dr W Douglas Simpson 66 1942 ''Jurisdictions of Mediaeval Scotland'' Dr W C Dickinson 67 1943 ''The Topography of Roman Scotland'' Mr O G S Crawford, FSA 68 1944 ''The Development of Tribal Society in Scotland'' Professor V G Childe, DLitt DSc FBA V-PSA 69 1945 ''The Scottish Burghs'' Dr W Mackay Mackenzie 70 1946 Spring ''Scandinavian Art of the Post-Christian Pagan Period'' Professor Haakon Shetelig 71 1946 Oct ''Castles and Cannon: A Study of Early Artillery Fortifications in England'' Mr Bryan H St John O’Neil '''1947 No lecture''' 72 1948 ''Early Christian Monuments in the Near East'' Professor W M Calder, LLD 73 1949 ''First: The Mediaeval Stone Carver in Scotland'' (Two series of lectures delivered) Mr James S Richardson, LLD 74 ''Second: Regional House-Styles: their origins and development: recent studies in South Wales'' Sir Cyril Fox, DLitt FSA 75 1950 (Series of seven lectures) ''Periods of Highland Civilization'' Miss I F Grant LLD 76 1951 ''Discipline of Field Archaeology'' Professor R E Mortimer Wheeler 77 1952 ''Greek Sculpture: The Century after Pheidias'' Mr Bernard Ashmole, MC MA BLitt FBA 78 1953 ''Architecture in Elizabethan England'' Mr John Summerson, CBE FSA ARIBA 79 1954 ''The Laboratory in the service of Art and Archaeology'' Dr H J Plenderleith 80 1955 ''A Survey of American Archaeology'' Dr G H S Bushnell 81 1956 ''Classical inspiration in Medieval Art'' Mr W F Oakenshott '''1957 No lecture due to the death of Professor S P O’Riordain''' 82 1958 ''The Historical Local Institutions of Scotland'' Professor G S Pryde of Glasgow 83 1959 ''The Role of Constantinople in Byzantine Art'' Professor D Talbot Rice 84 1960 ''Roman Imperial Art'' Mr J B Ward Perkins, Director of The British School at Rome 85 1961 ''The Origins of the Late Celtic Art'' Professor Haseloff of Würzburg 86 1962 March ''Mounds of the Middle East: their formation and excavation'' Mr Seton Lloyd, CBE 87 Nov ''The Prehistoric Origins of Europe'' Professor Stuart Piggott, BLitt DLitt HUM 88 1964 ''The Coins of the Ancient Celts'' Mr D F Allen, BA FBA FSA 89 1965 March ''Anglo-Saxon Pottery and the Settlement of England'' Mr J N L Myres, MA LLD FSA 90 Oct ''Cultural Structure and Movement in East Asia from the Neolithic Period to the Unification of China'' Mr William Watson, MA 91 1966/67 ''Scottish Architects and English Architecture in the 18th Century'' Dr PJ Murray 92 1967/68 ''Late Medieval Monumental Sculpture in the West Highlands'' Dr K A Steer 93 1968/69 ''The Roman Frontier in Germany in the Light of New Research'' Prof Dr Hans Schonberger 94 1969/70 ''The Furnishing of Medieval Churches in Scotland'' The Rt Rev Monsigneur D McRoberts S.T.L. 95 1970/71 ''Plough and Field shape from Prehistoric Times to c1500 AD'' Prof Axel Steensberg 96 1972/73 ''Byzantine Mosaic and Wall Paintings'' D Winfield 97 1973/74 ''Aspects of Archaeology in Iran'' D B Stronach 98 1974/75 ''Scottish Silversmiths and Their Work'' Stuart Maxwell 99 1975/76 ''Interior Decoration in Great Britain'' G Beard 100 1976/77 ''Pictish Art and Society'' Dr I Henderson 101 1977/78 ''Pre-Roman Celtic Art'' Prof O-H Frey 102 1978/79 ''The Medieval Cathedrals of Scotland'' Dr R Cant 103 1979/80 ''The Course of Architecture in Ireland'' Dr M Craig 104 1980/81 ''The Industrial Heritage'' Prof S G E Lythe 105 1981/82 ''Pre-Roman and Native Settlement between the Tyne and Forth'' Prof G Jobey 106 1982/83 ''Aspects of the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in the Netherlands and Britain'' Prof JD van der Waals 107 1983/84 ''The Danube Frontier of the Roman Empire'' Prof J J Wilkes 1985/86 108 1986/87 ''Culture, Tradition and Artifact'' Dr A Gailey 109 1987/88 ''The Archaeology of Death in Ancient Egypt'' Dr A Rosalie Davie 110 1988/89 ''An Heroic Age: War and Society in Northern Britain AD 450–850'' Prof Leslie Alcock 111 1989/90 ''The Archaeology of the Slavs'' Dr Martin Gojda 112 1990/91 ''The Revival of Medieval and Early Renaissance Architecture in Scotland 1745–1930'' Dr D M Walker 113 1991/92 ''Altering The Earth: The Origins of Monuments in Britain and Continental Europe'' Prof R Bradley 114 1992/93 ''Scottish Monastic life on the Eve of the Reformation'' Dr Mark Dilworth 115 1993/94 ''Oral Narrative in Scotland'' Donald A MacDonald 116 1994/95 ''Enlarging the Past: the contribution of Wetland Archaeology'' Professor John and Dr Bryony Coles 117 1995/96 ''Death and Wealth in Viking Scotland'' Professor James Graham-Campbell 118 1996/97 ''The Food of the Scots'' Professor Alexander Fenton<ref>A greatly expanded version was published in 2007 by John Donald, Edinburgh, as vol. 5 of ''''Scottish Life and Society: a compendium of Scottish ethnology''</ref> 119 1997/98 ''Scottish Royal Palaces: The Architecture of the Royal Residences during the Late Medieval and Early Renaissance Periods'' John Dunbar 120 1998/99 ''The Origins of Insular Monasticism'' Professor Charles Thomas 121 1999–2000 ''Significant Figures: Anderson, Baldwin-Brown, Childe, AO Curle, J Curle, A McBain, L Mann, WF Skene'' Dr D J Breeze; Dr DV Clarke; Professor D Meek; Dr JNG Ritchie; Mr WDH Sellar 122 2000–2001 ''Art as Archaeology, Archaeology as Art: Transformations through material culture'' Professor Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn, University of Cambridge 123 2001–2002 ''Peoples Between The Oceans'' Professor Barry Cunliffe, University of Oxford 124 2002–2003 ''Lines from the past: towards an anthropological archaeology of inscription'' Professor Tim Ingold, University of Aberdeen 125 2003–2004 ''Court, Capital and Country: the Emergence of Renaissance Scotland'' Professor Michael Lynch, University of Edinburgh 126 2004–2005 ''Men who turned towards the light: Cult and creativity in the Romans’ world'' Professor Greg Woolf, University of St Andrews 127 2006 ''Rock and Cave Art'' Paul Bahn 128 2007 ''Living in an Age of Stone: Neolithic people and their worlds'' Professor Gabriel Cooney, University College Dublin 129 2008 ''Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain''<ref name="google/books-978-87-85180-05-6">{{cite book |last1=Crumlin-Pedersen |first1=Ole |title=Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain: A Personal Account |date=2010 |publisher=Viking Ship Museum |isbn=978-87-85180-05-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7q-FPgAACAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Professor {{ill|Ole Crumlin-Pedersen|da}}, Denmark

==Lecturers 2009- == 130 2009 ''New Light on the Dawn: a new perspective on the Neolithic Revolution in Southwest Asia'' Emeritus Professor Trevor Watkins, University of Edinburgh 131 2010 ''Design versus Dogma: Reflections on Field Archaeology''<ref>Rhind Lectures 2010 videocast: Professor Martin Carver on [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722055922/http://www.socantscot.org/article.asp?aid=1128 "Design vs Dogma: Reflections on Field Archaeology"] The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.</ref> Professor Martin Carver, University of York 132 2011 ''Material and spiritual engagements; Britain and Ireland in the first age of metal'' Dr Stuart Needham 133 2012 ''On the windy edge of nothing: Vikings in the North Atlantic world – ecological and social journeys'' Professor Kevin Edwards, University of Aberdeen

134 2013 ''‘Magnificent'' for the beauty and extent of its buildings and worthy of everlasting fame’: the architecture of the Scottish late medieval Church, by Richard Fawcett of University of St Andrews (2013).

135 2014 ''Archaeology and Celtic Myth – an exploration''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhind Lectures 2014 |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLomxmmDt-nnJ3--aamnxH5P58KDGgXq5d&feature=shared |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=YouTube |language=en}}</ref> Professor John Waddell, NUI Galway

136 2015 ''British Archaeology: its progress and demands'' Various contributors including, Professor Audrey Horning, Queen’s University Belfast; Professor Ian Baxter, University Campus Suffolk; Dr Jacqui Mulville, Cardiff University; Margaret Maitland, National Museums Scotland; Dr Rebecca Jones, Historic Environment Scotland; Dr Alan Leslie, Northlight Heritage; Professor Mary Bownes, University of Edinburgh; Professor Keith Dobney, University of Aberdeen; Dr Greger Larson, University of Oxford; Dr Eva-Maria Geigl, CNRS University Paris 7; Professor Ian Barnes, Natural History Museum; and Professor Richard Bradley

137 2016 ''Antiquaries, archaeologists and the invention of the historic town c.1700–1860'' Professor Roey Sweet, University of Leicester, Centre for Urban History

138 2017 ''Sacred Heritage: medieval monasticism, magic and memory'' Professor Roberta Gilchrist, University of Reading 139 2018 ''Drystone technologies: Neolithic tensions and Iron Age compressions'' Dr John Barber, AOC Archaeology Group

140 2019 ''Hadrian’s Wall: A Study in Archaeological Exploration and Interpretation''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhind Lectures 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLomxmmDt-nnIV5XEgR84vJnRQ1z07vog6&feature=shared |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=YouTube |language=en}}</ref> Professor David J. Breeze

141 2020 ''Neolithic Scotland: the Big Picture and Detailed Narratives in 2020''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhind Lectures 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLomxmmDt-nnL-vwhN9UV5-P28H5q1NQ4M&feature=shared |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=YouTube |language=en}}</ref> Dr Alison Sheridan

142 2021 ''Untimely Ends''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhind Lectures 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLomxmmDt-nnLtR_NJBSrAcx0_yCWAD5i1&feature=shared |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=YouTube |language=en}}</ref> Professor John Hunter

143 2022 ''Unearthing the African Diaspora''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhind Lectures 2022 |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLomxmmDt-nnJjT5bUcdTyREpZQ_IHqOzq&feature=shared |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=YouTube |language=en}}</ref> Professor Theresa Singleton

144 2023 ''What has Maya archaeology done for us?''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhind Lectures 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLomxmmDt-nnIxo7LKbRr3z3DJdkWnS02j&feature=shared |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=YouTube |language=en}}</ref> Professor Elizabeth Graham

145 2024 ''Two ‘little’ ice ages and an anomaly: climate, environment and cultural change in medieval and early modern Scotland''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhind Lectures 2024 |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLomxmmDt-nnLbD_Y03qefrK6lCJ04G-M-&feature=shared |access-date=2024-09-19 |website=YouTube |language=en}}</ref> Professor Richard Oram

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101206135533/http://www.socantscot.org/articles.asp?pubid=87 Rhind Lectures] recorded online since 2009

Category:Archaeology of Scotland Category:British lecture series Category:1874 establishments in Scotland Category:Recurring events established in 1874