Mali — Mediated Wiki

{{Short description|Country in West Africa}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Mali | native_name = {{collapsible list |titlestyle = text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:85%; |title = {{resize|1.0 em|Official names}} | {{Infobox | subbox=yes | bodystyle=font-size:77%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = Bambara: | data1 = {{lang|bm|Mali ka Fasojamana / ߡߊ߬ߟߌ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ<ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/NkoOfficiel |title=Académie N'Ko Mali ߡߊ߰ߟߌ ߒߞߏ ߟߏ߲ߞߏ߫ ߘߎ߲ߓߎ |website=Twitter.com |author=Académie N’Ko Mali |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514112858/https://twitter.com/NkoOfficiel|archive-date=14 May 2022 |access-date=14 May 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label3 = Hassaniya: | data3 = {{lang|mey|جُمْهُورِيَّةْ مَالِي ({{lang|mey-Latn|Jumhūriyet Māli}})}} | label2 = Fula: | data2 = {{lang|ff|Republik bu Maali / 𞤈𞤫𞤨𞤵𞤦𞤤𞤭𞤳 𞤦𞤵 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭}} | rowclass3 = mergedrow | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = Soninke: | data4 = {{lang|snk|Mali Jamaane}} | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = Tamasheq: | data5 = {{lang|taq-Latn|Tagduda n Mali}} / {{lang|taq|ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⵉ}} | label6 = Songhay: | data6 = {{lang|ses-Latn|Mali Laamaa}}}}}} | common_name = Mali | image_flag = Flag of Mali.svg | image_coat = National coat of arms of Mali.svg | image_map = {{Switcher|frameless|Show globe|upright=1.15|frameless|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | national_motto = {{native phrase|fr|"Un peuple, un but, une foi"|italics=off|nolink=on}} {{native phrase|bm|"Mɔgɔ kelen, laɲini kelen, dannaya kelen"}} "One people, one goal, one faith" | national_anthem = {{native name|fr|"Le Mali"|italic=no|nolink=on}}{{parabr}}{{center|File:Malian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga}} | official_languages = {{nowrap|'''13 national languages'''<ref name="Lingua 2023">{{cite web |url=https://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2023/mali-jo-2023-13-sp-2.pdf |title=JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI SECRETARIAT GENERAL DU GOUVERNEMENT - DECRET N°2023-0401/PT-RM DU 22 JUILLET 2023 PORTANT PROMULGATION DE LA CONSTITUTION |date=22 July 2023 |website=sgg-mali.ml |access-date=26 July 2023 |quote=Article 31 : Les langues nationales sont les langues officielles du Mali. |trans-quote=Article 31: The national languages are the official languages of Mali. |lang=fr |archive-date=8 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230808203503/https://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2023/mali-jo-2023-13-sp-2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="LangNat">{{cite web |url=https://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2017/mali-jo-2017-39.pdf |title=JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI SECRETARIAT GENERAL DU GOUVERNEMENT - DECRET N°2017-0735/P-RM DU 21 AOUT 2017 FIXANT L'ORGANISATION ET LES MODALITES DE FONCTIONNEMENT DES STRUCTURES DE L'EDUCATION NON FORMELLE |date=21 August 2017 |website=sgg-mali.ml |access-date=21 October 2023 |quote=Selon la Loi n°96- 049 du 23 août 1996, les langues nationales du Mali sont : (...) |trans-quote=According to Law No. 96-049 of 23 August 1996, the national languages of Mali are: (...) |lang=fr |archive-date=3 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803235822/https://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2017/mali-jo-2017-39.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}} {{plainlist| * Bambara * Bobo * Hassaniya Arabic * Bozo * Dogon, Toro So * Fula * Kassonke * Maninke * Minyanka * Senufo, Senara * Songhay, Koyraboro Senni * Soninke * Tamasheq }} | languages_type = Spoken languages | languages = {{hlist|Bambara{{efn|Bambara serves as a ''lingua franca'' spoken by around 80% of the population.<ref name=p6/>}}|Fula|Arabic|Soninke|Songhay|Mandinka|Minyanka|Tamasheq|Senufo|Bobo|Bozo|Kassonke|Samogo|Dafing|Dogon}} | languages2_type = Working language | languages2 = {{unbulleted list|French (''de facto'')<ref name="French">{{cite web |url=https://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2023/mali-jo-2023-13-sp-2.pdf |title=JOURNAL OFFICIEL DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU MALI SECRETARIAT GENERAL DU GOUVERNEMENT - DECRET N°2023-0401/PT-RM DU 22 JUILLET 2023 PORTANT PROMULGATION DE LA CONSTITUTION |date=22 July 2023 |website=sgg-mali.ml |access-date=26 July 2023 |quote=Article 31 : Le français est la langue de travail. L’Etat peut adopter toute autre langue comme langue de travail. |trans-quote=Article 31: French is the working language. The State may adopt any other language as its working language. |lang=fr |archive-date=8 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230808203503/https://sgg-mali.ml/JO/2023/mali-jo-2023-13-sp-2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | religion = {{ubl | 90% Islam | 8% Christianity | 1% Traditional faiths | 1% Other religions }} | religion_year = 2024 | religion_ref = <ref name="Pew Research">{{Cite web |title=Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / Islam and Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2024/06/sub-saharan-africa-chapter-1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250518203729/https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2024/06/sub-saharan-africa-chapter-1.pdf |archive-date=May 18, 2025 |website=Pew Research}}</ref> | demonym = Malian | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 33.3% Bambara | 13.3% Fula | 9.6% Soninke | 9.6% Senufo / Bwa | 8.8% Malinke | 8.7% Dogon | 5.9% Songhai | 3.5% Tuareg | 2.1% Bobo | 4.5% other<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali">{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |author-link=CIA |title=Africa: Mali – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mali/ |website=CIA.gov |access-date=12 January 2010 |date=27 April 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330032030/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mali/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> }} | capital = Bamako | coordinates = {{Coord|12|39|N|8|0|W|type:city}} | largest_city = Bamako | government_type = Unitary presidential republic under a military junta<ref>{{cite news |last1=Booty |first1=Natasha |last2=Pivac |first2=Mark |title=Assimi Goïta: President gets sweeping powers in new Mali constitution |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66282417 |access-date=4 August 2023 |work=BBC News |date=23 July 2023 |archive-date=2 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802043804/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-66282417 |url-status=live }}</ref> | leader_title1 = President | leader_name1 = Assimi Goïta | leader_title2 = Prime Minister | leader_name2 = Abdoulaye Maïga (interim) | legislature = National Transitional Council | area_rank = 23rd | area_km2 = 1,240,192 | area_footnote = <ref name="bbc_com">{{cite web |title=Mali country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13881370 |website=BBC News |access-date=17 October 2023 |date=19 October 2023 |archive-date=11 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230911075500/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13881370 |url-status=live }}</ref> | area_sq_mi = 478,839  | percent_water = 1.6 | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 21,990,607<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Mali|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2024 | population_estimate_rank = 61st | population_density_km2 = 11.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 30.3  | population_density_rank = 215th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $72.74 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.ML">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/MLI |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 Edition. (Mali) |publisher=International Monetary Fund |website=IMF.org |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=6 September 2025 |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017204907/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=678,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 115th | GDP_PPP_year = 2025 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $2,930<ref name="IMFWEO.ML" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 173rd | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $23.21 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.ML" /> | GDP_nominal_rank = 121st | GDP_nominal_year = 2025 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $936 <ref name="IMFWEO.ML" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 175th | sovereignty_type = Formation | established_event1 = Establishment of the Sudanese Republic | established_date1 = 24 November 1958 | established_event2 = Merger with Senegal to create the Mali Federation | established_date2 = 4 April 1959 | established_event3 = Independence from France | established_date3 = 20 June 1960 | established_event4 = Dissolution of the Mali Federation | established_date4 = 20 August 1960 | established_event5 = Declaration of the Republic of Mali | established_date5 = 22 September 1960 | Gini_year = 2010 | Gini_change =  | Gini = 33.0  | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 March 2011 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208203439/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2023  | HDI_change = increase  | HDI = 0.419  | HDI_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |date= 6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2023/2024|url= https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/MLI|access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |language=en}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 188th | currency = West African CFA franc | currency_code = XOF | utc_offset = ±00:00 | time_zone = GMT | calling_code = +223 | cctld = .ml | today = }}

'''Mali''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mali.ogg|ˈ|m|ɑː|l|i}}; {{IPA|bm|ma.li}} {{bulleted list|N'Ko script: {{lang|bm-nkoo|ߡߊߟߌ}}|{{langx|ff|𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭|italics=no}}|{{langx|ar|مالي}}}}}} officially the '''Republic of Mali''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{langx|bm|Mali ka Fasojamana}}, {{small|N'Ko script:}} {{lang|bm-nkoo|ߡߊߟߌ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ}}|{{langx|ff|𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭|Renndaandi Maali|italics=no}}|{{langx|ar|جمهورية مالي|Jumhūriyyāt Mālī}}}}}} is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the eighth-largest country in Africa and the 23rd largest country in the world, with an area of over {{convert|1240192|km2|sqmi}}.<ref name="bbc_com" />

The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east by Niger, to the northwest by Mauritania, to the south by Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast, and to the west by Guinea and Senegal. The population of Mali is about 25.20 million,<ref>{{Cite web |title=unfpa |url=https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population/ML}}</ref> 47.19% of which are estimated to be under the age of 15 in 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indexmundi.com/mali/age_structure.html |title=Index Mundi using CIA World Factbook statistics, January 20, 2018, retrieved April 13, 2019 |access-date=14 April 2019 |archive-date=21 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221011240/https://www.indexmundi.com/mali/age_structure.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Its capital and largest city is Bamako. French was the official language of Mali until 2022, when it was replaced by 13 African languages, with Bambara being the first language of the majority of the population.<ref name="p6" />

Mali's northern borders reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert. The country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, is in the Sudanian savanna and has the Niger and Senegal rivers running through it. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining with its most prominent natural resources including gold, which represents 80% of its exports, and cotton. Mali is one the poorest and least developed countries in the world.<ref name="ITA" /><ref name="UNCTAD" />

Mali was part of three successive powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named), the Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2020 |title=Mansa Musa (Musa I of Mali) |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mansa-musa-musa-i-mali/ |access-date=16 March 2022 |website=National Geographic Society |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702005708/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mansa-musa-musa-i-mali/ |url-status=live }}</ref> with its 14th-century emperor Mansa Musa believed to be one of the wealthiest individuals in history.<ref>[http://www.blackpast.org/gah/mali-empire-ca-1200 Mali Empire (ca. 1200-) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105194944/https://blackpast.org/gah/mali-empire-ca-1200 |date=5 January 2019 }}. The Black Past. Retrieved 8 October 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=10 March 2019 |title=Is Mansa Musa the richest man who ever lived? |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47379458 |access-date=16 March 2022 |archive-date=10 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190310072937/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47379458 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Who is the richest person of all time? |url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/news/people/954992/who-is-the-richest-person-of-all-time |access-date=16 March 2022 |website=The Week UK |date=December 2021 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316215840/https://www.theweek.co.uk/news/people/954992/who-is-the-richest-person-of-all-time |url-status=live }}</ref> Besides being a hub of trade and mining, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam, culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming a renowned place of education with its university, one of the oldest in the world and still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468,{{Not verified in body|date=January 2024}} followed by a Saadian army which defeated the Songhai in 1591.

In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan; as the Sudanese Republic, a brief federation with Senegal was formed, achieving independence in 1960. After Senegal's withdrawal, the Republic of Mali was established. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. From then until 2012 Mali experienced economic growth and increased civil liberties, though this began to reverse after 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Priyanka |last=Shankar |title=Timeline: How Mali went from democracy beacon to instability |date=27 April 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026 |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/4/27/timeline-how-mali-went-from-democracy-beacon-to-instability }}</ref> Since independence, there have been four rebellions involving Tuareg people, which occurred from 1962 to 1964, 1990 to 1995, 2007 to 2009, and since 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Pezard |last1=Stephanie |first2=Michael |last2=Shurkin |title=Achieving Peace in Northern Mali: Past Agreements, Local Conflicts, and the Prospects for a Durable Settlement |work=RAND Corporation |date=2015 |access-date=26 April 2026 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt15zc57q }}</ref>

In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared the secession of a new state, Azawad.<ref>Polgreen, Lydia and Cowell, Alan (6 April 2012) [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/07/world/africa/mali-rebels-proclaim-independent-state-in-north.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1333728086-ZXpwSz3KFqUnA4lteq4j4w "Mali Rebels Proclaim Independent State in North"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728182302/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/07/world/africa/mali-rebels-proclaim-independent-state-in-north.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1333728086-ZXpwSz3KFqUnA4lteq4j4w |date=28 July 2020 }}, ''The New York Times''</ref> The conflict was complicated by a military coup in March 2012<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/mali/9161930/UN-Security-council-condemns-Mali-coup.html UN Security Council condemns Mali coup] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128100600/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/mali/9161930/UN-Security-council-condemns-Mali-coup.html |date=28 November 2020 }}. Telegraph (23 March 2012). Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref> and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/01/12/la-france-demande-une-acceleration-de-la-mise-en-place-de-la-force-internationale-au-mali_1816033_3212.html |title=Mali – la France a mené une série de raids contre les islamistes |date=12 January 2013 |work=Le Monde |access-date=13 January 2013 |archive-date=20 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020023450/http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/01/12/la-france-demande-une-acceleration-de-la-mise-en-place-de-la-force-internationale-au-mali_1816033_3212.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A month later, Malian and French forces partially recaptured the north, though the conflict continued.<ref name="BTI-2026" />

Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta was elected president in 2013, but allegations of fraud during the 2020 parliamentary election led to mass protests. Keïta was removed in a coup led by Assimi Goïta, who established himself as military ruler of Mali after another coup in 2021.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> In 2025, all political parties were dissolved and Goïta was granted a five-year presidential term, renewable without elections.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ewokor |first=Chris |date=4 July 2025 |title=Assimi Goïta: Mali military leader granted five-year term in power |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c9qxnxxzde8o |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> The al-Qaeda affiliated alliance JNIM imposed a fuel blockade on major cities, causing economic disruption,<ref name="ISW-100925" /> and in 2026 launched a joint offensive with Tuareg separatists.<ref name="AP-26042026" />

== Etymology == The name ''Mali'' is taken from the name of the Mali Empire. It means "the place where the king lives"<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u5HnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Discovering the Empire of Mali|last=Wolny|first=Philip|date=15 December 2013|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=9781477718896|page=7|access-date=24 August 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416180418/https://books.google.com/books?id=u5HnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|url-status=live}}</ref> and carries a connotation of strength.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/educationalsyste0000sasn|url-access=registration|title=Educational Systems of Africa: Interpretations for Use in the Evaluation of Academic Credentials|last1=Sasnett|first1=Martena Tenney|last2=Sepmeyer|first2=Inez Hopkins|date=1 January 1967|publisher=University of California Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/educationalsyste0000sasn/page/673 673]}}</ref>

Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the empire was called Mali.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zf6xAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|title=Historical Dictionary of Mali|last1=Imperato|first1=Pascal James|last2=Imperato|first2=Gavin H.|date=25 April 2008|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810864023|page=231|access-date=24 August 2020|archive-date=27 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827043448/https://books.google.com/books?id=zf6xAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Niane, Djibril (1965). ''Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali''.</ref> One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that ''Mali'' could have formerly been the name of a city.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/bitstream/123456789/8845/1/A%20Study%20of%20Proverbs%20in%20Things%20Fall%20Apart%20and%20Sundiata%3B%20An%20Epic%20of%20Old%20Mali%20(Sundiata)%20-%202014.pdf|title=A STUDY OF PROVERBS IN THINGS FALL APART AND SUNDIATA: AN EPIC OF OLD MALI (SUNDIATA)|last=Aku Adjandeh|first=Evelyn|date=July 2014|publisher=University of Ghana, Legon – Institute of African Studies |page=100|access-date=19 March 2017|archive-date=20 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320054429/http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/bitstream/123456789/8845/1/A%20Study%20of%20Proverbs%20in%20Things%20Fall%20Apart%20and%20Sundiata%3B%20An%20Epic%20of%20Old%20Mali%20(Sundiata)%20-%202014.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Another theory suggests that ''Mali'' is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc-To7cC&pg=PA92|title=African Glory: The Story of Vanished Negro Civilizations|last=Graft-Johnson|first=John Coleman De|date=1 January 1986|publisher=Black Classic Press|isbn=9780933121034|page=92|access-date=24 August 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416180445/https://books.google.com/books?id=LY5Lmc-To7cC&pg=PA92|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0001fyle|url-access=registration|title=Introduction to the History of African Civilization: Precolonial Africa|last=Fyle|first=C. Magbaily|date=1999|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780761814566|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0001fyle/page/11 11]}}</ref> It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment {{IPA|/nd/}} shifts to {{IPA|/l/}} and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to {{IPA|/mali/}}.<ref name=":0" />

== History == {{main|History of Mali}}

=== Before colonization === [[File:MALI empire map.PNG|thumb|left|The extent of the Mali Empire's peak]] [[File:Timbuktu-manuscripts-astronomy-mathematics.jpg|thumb|left|The pages above are from Timbuktu Manuscripts written in Sudani script (a form of Arabic) from the Mali Empire showing established knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Today there are close to a million of these manuscripts found in Timbuktu alone.]]

The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region.<ref>Eric Huysecom, M. Rasse, L. Lespez, K. Neumann, A. Fahmy, A. Ballouche, S. Ozainne, M. Maggetti, Ch. Tribolo, S. Sorian: The emergence of pottery in Africa during the tenth millennium cal BC: new evidence from Ounjougou (Mali), in: Antiquity (2009), p. 906.</ref> Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used by around 500 BC. In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people, along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC,<ref name="Arazi">{{cite web |last1=Arazi |first1=Noemie |title=Tracing History in Dia, in the Inland Niger Delta of Mali -Archaeology, Oral Traditions and Written Sources |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1444342/1/U591645.pdf |website=University College London |publisher=Institute of Archaeology |access-date=4 November 2021 |archive-date=13 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213144217/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444342/1/U591645.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and Djenne-Djenno, which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. Through approximately 6th century BC and 4th century BC, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in pack-animals, gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires.

There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in the work of al-Bakri in 1068,<ref>al-Bakri in Nehemiah Levtzion and J. F. Pl Hopkins, eds and trans., ''Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History'' (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981, reprint edn Princeton, New Jersey,: Marcus Wiener, 2000), pp. 82–83.</ref> the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana,<ref>ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds, and transl. ''Corpus'', p. 333.</ref> and a few geographical details in the work of al-Idrisi.<ref>al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and transl, ''Corpus'', p. 108.</ref>

Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337.<ref name=p1>Mali country profile, p. 1.</ref> These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities.<ref name=p1/> The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people.<ref name=p1/> The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.<ref name=p2>Mali country profile. Mali was later responsible for the collapse of Islamic Slave Army from the North. The defeat of Tukuror Slave Army, was repeated by Mali against the France and Spanish Expeditionary Army in the 1800s ("Blanc et memoires"). p. 2.</ref>

The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita, which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire.

[[File:TombouctouPachalik 4.png|thumb|Map of the Pashalik of Timbuktu (yellow-striped) as part of the Saadi dynasty of Morocco (outlined black) within the Songhai Empire (outlined red), {{Circa|1591}}]] [[File:GriotsSambala.jpg|thumb|left|Griots of Sambala, king of Médina (Fula people, Mali), 1890. Photo by Joannès Barbier.]]

The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century.<ref name=p2/> Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning.<ref name=p2/> The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire.<ref name=p2/> The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.<ref name=p2/>

In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire.<ref name=p2/> The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha.<ref name=p2/> The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads.<ref name=p2/> Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance.<ref name="p2" /> At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold.

One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."<ref>John Iliffe (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC ''Africans: the history of a continent''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906225011/https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC&pg=&dq&hl=en |date=6 September 2015 }}. Cambridge University Press. p. 69. {{ISBN|0-521-68297-5}}</ref>

=== French colonial rule === {{Seealso|French West Africa}} [[File:Africa. French West Africa. Currently the most important efforts of the Office du Niger are directed toward the... - NARA - 541637.jpg|thumb|upright|Cotton being processed in Niono into {{convert|400|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}} bales for export to other parts of Africa and to France, c. 1950]]

Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century.<ref name=p2/> By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.<ref name=p2/>

In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso.<ref>[http://www.cairn.info/revue-autrepart-2003-2-page-35.htm#no3 La guerre coloniale du Bani-Volta, 1915-1916 (Burkina Faso, Mali)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029121219/http://www.cairn.info/revue-autrepart-2003-2-page-35.htm#no3 |date=29 October 2017 }}, Autrepart, 2003.</ref> The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops.<ref>''14-18 Étions-nous bien défendus ?'', Jean-Claude Flament, Société des écrivains, 2014.</ref>

On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within the French Community.<ref name="Independent Mali">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mali/Independent-Mali|title=Independent Mali|publisher=Britannica |date=1946|access-date=21 January 2021|archive-date=19 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119042637/https://www.britannica.com/place/Mali/Independent-Mali|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation.<ref name="Independent Mali"/>

=== Independence === The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960.<ref name=p2/> Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://maliembassy.us/index.php/2012-02-27-16-59-35/public-holidays |title=Public Holidays |website=Embassy of the Republic of Mali to the United States |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920234345/http://maliembassy.us/index.php/2012-02-27-16-59-35/public-holidays |archive-date=20 September 2018 }}</ref>

Modibo Keïta was elected the first president.<ref name=p2/> He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources.<ref name=p2/> In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130530011412/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/897ce24a48d43c82802565f700407640 Core document forming part of the reports of states parties: Mali]. United Nations Human Rights Website.</ref> On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré,<ref name=p3>Mali country profile, p. 3.</ref> a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aglobalworld.com/holidays-around-the-world/mali-liberation/|title=Liberation Day Commemorated in Mali|access-date=1 February 2019|archive-date=2 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042457/http://aglobalworld.com/holidays-around-the-world/mali-liberation/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Socialism under President Modibo Keïta, 1960-1968 === After Modibo Keïta became the President of the Republic of Mali on 22nd September 1960, the Malian government announced a socialist plan for development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=Guy |date=1976 |title=Socialism, Economic Development and Planning in Mali, 1960-1968 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/483923 |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=25 |doi=10.2307/483923 |issn=0008-3968|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The government then introduced socialist policies with a focus on economic development, aimed at achieving social changes in the country, especially transforming rural populations and communities.

The government announced a one-party state after the independence of Mali, banning other political parties with the only legal political party being the US-RDA (Sudanese Union – African Democratic Rally / ''Union Soudanaise – Rassemblement Démocratique Africain''). Those who tried to create a political opposition were arrested, such as Mamadou Faïnké who was arrested in 1964 and sentenced to life in prison.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nathan |first=Robert |date=2013 |title=Democracy in early Malian postcolonial history: The abuse of discourse |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24709402 |journal=International Journal |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=471 |issn=0020-7020}}</ref> Prior to independence, Keïta and the US-RDA campaigned against colonial and authoritarian rule, advocating for a democratic system in its place.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nathan |first=Robert |date=2013 |title=Democracy in early Malian postcolonial history: The abuse of discourse |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24709402 |journal=International Journal |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=486-489 |issn=0020-7020}}</ref> This, however, did not happen and rather it became a Marxist-Leninist state. Keïta adapted the Marxist-Leninist ideology for African socialism, moving past the development of capitalism and instead opting for immediate strict control over foreign investments and involvement in the economy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hazard |first=John N. |date=1969 |title=Marxian Socialism in Africa: The Case of Mali |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/421479 |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=2-3 |doi=10.2307/421479 |issn=0010-4159|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Soon after independence in 1960, the government under Keïta introduced a national civil service programme, ''service civique rural'', to help the development of Mali as a socialist and self-sustaining independent country.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tiquet |first=Romain |title=Education Through Labor: From the deuxième portion du contingent to the Youth Civic Service in West Africa (Senegal/Mali, 1920s–1960s) |date=2020 |work=Education and Development in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa: Policies, Paradigms, and Entanglements, 1890s–1980s |pages=96 |editor-last=Matasci |editor-first=Damiano |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |access-date=2026-03-23 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |isbn=978-3-030-27801-4 |editor2-last=Jerónimo |editor2-first=Miguel Bandeira |editor3-last=Dores |editor3-first=Hugo Gonçalves}}</ref> The service targeted men in rural Mali aged 18-21 and in the early 1960s, when almost 60% of Mali's population was under the age of 25, had assembled around 40,000 young men.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tiquet |first=Romain |title=Education Through Labor: From the deuxième portion du contingent to the Youth Civic Service in West Africa (Senegal/Mali, 1920s–1960s) |date=2020 |work=Education and Development in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa: Policies, Paradigms, and Entanglements, 1890s–1980s |pages=92 and 97 |editor-last=Matasci |editor-first=Damiano |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |access-date=2026-03-23 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |isbn=978-3-030-27801-4 |editor2-last=Jerónimo |editor2-first=Miguel Bandeira |editor3-last=Dores |editor3-first=Hugo Gonçalves}}</ref> The national civil service outlined a 2-year programme of education and training to prepare the young men for the handling of their own duties in their communities as peasant farmers. As part of the programme, men were taught methods of modern agriculture while working on state owned farms, and they took lessons in literacy and were taught the socialist values that the Malian government expected from them.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tiquet |first=Romain |title=Education Through Labor: From the deuxième portion du contingent to the Youth Civic Service in West Africa (Senegal/Mali, 1920s–1960s) |date=2020 |work=Education and Development in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa: Policies, Paradigms, and Entanglements, 1890s–1980s |pages=97 |editor-last=Matasci |editor-first=Damiano |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |access-date=2026-03-23 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |isbn=978-3-030-27801-4 |editor2-last=Jerónimo |editor2-first=Miguel Bandeira |editor3-last=Dores |editor3-first=Hugo Gonçalves}}</ref> The programme saw the use of young people as labourers for the state which led to significant desertions and a declining number of young men being recruited. Some people saw comparisons between the national civil service and forced labour under colonial rule. A 1962 report from The International Labour Organization (ILO) deemed the national service scheme in Mali unlawful as it did not follow the Forced Labour Convention that had made it illegal in 1957.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tiquet |first=Romain |title=Education Through Labor: From the deuxième portion du contingent to the Youth Civic Service in West Africa (Senegal/Mali, 1920s–1960s) |date=2020 |work=Education and Development in Colonial and Postcolonial Africa: Policies, Paradigms, and Entanglements, 1890s–1980s |pages=100-101 |editor-last=Matasci |editor-first=Damiano |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |access-date=2026-03-23 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-27801-4_4 |isbn=978-3-030-27801-4 |editor2-last=Jerónimo |editor2-first=Miguel Bandeira |editor3-last=Dores |editor3-first=Hugo Gonçalves}}</ref> A further report from 1962 stated that the Malian government had submitted only 1 of 11 annual reports to the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations regarding labour conventions that had been signed and ratified by Mali previously.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Information and reports on the application of Conventions and Recommendations |url=https://webapps.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/P/09661/ |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=webapps.ilo.org |series=1962-46-IV / 1-187}}</ref>

Keïta viewed education as essential to the development of Mali as a socialist state. At the time of independence, 93% of the population in Mali were illiterate in French, 90% illiterate in Arabic, and very few people were given a Western education.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Bleck |first=Jaimie |last2=Guindo |first2=Boubacar Mody |date=2013 |title=Education for all, education for whom, education for what? Lessons from Mali |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24565423 |journal=Development in Practice |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=1008 |issn=0961-4524}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turrittin |first=Jane |date=1989 |title=Integrated Literacy in Mali |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1188725 |journal=Comparative Education Review |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=60 |issn=0010-4086}}</ref> Those who did receive a Western education were part of the elites after independence. France used education in Mali to create an elite loyal to France and for the exploitation of people and resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Robert C. |date=1987 |title=Educational Change in Francophone Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2295223 |journal=The Journal of Negro Education |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=267 |doi=10.2307/2295223 |issn=0022-2984|url-access=subscription }}</ref> At the time of independence, there were 12 professors, 10 doctors, 3 pharmacists, and 3 veterinary doctors in Mali.<ref name=":3" /> On 17th September 1962, the government passed the Educational Reform Law which introduced 9 years of mandatory education across Mali.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Bleck |first=Jaimie |last2=Guindo |first2=Boubacar Mody |date=2013 |title=Education for all, education for whom, education for what? Lessons from Mali |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24565423 |journal=Development in Practice |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=1009 |issn=0961-4524}}</ref> In 1964, two years after the law was passed, the number of school-age Malians in education had more than tripled the pre-independence numbers with 24% in school and the number of people in secondary education had increased from 434 students in 1962-1963 to 1,325 by 1966-1967.<ref name=":6" /> Keïta had support from the Soviet Union in improving education, founding the Higher Administrative School of Bamako, the first institution of higher education in Mali, and created education centres for agriculture and medicine.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Katsakioris |first=Constantin |date=2017 |title=Creating a Socialist Intelligentsia: Soviet Educational Aid and its Impact on Africa (1960-1991) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26613028 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=57 |issue=226 (2) |pages=262 |issn=0008-0055}}</ref> Education was used to promote socialist ideology across Mali and was adapted to fit the national aims of Keïta's economic and political policies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obichere |first=Boniface I. |date=1976 |title=Politicians and Educational Reform in French-Speaking West-Africa: A Comparative Study of Mali and the Ivory Coast |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41971250 |journal=Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=57 |issn=0018-2540}}</ref> The education system was changed to focus on African history, culture, and needs rather than that of the former colonial power France. In 1964, new teaching materials focused on African socialism was introduced in schools.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obichere |first=Boniface I. |date=1976 |title=Politicians and Educational Reform in French-Speaking West-Africa: A Comparative Study of Mali and the Ivory Coast |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41971250 |journal=Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=58-59 |issn=0018-2540}}</ref> Despite the increases in the number of people in education across Mali, numbers were still restricted due to the lack of teachers and resources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obichere |first=Boniface I. |date=1976 |title=Politicians and Educational Reform in French-Speaking West-Africa: A Comparative Study of Mali and the Ivory Coast |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41971250 |journal=Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=58 |issn=0018-2540}}</ref>

In July 1962, Keïta announced The Bank of the Republic of Mali (''La Banque de la République de Mali'') which was responsible for minting its own currency, the Malian franc. Keïta believed that Mali having its own currency was a sign of sovereignty, stating in a speech that "political power is always and necessarily accompanied by the sovereign right of minting money, that monetary power is inseparable from national sovereignty".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Snyder |first=Francis G. |date=1967 |title=The Political Thought of Modibo Keita |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/159526 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=85 |issn=0022-278X}}</ref> It was revealed that the Malian franc would be equal to the CFA franc, the currency used in the Franc zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crum |first=David Leith |date=1984 |title=Mali and the U.M.O.A.: A Case-Study of Economic Integration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/160456 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=471 |issn=0022-278X}}</ref> The Franc zone was created by France for continued monetary influence over former French colonies including Mali. Nationalising the banking industry gave the Malian government more control, reducing economic dependence and influence from foreign countries including France. Throughout the 1960s inflation increased, the economy declined, and so the Malian franc in 1967 was devalued by 50% against the CFA franc to prevent further inflation rates and further economic decline. On 19th December 1967, Keïta announced an agreement between Mali and France that would later lead to Mali's re-entry into the UMOA (West African Monetary Union / ''Union monétaire ouest-africaine'') in 1984.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crum |first=David Leith |date=1984 |title=Mali and the U.M.O.A.: A Case-Study of Economic Integration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/160456 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=473 |issn=0022-278X}}</ref>

Opposition and critics of President Keïta and the US-RDA government were met with violence and imprisonment. Political opponents of the government were arrested and some were sent to Kidal, a desert town in northern Mali, and imprisoned there.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Poulton |first=Robin E. |title=The Limits of Democracy and the Postcolonial Nation State: Mali's Democratic Experiment Falters, While Jihad and Terrorism Grow in the Sahara |publisher=The Edwin Mellen Press |year=2016 |pages=16}}</ref> Fily Dabo Sissoko, who founded the PSP (Sudanese Progressive Party / ''Parti Progressite Soudanais'') which was a political opponent of the US-RDA, was imprisoned in Kidal and died there, supposedly under the orders of Keïta, though this is not confirmed.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Vengroff |first=Richard |date=1993 |title=Governance and the Transition to Democracy: Political Parties and the Party System in Mali |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/161290 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=548 |issn=0022-278X}}</ref> Following the establishment of Mali's own currency in 1962, protestors opposing the government and the new monetary policies were arrested and sent to prison.<ref name=":7" />

Keïta oversaw the nationalisation of various sectors of the economy to help the development of Mali as a socialist state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=N'Diaye |first=Issa |title=Revolutionary Movements in Africa: An Untold Story |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2023 |editor-last=Bianchini |editor-first=Pascal |pages=39 |editor-last2=Sylla |editor-first2=Ndongo Samba |editor-last3=Zeilig |editor-first3=Leo}}</ref> To further control the economy and the development of industrialisation, Keïta created new state-owned enterprises. These enterprises spanned across different industries including textiles, food processing, tobacco, cotton, and radio manufacturing.

=== Moussa Traoré regime === The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought from 1968 to 1974,<ref name=p3/> in which famine killed thousands of people.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4132326.stm Mali's nomads face famine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224054313/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4132326.stm |date=24 February 2021 }}". BBC News. 9 August 2005.</ref> The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.<ref name=p3/>

thumb|WWI Commemorative Monument to the "Armée Noire"

Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied.<ref name=p3/> In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.<ref name=p3/>

In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during the drought.<ref name=p3/> Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants.<ref name="nonviolent">{{cite web|url=http://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/index.php/movements-and-campaigns/movements-and-campaigns-summaries?sobi2Task%3Dsobi2Details%26catid%3D34%26sobi2Id%3D10 |title=Nonviolent Conflict Summaries |access-date=1 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616222251/http://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/index.php/movements-and-campaigns/movements-and-campaigns-summaries?sobi2Task=sobi2Details&catid=34&sobi2Id=10 |archive-date=16 June 2011}} Mali March 1991 Revolution</ref> Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent.<ref name="nonviolent" />

From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as ''les évenements'' ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies.<ref name="nesbitt">{{cite web|last=Nesbitt |first=Katherine |title=Mali's March Revolution (1991) |url=http://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/index.php/movements-and-campaigns/movements-and-campaigns-summaries?sobi2Task=sobi2Details&catid=34&sobi2Id=10 |publisher=International Center on Nonviolent Conflict |access-date=1 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616222251/http://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/index.php/movements-and-campaigns/movements-and-campaigns-summaries?sobi2Task=sobi2Details&catid=34&sobi2Id=10 |archive-date=16 June 2011}}</ref>

By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult. Military soldiers clashed with peaceful protesters, resulting in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. He and three associates were, tried, convicted and received the death sentence for their role in this massacre. The date is now a national holiday in Mali.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bussa |first=Edward |title=Mali's March to Democracy |url=http://www.threadster.com/2009/03/mali-march-to-democracy/ |website=Threadster.com |access-date=1 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324235624/http://www.threadster.com/2009/03/mali-march-to-democracy/ |archive-date=24 March 2012 |date=26 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mohsin |first=Haroon |date=18 August 2022 |title=Martyr's Day in Mali |url=https://nationaltoday.com/martyrs-day-in-mali/ |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=National Today |language=en-US |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017204906/https://nationaltoday.com/martyrs-day-in-mali/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turrittin |first=Jane |date=1991 |title=Mali: People Topple Traoré |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=18 |issue=52 |pages=97–103 |doi=10.1080/03056249108703927 |jstor=4005962 |issn=0305-6244 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Multi-party democracy === Opposition parties were legalized, a transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum.<ref name="nesbitt"/><ref name=p3/> In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002.<ref name=p4>Mali country profile, p. 4.</ref> During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101111133055/http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/countries/mali/ USAID Africa: Mali]. USAID. Retrieved 15 May 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2008.</ref>

Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to a master.<ref name=slaves/> In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012, ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters.<ref>{{cite news|last=York|first=Geoffrey|title=Mali chaos gives rise to slavery, persecution|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=11 November 2012|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/mali-chaos-gives-rise-to-slavery-persecution/article5186368/|location=Toronto|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129023715/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/mali-chaos-gives-rise-to-slavery-persecution/article5186368/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Northern Mali conflict === {{main|Mali War}}

{{Seealso|International Criminal Court investigation in Mali}} thumb|Tuareg separatist rebels in Mali, January 2012

In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA).<ref>[http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Mali-clashes-force-120-000-from-homes-20120222 Mali clashes force 120 000 from homes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190149/http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Mali-clashes-force-120-000-from-homes-20120222 |date=10 October 2017 }}. News24 (22 February 2012). Retrieved 23 February 2012.</ref> In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état, citing Touré's failures in quelling the rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States.<ref>Callimachi, Rukmini (3 April 2012) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120404171138/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/post-coup-mali-hit-with-sanctions-by-african-neighbours/article2390504/ "Post-coup Mali hit with sanctions by African neighbours"]. ''Globe and Mail''. Retrieved 4 May 2012.</ref> The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring its independence as Azawad.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20120406-france-24-exclusive-tuareg-rebels-declare-independence-mlna-mali-ansar-dine-azawad |title=Tuareg rebels declare independence in north Mali |publisher=France 24 |date=6 April 2012 |access-date=28 July 2012 |archive-date=8 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408061146/http://www.france24.com/en/20120406-france-24-exclusive-tuareg-rebels-declare-independence-mlna-mali-ansar-dine-azawad |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the north<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mali-crisis-idUSBRE85R15720120628 |title=Islamists declare full control of Mali's north |author=Tiemoko Diallo |author2=Adama Diarra |work=Reuters |date=28 June 2012 |access-date=28 July 2012 |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815183330/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mali-crisis/islamists-declare-full-control-of-malis-north-idUSBRE85R15720120628 |url-status=live }}</ref> with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h7XMRIbuZL6BjKF-U-RbRw5W30GA?docId=CNG.03a07b9823792a080c03447fb210148d.121 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121216092840/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5h7XMRIbuZL6BjKF-U-RbRw5W30GA?docId=CNG.03a07b9823792a080c03447fb210148d.121 |archive-date=16 December 2012 |title=Mali Islamists want sharia not independence |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=20 June 2012 |access-date=28 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ictj.org/publication/possibilities-and-challenges-transitional-justice-mali |title=Mali Possibilities and Challenges for Transitional Justice in Mali |agency=International Center for Transitional Justice |date=9 January 2014 |access-date=25 August 2016 |archive-date=18 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918152945/https://www.ictj.org/publication/possibilities-and-challenges-transitional-justice-mali |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 11 January 2013, the French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré. On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals.<ref name="kidal retaken">{{cite news | url = https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/01/30/french-troops-control-key-airport-in-north-mali/1876543/ | title = French Troops Retake Kidal Airport, Move into City | access-date = 30 January 2013 | work = USA Today | date = 30 January 2013 | archive-date = 30 January 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130130111918/http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/01/30/french-troops-control-key-airport-in-north-mali/1876543/ | url-status = live }} French troops retake the last remaining Islamist urban stronghold in Mali.</ref> On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu.<ref name="BBC-Hollande Timbuktu">{{cite news |title=Mali conflict: Timbuktu hails French President Hollande |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21304079 |access-date=4 February 2013 |work=BBC News |date=2 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130202191543/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-21304079 |archive-date=2 February 2013 }}</ref>

thumb|Map showing the fullest extent of rebel-held territory in January 2013 In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali in the second round of the election.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ibrahim Boubacar Keita wins Mali presidential election |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23677124 |work=BBC News |date=13 August 2013 |access-date=15 October 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120142538/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23677124 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Conflict in Central Mali === In the central Mali province of Mopti, conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara, and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|title=The Sahel in flames|date=31 May 2019|website=The New Humanitarian |access-date=23 June 2019|archive-date=13 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113161848/https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/in-depth/sahel-flames-Burkina-Faso-Mali-Niger-militancy-conflict|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/12/07/we-used-be-brothers/self-defense-group-abuses-central-mali|title="We Used to Be Brothers" {{!}} Self-Defense Group Abuses in Central Mali|date=7 December 2018|website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=30 March 2019|last3=t 1.212.290.4700|first3=NY 10118-3299 USA {{!}}|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402024327/https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/12/07/we-used-be-brothers/self-defense-group-abuses-central-mali|url-status=live}}</ref> Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as the Fula move into new areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/29/radical-islamists-have-opened-a-new-front-in-mali/|title=Radical Islamists Have Opened a New Front in Mali|last=Blake|first=James|website=Foreign Policy |date=29 March 2019 |access-date=30 March 2019|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330032447/https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/29/radical-islamists-have-opened-a-new-front-in-mali/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups"<ref name=":4" /> to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda.<ref name=":4" /> While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends".<ref name=":4" />

Added a top Mali military commander:<blockquote>I've discussed the growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover.<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>

The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under the guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2018/07/24/au-mali-les-liaisons-dangereuses-entre-l-etat-et-les-milices_5335256_3212.html|title=Au Mali, les liaisons dangereuses entre l'Etat et les milices|date=24 July 2018|access-date=30 March 2019|language=fr|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330013608/https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2018/07/24/au-mali-les-liaisons-dangereuses-entre-l-etat-et-les-milices_5335256_3212.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The government denies this.<ref name=":5" /> One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou, created in 2016.<ref name=":4" />

[[File:Modibo Sidibe voting in Bamako, 2018 Malian presidential election.jpg|thumb|Modibo Sidibe voting in Bamako, 2018 Malian presidential election]]

In the 2018 Malian presidential election held on 29 July 2018,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.africanews.com/2018/07/10/mali-2018-presidential-election-background-to-a-critical-election-in-an/ |title=Everything you need to know about Mali 2018 presidential election|last=Mumbere|first=Daniel|date=10 July 2018 |work=Africanews.com|access-date=28 July 2018 |archive-date=24 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724062858/http://www.africanews.com/2018/07/10/mali-2018-presidential-election-background-to-a-critical-election-in-an/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://maliactu.net/mali-election-presidentielle-2018-le-premier-tour-aura-lieu-le-dimanche-29-juillet/ |title=Mali: Élection présidentielle 2018 : Le premier tour aura lieu le dimanche 29 juillet|date=12 February 2018|website=maliactu.net|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212142217/http://maliactu.net/mali-election-presidentielle-2018-le-premier-tour-aura-lieu-le-dimanche-29-juillet/ |archive-date=12 February 2018|access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref> no candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round. A runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of the Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy, and Keïta was re-elected with 67% of the vote.<ref>{{cite news |title=Incumbent President Keita wins re-election in Mali |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20180816-mali-incumbent-president-ibraham-boubacar-keita-wins-election |work=France 24 |date=16 August 2018 |access-date=15 October 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116002945/https://www.france24.com/en/20180816-mali-incumbent-president-ibraham-boubacar-keita-wins-election |url-status=live }}</ref>

In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hdcentre.org/updates/youssouf-toloba-and-his-dan-nan-ambassagou-armed-group-sign-a-commitment-towards-a-ceasefire-in-central-mali/|title=Youssouf Toloba and his Dan Nan Ambassagou armed group sign a commitment towards a ceasefire in central Mali {{!}} HD Centre|access-date=30 March 2019|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329224050/https://www.hdcentre.org/updates/youssouf-toloba-and-his-dan-nan-ambassagou-armed-group-sign-a-commitment-towards-a-ceasefire-in-central-mali/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the group has been blamed for the 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/united-nations-investigate-horrific-massacre-mali-190326135707656.html|title=UN to probe 'horrific' Mali attacks as death toll jumps to 160|date=26 March 2019|publisher=Al-Jazeera|access-date=29 March 2019|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329130105/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/united-nations-investigate-horrific-massacre-mali-190326135707656.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://africanarguments.org/2019/03/26/insiders-insight-explaining-the-mali-massacre/|title=Insiders Insight: Explaining the Mali massacre|date=26 March 2019|website=African Arguments |access-date=30 March 2019|archive-date=18 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918134833/https://africanarguments.org/2019/03/26/insiders-insight-explaining-the-mali-massacre/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng, warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/03/1035661|title=Central Mali: Top UN genocide prevention official sounds alarm over recent ethnically-targeted killings |date=28 March 2019|website=UN News |access-date=30 March 2019|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329172541/https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/03/1035661 |url-status=live}}</ref> By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by the conflict in Mali.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Giannangeli |first1=Marco |title=Britain 'sleepwalking' into deadly conflict in war-torn West Africa |url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1354747/british-army-mali-west-africa-troops-war-terrorism-royal-anglian-light-dragoons-al-qaeda |access-date=30 November 2020 |publisher=express.co.uk |date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=26 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126044622/https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1354747/british-army-mali-west-africa-troops-war-terrorism-royal-anglian-light-dragoons-al-qaeda |url-status=live }}</ref> The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in the conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti. It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sharp rise in number of children killed in Mali's deadly attacks |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/aug/13/sharp-rise-number-children-killed-mali |access-date=1 September 2019 |work=The Guardian |date=13 August 2019 |archive-date=31 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831235440/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/aug/13/sharp-rise-number-children-killed-mali |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in the towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://en.puic.org/news/10181 | title = PUIC Secretary General condemns terrorist attacks in Mali | date = 8 October 2019 | publisher = Parliamentary Union of the OIC Member States | archive-url = https://archive.today/20191022180105/http://en.puic.org/news/10181 | archive-date = 22 October 2019 | url-status = live | access-date = 22 October 2019 }}</ref> President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/10/07/world/mali-president-dismisses-coup-speculation-jihadi-attacks-kill-dozens-troops-near-burkina-faso-border/#.Xa8-j5IzbIU |title=Mali president dismisses coup speculation after jihadi attacks kill dozens of troops near Burkina Faso border |date=7 October 2019 |website=Japantimes.co.jp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191022175954/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/10/07/world/mali-president-dismisses-coup-speculation-jihadi-attacks-kill-dozens-troops-near-burkina-faso-border/%23.Xa9DXtLLfK5#.Xa8-j5IzbIU |archive-date=22 October 2019 |url-status=live |access-date=22 October 2019 }}</ref> On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in the 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/militants-kill-54-attack-mali-army-post-claims-responsibility-n1075721|title=Militants kill 54 in attack on Mali army post, ISIS claims responsibility|website=NBC News|date=3 November 2019 |accessdate=12 December 2019}}</ref> In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/02/10/how-much-more-blood-must-be-spilled/atrocities-against-civilians-central-mali|title=How Much More Blood Must Be Spilled?|website=HRW|date=10 February 2020|access-date=31 May 2023|archive-date=31 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531102933/https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/02/10/how-much-more-blood-must-be-spilled/atrocities-against-civilians-central-mali |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 2020s coups and Assimi Goïta junta === {{Main|2020 Malian coup d'état|2021 Malian coup d'état}}

{{Seealso|List of terrorist attacks in Mali}} [[File:Comité national pour le salut du Peuple - 2020 Malian coup d'Etat 2.jpg|thumb|Members of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People, September 2020]]

Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé.<ref>{{cite news|website=ABC News|date=5 June 2020|access-date=21 August 2020|agency=Associated Press|first=Baba |last=Ahmed |title=Thousands in Mali's capital demand that president step down |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/thousands-malis-capital-demand-president-step-71093627 |archive-date=13 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913072323/https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/thousands-malis-capital-demand-president-step-71093627|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=6 October 2020|title=Kidnapped Mali politician and French aid worker freed |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/06/kidnapped-mali-politician-and-french-aid-worker-freed |access-date=30 May 2021|website=the Guardian |archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603113914/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/06/kidnapped-mali-politician-and-french-aid-worker-freed|url-status=live}}</ref> Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June.<ref name="cnews" /> In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court.

Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati, Koulikoro Region, began a mutiny on 18 August 2020.<ref name=cnews>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnews.fr/monde/2020-08-19/tout-comprendre-sur-la-situation-au-mali-990104|title=TOUT COMPRENDRE SUR LA SITUATION AU MALI|date=19 August 2020|access-date=21 August 2020|language=fr|trans-title=Understanding everything about the situation in Mali |website=CNews |archive-date=26 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826193119/https://www.cnews.fr/monde/2020-08-19/tout-comprendre-sur-la-situation-au-mali-990104|url-status=live}}</ref> President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed.<ref name=cnews /> Wagué announced the formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet.<ref name=cnews /> The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president.<ref name="neighbours">{{cite web |website=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53848223|date=21 August 2020|access-date=21 August 2020|title=Mali's coup is cheered at home but upsets neighbours |archive-date=21 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821112314/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53848223|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali: President Bah N'Daw decrees the dissolution of the CNSP |url=https://www.theafricareport.com/62102/mali-president-bah-ndaw-decrees-the-dissolution-of-the-cnsp/ |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=The Africa Report.com |date=28 January 2021 |language=en |archive-date=26 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526041635/https://www.theafricareport.com/62102/mali-president-bah-ndaw-decrees-the-dissolution-of-the-cnsp/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after the handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 May 2021|title=EU condemns 'grave and serious' kidnapping of Mali's leaders|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/24/mali-president-prime-minister-and-defence-minister-arrested-sources-say|access-date=25 May 2021|website=the Guardian |archive-date=25 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525203413/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/may/24/mali-president-prime-minister-and-defence-minister-arrested-sources-say|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré, were being detained in a military base in Kati, outside Bamako.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mali's military detains president, prime minister|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/24/military-arrest-malis-president-pm-following-govt-reshuffle|access-date=25 May 2021|website=AlJazeera.com |archive-date=25 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525105349/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/5/24/military-arrest-malis-president-pm-following-govt-reshuffle|url-status=live}}</ref> On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali's military leader Goita sworn in as transitional president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/7/assimi-goita-mali-military-leader-sworn-in-as-interim-president |website=AlJazeera.com |access-date=6 April 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525194705/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/7/assimi-goita-mali-military-leader-sworn-in-as-interim-president |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:MaliWar.svg|thumb|Military situation in Mali. For a detailed map, see here.]] In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War, occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group.<ref name=bbc_africatoday>{{citation | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0fgbb9g | publisher=BBC | year=2023 | language=English | title=BBC Africa Today: Islamic State Sahel Province fighters seize commune in Mali | access-date=31 May 2023 | archive-date=11 May 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511065705/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0fgbb9g | url-status=live}}</ref> By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled the amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta.<ref name=npr>{{citation | url=https://www.npr.org/2023/08/26/1196189708/islamic-state-mali-al-qaida-west-africa-extremist | publisher=NPR | year=2023 | language=English | title=NPR: Islamic State group almost doubled its territory in Mali in under a year, U.N. says | access-date=27 August 2023 | archive-date=27 August 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827063702/https://www.npr.org/2023/08/26/1196189708/islamic-state-mali-al-qaida-west-africa-extremist | url-status=live}}</ref>

On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ahmed |first=Baba |date=10 January 2022|title=Mali's junta deplores new sanctions imposed by regional bloc|url=https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Mali-s-junta-deplores-new-sanctions-imposed-by-16763433.php|access-date=10 January 2022|website=SFGate |archive-date=10 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110161440/https://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Mali-s-junta-deplores-new-sanctions-imposed-by-16763433.php|url-status=live}}</ref> On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/5/thousands-in-mali-celebrate-expulsion-of-french-ambassador |title=Thousands in Mali celebrate expulsion of French ambassador | Armed Groups News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=5 February 2022 |access-date=13 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207034714/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/5/thousands-in-mali-celebrate-expulsion-of-french-ambassador |url-status=live}}</ref> According to Human Rights Watch, Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mali troops and suspected Russian fighters accused of massacre |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-60997602 |work=BBC News |date=5 April 2022 |access-date=6 April 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406192814/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-60997602 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali: Military government breaks defence accords with France |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/3/malis-junta-breaks-off-from-defence-accords-with-france |access-date=10 May 2022 |website=AlJazeera.com |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509235754/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/3/malis-junta-breaks-off-from-defence-accords-with-france |url-status=live}}</ref> This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate".<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 May 2022 |title=Mali: France opposed to Assimi Goïta's junta demanding an end to defence agreements |url=https://www.theafricareport.com/201855/mali-france-opposed-to-assimi-goitas-junta-demanding-an-end-to-defence-agreements/ |access-date=10 May 2022 |website=The Africa Report.com |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509155505/https://www.theafricareport.com/201855/mali-france-opposed-to-assimi-goitas-junta-demanding-an-end-to-defence-agreements/ |url-status=live}}</ref> A UN panel reported that in the first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2022 |title=UN experts: Malian military and 'white' soldiers killed 33 |url=https://news.yahoo.com/un-experts-malian-military-white-015227805.html |access-date=6 August 2022 |website=Yahoo News |archive-date=6 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806021317/https://news.yahoo.com/un-experts-malian-military-white-015227805.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In June 2023, Mali removed French as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 August 2023 |title=Mali demotes French, language of its former colonizer, in symbolic move |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/08/03/mali-french-new-constitution/ |access-date=9 February 2023 |newspaper=Washington Post |archive-date=3 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803234614/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/08/03/mali-french-new-constitution/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River, killing at least 154 civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2023 |title=Mali : Les groupes islamistes armés et l'armée prennent les civils pour cible |url=https://www.hrw.org/fr/news/2023/11/01/mali-les-groupes-islamistes-armes-et-larmee-prennent-les-civils-pour-cible |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231214185052/https://www.hrw.org/fr/news/2023/11/01/mali-les-groupes-islamistes-armes-et-larmee-prennent-les-civils-pour-cible |archive-date=14 December 2023 |access-date=1 January 2024 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |language=fr}}</ref>

In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during the Battle of Tinzaouaten.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Darya Tarasova |author2=Tim Lister |author3=Avery Schmitz |date=29 July 2024 |title=Dozens of Russian mercenaries killed in rebel ambush in Mali, in their worst known loss in Africa |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/07/29/africa/russian-mercenaries-wagner-killed-mali-intl-latam/index.html |access-date=30 July 2024 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://newsukraine.rbc.ua/news/mali-announces-severance-of-diplomatic-relations-1722838542.html|title=Mali announces severance of diplomatic relations with Ukraine|publisher=РБК|date=5 August 2024|accessdate=5 August 2024|archive-date=5 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805181211/https://newsukraine.rbc.ua/news/mali-announces-severance-of-diplomatic-relations-1722838542.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Was Ukraine's role in big Wagner defeat an own goal in Africa? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c78ld18lgr9o |work=BBC News |date=12 August 2024}}</ref>

On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako, killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2024 |title=Attack by al-Qaeda linked group in Mali killed more than 70 people |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/20/attack-by-al-qaeda-linked-group-in-mali-killed-more-than-70-people |access-date=20 September 2024 |publisher=Al Jazeera English |language=en}}</ref>

In July 2025, JNIM began a strategy to blockade the government-controlled cities from foreign fuel imports and to cut them off from each other.<ref name="AfricaCenter">{{Cite web |last=Eizenga |first=Daniel |title=JNIM Attacks in Western Mali Reshape Sahel Conflict |work=Africa Center for Strategic Studies |date=29 September 2025 |access-date=2 November 2025 |url=https://africacenter.org/spotlight/jnim-attacks-western-mali-sahel/ }}</ref> Mali depends on foreign fuel imports, receiving 95% of its fuel from Senegal or Ivory Coast.<ref name="AfricaCenter" /><ref>{{Cite web |first1=Rama |last1=Yade |first2=Hussein |last2=Ba |title=Mali has not just plunged into crisis. It has been unraveling for years. |date=31 October 2025 |access-date=2 November 2025 |work=Atlantic Council |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/africasource/mali-has-not-just-plunged-into-crisis-it-has-been-unraveling-for-years/ }}</ref> Starting from 1 July, JNIM attacks cut off connections to Mauritania and Senegal, and they were followed by similar attacks in the south near Ivory Coast and Guinea.<ref name="AfricaCenter" /> From 3 September, JNIM imposed a blockade against cities in southern Mali, including the capital Bamako, after the government had stopped fuel sales in rural areas.<ref name="ISW-100925">{{Cite web |first1=Michael |last1=DeAngelo |first2=Miles |last2=Charles |first3=Yale |last3=Ford |first4=Liam |last4=Karr |title=Mali Negotiates Amid JNIM Blockade; M23 Numbers Swell: Africa File, October 9, 2025 |date=9 October 2025 |access-date=2 November 2025 |work=Critical Threats Project |publisher=Institute for the Study of War |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/mali-negotiates-jnim-blockade-drc-m23-numbers-swell-al-shabaab-mogadishu-somali-election-disputes-boko-haram-cameroon-nigeria-border-africa-file-october-9-2025 }}</ref> This increased fuel prices in the capital by 500% and has led to economic disruption, lines at gas stations, school closures, and cancellations of flights from the Bamako International Airport.<ref name="AJ-102925">{{Cite web |title=Mali fuel crisis spirals amid armed group blocking supplies to the capital |date=29 October 2025 |access-date=2 November 2025 |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/10/29/fuel-crisis-in-mali-spirals-as-armed-group-chokes-off-supplies-to-capital }}</ref> In early September the Malian truckers' union stopped operations for two weeks due to the dangerous conditions along roads in southern Mali, leaving 1,000 fuel trucks waiting in Ivory Coast.<ref name="AfricaCenter" /> On 28 October, the U.S. Embassy advised all American citizens to leave the country immediately because of increasing instability, and to do so by plane, because of "terrorist attacks along national highways".<ref name="AJ-102925" />

On 25 April 2026 widespread unrest was reported from locations across the country, apparently sponsored by a diverse range of rebel groups.<ref>{{cite news |title=Armed groups launch co-ordinated attacks across Mali |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/clyx7nnrkqdo |access-date=25 April 2026 |work=www.bbc.com |date=25 April 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author1=Nils Adler |author2=Yashraj Sharma |author3=Elis Gjevori |title=Mali attacks updates: Coordinated attacks in Bamako, Kidal and elsewhere |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2026/4/25/mali-attacks-live-gunfire-heard-near-bamako-airport-and-in-several-cities |access-date=26 April 2026 |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref><ref name="AP-26042026">{{cite news |last1=BANCHEREAU |first1=MARK |title=Islamic militants and separatists claim sweeping attacks across Mali |url=https://apnews.com/article/mali-gunfire-airport-96f93a72f4766d538e0c98d9e6afa912 |access-date=26 April 2026 |work=AP News |date=25 April 2026 |language=en}}</ref>

== Geography == {{Main|Geography of Mali}}

Satellite image of Mali|thumb

Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria. It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N, and longitudes 13°W and 5°E. Mali borders Algeria to the north-northeast, Niger to the east, Burkina Faso to the southeast, Ivory Coast to the south, Guinea to the south-west, and Senegal to the west and Mauritania to the north-west.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Griffiths|first=Ieuan|date=July 1986|title=The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=152|issue=2|pages=204–216|doi=10.2307/634762|jstor=634762|bibcode=1986GeogJ.152..204G |issn=0016-7398}}</ref>

[[File:Hand der Fatima.jpg|left|Landscape in Hombori|thumb]] thumb|Mali map of Köppen climate classification

At {{convert|1240192|km2|sqmi|0|sigfig=3}},<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali"/> Mali is the 24th-largest country in the world and the eighth-largest country in Africa.<ref>{{cite web |title=List of African countries by area |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/list-of-African-countries-by-area |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |date=27 September 2024}}</ref> It is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola. Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert, which produces an extremely hot, dust-laden Sudanian savanna zone.<ref name=geography>Mali country profile, p. 5.</ref> Mali is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand. The Adrar des Ifoghas massif lies in the northeast.

Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country.<ref name=geography/> Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent.<ref name=geography/> Late April to early October is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta.<ref name=geography/> The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification ''BWh'') with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification ''BSh'') with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The southern areas have a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification ''Aw'').

Mali has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. Mali is estimated to have in excess of 17,400 tonnes of uranium (measured + indicated + inferred).<ref>[http://www.wise-uranium.org/uoafr.html#ML Uranium Mine Ownership – Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20200415020226/http://www.wise%2Duranium.org/uoafr.html#ML |date=15 April 2020 }}. Wise-uranium.org. Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref><ref>Muller, CJ and Umpire, A (22 November 2012) [http://www.sedar.com/GetFile.do?lang=EN&docClass=24&issuerNo=00022459&fileName=/csfsprod/data138/filings/02005552/00000001/y%3A\Web_Documents\RADAR\E3\RCGQ\14JA13046\121122TR_Falea_cn.pdf An Independent Technical Report on the Mineral Resources of Falea Uranium, Copper and Silver Deposit, Mali, West Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824024212/https://www.sedar.com/GetFile.do?lang=EN&docClass=24&issuerNo=00022459&fileName=%2Fcsfsprod%2Fdata138%2Ffilings%2F02005552%2F00000001%2Fy%3A%5CWeb_Documents%5CRADAR%5CE3%5CRCGQ%5C14JA13046%5C121122TR_Falea_cn.pdf |date=24 August 2021 }}. Minxcon.</ref> In 2012, a further uranium mineralized north zone was identified.<ref>[http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Others/Uranium-in-Africa/ Uranium in Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417025834/http://world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Others/Uranium-in-Africa/ |date=17 April 2014 }}. World-nuclear.org. Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref> Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.<ref name=geography/>

=== Biodiversity === {{See also|Wildlife of Mali}}

Five terrestrial ecoregions lie within Mali's borders: Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 51st globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> {{clear right}}

== Politics and government == {{main|Politics of Mali}}

=== Government === [[File:Assimi Goita, August 2021.png|thumb|Assimi Goita, interim president of Mali since the 2021 Malian coup d'état]] Mali is led by the transitional president, Assimi Goïta, who is assisted by the prime minister, Abdoulaye Maïga,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali - World Leaders |work=World Leaders |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |date=11 March 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026 |url=https://www.cia.gov/resources/world-leaders/foreign-governments/mali/ }}</ref> and the National Transitional Council that replaced the National Assembly following the 2020 coup. However, in practice, Goïta and a military junta consisting of four other officers, the National Committee for the Salvation of the People, have complete control over the political system.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> The original constitution established a Mali as a secular constitutional republic with a separation of powers between executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and identifies eight state institutions.{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 25}}<ref name="UF-Sahara" /> These included the presidency; the government; the National Assembly; the Supreme, Constitutional, and High Courts; the High Council of Territorial Units; and the Economic, Social, and Cultural Council.{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 25}} The constitution was enacted on 25 February 1992,<ref name="UF-Sahara">{{Cite web |title=The Electoral System - Mali - Trans-Saharan Elections Project |work=University of Florida |access-date=27 April 2026 |url=https://tsep.africa.ufl.edu/the-electoral-system/mali/ }}</ref> following the 12 January 1992 referendum that was held after a national conference in 1991.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clark |first=Andrew F. |title=FROM MILITARY DICTATORSHIP TO DEMOCRACY: THE DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS IN MALI |journal=Journal of Third World Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=1995 |pages=214-215 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/45197414 |jstor=45197414 }}</ref> It was replaced by the junta with a new constitution on 22 July 2023.<ref name="BTI-2026" />

The president, who is elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term that is renewable once,{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 30}} is the head of state that serves as the guardian of the constitution,{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 29}} the commander-in-chief of the armed forces,{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 44}} and appoints the prime minister and other government ministers.{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 38}} The prime minister is the head of government.{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 55}} The National Assembly of Mali was a unicameral legislature{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 59}} consisting of deputies elected by universal suffrage to a term of five years.{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 61}} It convened twice a year,{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 65}} or in extraordinary sessions called by the prime minister or the parliamentary majority.{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 66}} The transitional government pushed back the timetable for a new election, initially to be held in February 2022, to February 2024.<ref name="New Election">{{cite web |title=Mali's transition govt sets February 2024 for presidential election |url=https://www.africanews.com/2022/07/01/malis-transition-govt-sets-february-2024-for-presidential-election// |website=AfricaNews |access-date=18 August 2023 |date=1 July 2022 |archive-date=18 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818190836/https://www.africanews.com/2022/07/01/malis-transition-govt-sets-february-2024-for-presidential-election// |url-status=live }}</ref> In exchange for the government's commitment to a 2024 election, ECOWAS agreed to lift sanctions on the country.<ref name="ECOWAS sanctions lifted">{{cite web |last1=Melly |first1=Paul |title=Mali coup: How junta got Ecowas economic sanctions lifted |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62037317 |website=BBC |access-date=18 August 2023 |date=6 July 2022 |archive-date=5 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805123950/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62037317 |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2025 a law granted Goïta a five-year term that is renewable indefinitely, and there are no immediate plans to hold elections.<ref name="ITA" />

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, tasked with the application of the laws of the republic and the protection of civil liberties,{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 81}} which are guaranteed by both the 1992 and 2023 constitutions.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, which has both judicial and administrative powers,{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Article 83}} and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter.{{sfn|Constitution of Mali (1992)|loc=Articles 86, 87}} Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.<ref name="p15">Mali country profile, p. 15.</ref> In practice, many of the freedoms that were gained during the development of democracy after 1991, and were relatively well respected, have been suppressed during the 2020s military junta.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> There is no real separation of powers, with the junta being dominant. Freedom of association, expression, and assembly are undermined by the transitional government, and members of the judiciary and civil service have been dismissed for criticizing the junta.<ref name="BTI-2026"/>

According to International IDEA's Global State of Democracy Indices and Democracy Tracker, Mali performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation and rule of law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global State of Democracy Indices {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |access-date=25 September 2025 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |access-date=25 September 2025 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/mali |access-date=25 September 2025 |website=www.idea.int |language=en}}</ref> ''The Economist Democracy Index'' classified Mali as an "authoritarian regime" in 2024, ranking it 139 out of the 167 countries that were evaluated.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lotz |first=Avery |title=Global democracy score hits historic low: report |date=27 February 2025 |publisher=Axios |access-date=28 April 2026 |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/02/27/global-democracy-score-record-low-report |archive-date=6 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250306115758/https://www.axios.com/2025/02/27/global-democracy-score-record-low-report |url-status=live }}</ref> Freedom House describes Mali as "not free" in 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali: Freedom in the World 2026 Country Report |date=2026 |access-date=28 April 2026 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/mali/freedom-world/2026 }}</ref> The Fragile States Index ranked Mali as the 14th most fragile country in the world, out of 179 countries, in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Dashboard – Mali |access-date=28 April 2026 |publisher=Fund for Peace |url=https://fragilestatesindex.org/country-data/ }}</ref>

=== Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of Mali}} [[File:Assimi Goïta with Russian president Vladimir Putin July 2023.jpg|thumb|Assimi Goïta with Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Russia–Africa Summit in St. Petersburg, July 2023]] Until 2012, Mali's foreign policy orientation had become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time.<ref name=p17>Mali country profile, p. 17.</ref> Starting from the 1990s, Mali's successive governments worked with the IMF to obtain debt relief, as well as to end the country's political and economic isolation.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> After the institution of a democratic form of government, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly.<ref name=p17/> Mali has a longstanding relationship with France, a former colonial ruler.<ref name=p17/> Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état.<ref name="p17" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/03/2012323134643629717.html|title=African Union suspends Mali over coup|date=23 March 2012|access-date=23 March 2012|publisher=Al Jazeera|archive-date=25 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325235036/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/03/2012323134643629717.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the coups in 2020 and 2021, Mali took a more belligerent stance towards the UN, ECOWAS, and France.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> At the request of the government, France withdrew its troops from Mali in 2022, and the UN followed in 2023.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> The Alliance of Sahel States was formed in 2023 between Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso after they experienced similar coups in the early 2020s.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> It is anti-French, anti-neocolonialism and anti-ECOWAS, demonstrated with acts including the removal of French as an official language in all three states.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MSN |url=https://www.msn.com/en-za/news/other/niger-downgrades-french-as-it-distances-from-its-colonial-past-with-a-new-official-language/ar-AA1Cub13?ocid=BingNewsVerp |access-date=9 April 2025 |website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Presse |first=AFP-Agence France |title=Mali Junta Renames Colonial French Street Names |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/mali-junta-renames-colonial-french-street-names-9bdfc394 |access-date=1 January 2025 |website=www.barrons.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2022 |title=New wave of anti-colonial populism sweeps Francophone Africa  |url=https://qz.com/africa/2173650/new-wave-of-anti-colonial-populism-sweeps-francophone-africa |access-date=2 September 2024 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 July 2024 |title=Breakaway junta confederation undermines ECOWAS summit |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20240707-breakaway-junda-confederation-undermines-west-african-leaders-summit |access-date=9 July 2024 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 July 2024 |title=West Africa bloc warns of 'disintegration' as juntas form 'Confederation of Sahel States' |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20240708-west-africa-bloc-juntas-confederation-sahel |access-date=9 July 2024 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> Mali ended its membership in ECOWAS in 2025. The country expanded its relationship with Russia, acquiring military equipment and assistance.<ref name="BTI-2026" />

Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals.<ref name="p17" /> Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy.<ref name=p17/> General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.<ref name="p17" />

In early 2019, Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for an attack on a United Nations base in Mali that killed 10 peacekeepers from Chad. 25 people were reported to have been injured in the attack.<ref name=p17/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/20/world/africa/united-nations-peacekeepers-killed-mali.html |title=Al Qaeda Claims U.N. Peacekeeper Attack That Killed 10 in Mali |date=20 January 2019 |access-date=21 January 2019 |newspaper=NY Times |archive-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121175200/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/20/world/africa/united-nations-peacekeepers-killed-mali.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Military === {{Further|Malian Armed Forces}} [[File:Malian troops Bastille Day 2013 Paris t104538.jpg|thumb|Malian soldiers at the 2013 Bastille Day parade in France]] Mali has 41,000 troops in its military and paramilitary forces. These include the Malian Armed Forces ({{abbr|FAMa|Forces Armées Maliennes}}), which consist of the Army and the Air Force, numbering 19,000 and 2,000 personnel, respectively, as of 2025. The Army is organized into nine motorized infantry battalions and several support and special forces units. There are also paramilitary forces with 20,000 personnel, including 6,000 in the Gendarmerie, 10,000 in the National Guard, 1,000 in the National Police, and 3,000 in the militia. The Gendarmerie includes eight paramilitary companies and an air transport group, while the National Guard has six camel cavalry companies and a special forces anti-terrorism unit. The Malian military is under-equipped and has a limited capability for the manufacturing and maintenance of equipment.<ref name="IISS-2025">{{Cite book |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies |date=2025 |title=The Military Balance 2025 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-041-04967-8 |pages=484–485 }}</ref>

In addition, Russia's Africa Corps has between 1,500<ref name="IISS-2025" /> and 3,500 troops across Mali.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Liam |last=Karr |title=Fall of Kidal—What JNIM’s Latest Offensive Means for Mali’s Future: Africa File Special Edition |publisher=Institute for the Study of War |date=28 April 2026 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/fall-of-northern-mali-jnim-fla-offensive-russia-issp-camara |access-date=29 April 2026 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref>

=== Territorial units === {{main|Regions of Mali|Cercles of Mali|Arrondissements of Mali|Communes of Mali}} alt=A map of former regions of Mali|thumb|Regions of Mali since 2023 The administrative structure of Mali is currently organized on four levels: 19 regions, 159 cercles, 466 arrondissements, and 819 communes or 12,712 villages, along with the capital district of Bamako.<ref name="BTI-2026">{{Cite web |title=BTI 2026 Mali Country Report |date=2026 |access-date=26 April 2026 |work=Bertelsmann Transformation Index |url=https://bti-project.org/en/reports/country-report/MLI }}</ref> Each region has a governor,<ref name=pictures>DiPiazza, p. 37.</ref> and is represented on the High Council of Territorial Units by indirectly elected national councilors.<ref name="UF-Sahara" /> Many rural areas of Mali lack any state presence, with the administrative structure being distributed unevenly. This is because of the size of the country and the persistent insecurity. The Malian government has used the phrase "return of the state and administrations to fragile areas" to describe its stabilization strategy.<ref name="BTI-2026" />

Mali has been implementing decentralization since 1993. There were eight regions and the district of Bamako from 1996,<ref name="UF-Sahara" /> which later became ten regions as of 2006.<ref>{{cite book | last = Martin | first = Phillip L. | title = Managing Migration: The Promise of Cooperation | publisher=Lexington Books |date= 2006 | location = Lanham, Maryland | isbn = 978-0-7391-1341-7 |page=134}}</ref> Since 2023, Mali has added nine new regions to its administrative structure, bringing the total to 19 regions plus the district of Bamako. This reorganization aims to improve governance and bring public services closer to local populations. This initiative continues the decentralization efforts that began with the creation of the Taoudénit and Ménaka regions in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |date=1999 |title=Loi N°99-035/ Du 10 Aout 1999 Portant Creation des Collectivites Territoriales de Cercles et de Regions |url=http://www.matcl.gov.ml/PDF/LoiCreationCercleReg.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309073942/http://www.matcl.gov.ml/PDF/LoiCreationCercleReg.pdf |archive-date=9 March 2012 |publisher=Ministère de l'Administration Territoriales et des Collectivités Locales, République du Mali |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Djiguiba |first=Issa |date=21 September 2024 |title=Administrative and territorial division: the new administrative map of Mali is operational |url=https://www.ortm.ml/decoupage-administratif-et-territorial-la-nouvelle-carte-administrative-du-mali-operationnelle |access-date=6 November 2024 |website=www.ortm.ml}}</ref> The implementation of the two newest regions, Taoudénit (formerly part of Tombouctou Region) and Ménaka (formerly Ménaka Cercle in Gao Region), has been ongoing since January 2016;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://minusma.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/160328_sg_report_mali_english.pdf |title=Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Mali |date=28 March 2016 |publisher=MINUSMA |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222055230/https://minusma.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/160328_sg_report_mali_english.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=malijet>{{cite web |url=http://malijet.com/la_societe_malienne_aujourdhui/144815-regionalisation-deux-nouvelles-regions-creees-au-mali.html |title=Régionalisation: Deux Nouvelles régions créées au Mali |date=21 January 2016 |publisher=Malijet |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222105836/http://malijet.com/la_societe_malienne_aujourdhui/144815-regionalisation-deux-nouvelles-regions-creees-au-mali.html |url-status=live }}</ref> a governor and transitional council has been appointed for both regions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://minusma.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/sg_report_on_the_situation_in_mali_december_2016.pdf |title=Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Mali |date=30 December 2016 |publisher=MINUSMA |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=29 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129153531/http://minusma.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/sg_report_on_the_situation_in_mali_december_2016.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The regions and the capital district are:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coulibaly |first=Bassidi |date=October 2013 |title=Etats Generaux De La Decentralisation (in French) |url=https://arpdeveloppement.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/A_14_Theme_9_DGAT.pdf |access-date=6 November 2024 |website=arpdeveloppement.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2023 |title=CINQUIEME RECENSEMENT GENERAL DE LA POPULATION ET DE L'HABITAT (in French) |url=https://www.instat-mali.org/laravel-filemanager/files/shares/rgph/rapport-resultats-globaux-rgph5_rgph.pdf |access-date=6 November 2024 |website=www.instat-mali.org}}</ref> {| class="sortable wikitable" |- !scope="col"|No !scope="col"| Region name !scope="col"| Area (km2) !scope="col"|2023 Population{{efn|According to the Census}} |- |00 !scope="row"| Bamako Capital District |align="right" |252 |align="right"|4,227,569 |- |01 !scope="row"| Kayes | align="right" |62,914 |align="right"|1,840,329 |- |02 !scope="row"| Koulikoro | align="right" |71,178 |align="right"|2,255,157 |- |03 !scope="row"| Sikasso | align="right" |21,378 |align="right"|1,533,123 |- |04 !scope="row"| Ségou | align="right" |31,996 |align="right"|2,455,263 |- |05 !scope="row"| Mopti | align="right" |49,077 |align="right"|935,579 |- |06 !scope="row"| Tombouctou | align="right" |180,781 |align="right"|974,278 |- |07 !scope="row"| Gao | align="right" |89,532 |align="right"|727,517 |- |08 !scope="row"| Kidal | align="right" |151,430 |align="right"|83,192 |- |09 !scope="row"| Taoudénit | align="right" | 323,326 |align="right"|100,358 |- |10 !scope="row"| Ménaka | align="right" | 81,040 |align="right"|318,876 |- |11 !scope="row"|Bougouni | align="right" | 41,052 |align="right"|1,570,979 |- |12 !scope="row"|Dioila | align="right" | 12,984 |align="right"|675,965 |- |13 !scope="row"|Nioro | align="right" | 24,179 |align="right"|678,061 |- |14 !scope="row"|Koutiala | align="right" |14,739 |align="right"|1,169,882 |- |15 !scope="row"|Kita | align="right" |44,175 |align="right"|681,671 |- |16 !scope="row"|Nara | align="right" |26,213 |align="right"|307,777 |- |17 !scope="row"|Bandiagara | align="right" |25,709 |align="right"|868,916 |- |18 !scope="row"|San | align="right" |15,516 |align="right"|820,807 |- |19 !scope="row"|Douentza | align="right" |63,515 |align="right"|170,189 |- !scope="row" colspan="2" |Total | align="right" |1,240,192 |align="right"|22,395,489 |}

== Economy == {{main|Economy of Mali}} [[File:Djenne market.jpg|thumb|A market scene in Djenné]] [[File:Kalabougou potters (6392346).jpg|thumb|upright|Kalabougou potters]] thumb|Cotton processing at CMDT As of 2024, the country had a nominal GDP of US$26.78 billion<ref>{{Cite web |title=GDP, current prices (nominal) |date=April 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026 |work=International Monetary Fund |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/MLI }}</ref> and a PPP-adjusted GDP of $81.45 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GDP, current prices (PPP) |date=April 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026 |work=International Monetary Fund |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/MLI }}</ref> Mali remains one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world, and has a large informal economy. It has heavily relied on assistance from foreign donors, which have reduced their activities during the instability of the 2020s. Since then the transitional government has used regional financial markets to finance its deficit.<ref name="ITA">{{Cite web |title=Mali - Market Overview |work=International Trade Administration |date=17 February 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026 |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/mali-market-overview }}</ref><ref name="UNCTAD">{{Cite web |title=UN list of least developed countries |work=UN Trade and Development |date=December 2024 |access-date=2 May 2026 |url=https://unctad.org/topic/least-developed-countries/list }}</ref> Most Malians (95%) have informal jobs,<ref name="BTI-2026" /> with 80% of the population involved in farming, fishing, or raising livestock.<ref name="ITA" /> The agriculture sector is the largest, accounting for a third of the GDP.<ref name="ITA" /> Mali's export economy is dominated by gold mining, which represented 80% of the country's exports in 2024. Though cotton is a distant second as an export commodity, one-fifth of the population works in that industry.<ref name="ITA" /> Ivory Coast, Senegal, and China are Mali's top import partners, while South Africa, Switzerland, and Australia are top export partners.<ref name="ITA" />

Economic development has been undermined by instability, limited infrastructure and electricity, and government corruption. The economy is vulnerable to fluctuations in the world price of gold and cotton. Despite this, there has been an economic recovery since the COVID-19 pandemic in Mali and the ECOWAS sanctions in 2022.<ref name="BTI-2026" /> As a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union, Mali uses the CFA franc that is issued by the Central Bank of West African States. As a result, it experiences monetary stability and low inflation. However, businesses in Mali have struggled to get access to financing in recent years.<ref name="ITA" /> Mali is also connected with the French government by agreement since the creation of the bank in 1962. Today all seven countries of BCEAO are connected to French Central Bank.<ref>[http://www.banque-france.fr/eurosysteme-et-international/zone-franc.html Zone franc sur le site de la Banque de France] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074029/http://www.banque-france.fr/eurosysteme-et-international/zone-franc.html |date=20 January 2013 }}. Banque-france.fr. Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref>

thumb|GDP per capita development of Mali up to 2018 Mali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.<ref name="state">{{cite web |title=Mali |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm |access-date=4 June 2008 |date=May 2008 |publisher=U.S. State Department |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194505/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, 12 partially privatized, and 20 liquidated.<ref name="state"/> In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation.<ref name="state"/> Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), were expected to be privatized in 2008.<ref name="state"/> Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances{{vague|date=July 2021}}. The programme increased social and economic conditions{{vague|date=July 2021}}, and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995.<ref>[http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mali_e.htm Mali and the WTO] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130211173417/http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/mali_e.htm |date=11 February 2013 }}. World Trade Organization. Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref> Mali is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).<ref name="ohada.com">{{cite web | title=OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa | url=http://www.ohada.com/index.php | access-date=22 March 2009 | archive-date=26 March 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326033744/http://www.ohada.com/index.php | url-status=live }}</ref>

Mali was ranked 135th out of 139 in the Global Innovation Index in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/mali |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref>

=== Agriculture === Mali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and Ivory Coast.<ref name=Goldenhope>{{cite news | first=Briony | last=Hale | title=Mali's Golden Hope | date=13 May 1998 | work=BBC News | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1945588.stm | access-date=4 June 2008 | archive-date=11 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711170446/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/1945588.stm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=marshall>{{cite book | last = Cavendish | first = Marshall | title = World and Its Peoples: Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa | publisher = Marshall Cavendish | year = 2007 | location = Tarrytown, New York | isbn = 978-0-7614-7571-2 | page = 1367 | url = https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse | url-access = registration }}</ref> During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003.<ref name=Goldenhope/><ref name=marshall/> In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops.<ref name="state"/> Agriculture in Mali is undermined by erratic rainfall, flooding, low usage of agricultural equipment, and a volatile security situation.<ref name="ITA-A" />

Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture. 15% of Malian workers are employed in the service sector.<ref name=marshall/> Seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers.<ref>{{cite book |ref=May| last = May | first = Jacques Meyer | title = The Ecology of Malnutrition in the French Speaking Countries of West Africa and Madagascar | publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company |date= 1968 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-02-848960-5 |page=291}}</ref> Around 127,000 hectares of agricultural land are managed by the state-owned Niger River Authority (Office du Niger).<ref name="ITA-A">{{Cite web |title=Mali - Agricultural Sectors |date=17 February 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026 |work=International Trade Administration |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/mali-agricultural-sectors }}</ref>

=== Mining === Gold is mined in the southern region,<ref name="Goldenhope" /> and Mali was the second largest producer of gold in Africa as of 2024.<ref name="ITA-M">{{Cite web |title=Mali - Mining |work=International Trade Administration |date=17 February 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026|url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/mali-mining }}</ref> In 2015, the country has produced 41 metric tonnes of gold.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold production |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129233804/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-date=29 November 2023 |access-date=17 December 2024 |website=Our World in Data |url-status=live }}</ref> The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Ivory Coast crises.<ref>African Development Bank, p. 186.</ref> Other natural resources include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.<ref name="state" />

In 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Bonnie |title=Regulating Mining in Africa: For Whose Benefit? |publisher=Nordic African Institute |date=2004 |location=Uppsala, Sweden |isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2 |page=43 |url=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse |url-access=registration }}</ref> In 2023, Mali adopted a new mining code that raises the requirement of state and local investor ownership of mining companies to 35% from the previous 20%, seeking to increase revenue. The code has led to disputes with established mining companies.<ref name="ITA-M" />

=== Energy === {{See also|List of power stations in Mali}}

Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali (EDM), and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA.<ref name="state"/> Outside the cities, the Malian Agency for Rural Electrification (AMADER) allows private companies to generate and distribute electricity to villages. EDM is heavily financed by the government and regional multinational banks. As of 2023, the majority (66%) of electricity in Mali was generated by diesel generators, followed by hydroelectric generation. Solar represented 2.7% of generation capacity.<ref name="ITA-E">{{Cite web |title=Mali - Energy |work=International Trade Administration |date=17 February 2026 |access-date=27 April 2026 |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/mali-energy }}</ref>

In the cities, 55% of the population have access to EDM.<ref>Farvacque-Vitkovic, Catherine ''et al.'' (September 2007) [http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp104_english.pdf DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITIES OF MALI — Challenges and Priorities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916110947/http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp104_english.pdf |date=16 September 2012 }}. Africa Region Working Paper Series No. 104/a. World Bank</ref> Overall, the national accessibility to electricity is 40%, and it is just 20% in rural areas.<ref name="ITA" /> Powers cuts are common,<ref name="ITA-E" /> and as of 2024 Bamako and other areas experienced blackouts that lasted up to 18 hours.<ref name="BTI-2026" />

=== Transportation === {{Main|Transport in Mali}} Mali has {{convert|89,000|km|mi}} of roads, which are in poor condition. The most significant highway in the country is the Trans-Sahelian Highway, which links three major cities—Bamako, Sikasso, and Kayes—with Dakar in Senegal, and N'Djamena in Chad via Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria. The section from Bamako to the Senegalese border is called the Northern Bamako-Dakar Corridor, and is Mali's most important roadway, with the majority of its imports and exports passing on it. Domestically, the Northern Bamako-Dakar Corridor uses Malian National Routes 1 and 3. Another major highway is the Trans-Saharan Road Corridor, which uses National Routes 6, 16, and 17 to connect Bamako to Ségou, Mopti, Sévaré, and Gao; as well as to Algiers in Algeria, and Lagos in Nigeria via Niger.<ref name="WorldBank2024">{{Cite web |title=Mali Connectivity and Road Resilience Program |work=World Bank Group |date=27 November 2024 |access-date=30 April 2026 |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099112724080023714/pdf/P50792114ab4f006189801b0d465d369e8.pdf }}</ref>

The Dakar–Bamako Railway runs parallel to part of the Northern Bamako-Dakar Corridor.<ref name="WorldBank2024" /> The Malian section has {{convert|641|km|mi}} of track. The railway was managed by foreign companies until they ceased operations in 2010. In 2016, Mali and Senegal formed the joint company ''Dakar Bamako Ferroviaire'' (DBF) to revive the line.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dakar Bamako Ferroviaire, Mali (DBF) |work=Railway Gazette International |date=26 July 2019 |access-date=30 April 2026 |url=https://www.railwaygazette.com/data/knowledge-hub/organisation-categories/freight/dakar-bamako-ferroviaire-mali-dbf/ }}</ref> Passenger service between Kayes and Bamako was restarted in June 2023 after five years of renovation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali's sole passenger train resumes service after 5-year hiatus |work=Africanews |date=9 June 2023 |access-date=30 April 2026 |url=https://www.africanews.com/2023/06/10/malis-sole-passenger-train-resumes-service-after-a-5-year-hiatus/ }}</ref> There are also approximately 29 airports, of which 8 have paved runways.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali transportation, roads, railways and airports {{!}} - CountryReports |url=https://www.countryreports.org/country/Mali/transportation.htm |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=www.countryreports.org |archive-date=14 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014085131/https://www.countryreports.org/country/Mali/transportation.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Urban areas are known for their large quantity of green and white taxicabs. A significant sum of the population is dependent on public transportation.

== Demographics == {{main|Demographics of Mali}}

[[File:Mali - Bozo girl in Bamako.jpg|thumb|upright|A Bozo girl in Bamako]]

{| class="wikitable floatleft" |+ Population of Mali{{UN Population|ref}} |- !scope="col"| Year !scope="col"| Million |- !scope="row "style="text-align:left;"| 1950 |style="text-align:right;"| 4.7 |- !scope="row" style="text-align:left;"| 2000 |style="text-align:right;"| 11 |- !scope="row"style="text-align:left;"| {{UN Population|Year}} |style="text-align:right;"| {{million|{{UN Population|Mali}}|1|mil=no}} |}

In {{UN Population|Year}}, Mali's population was an estimated {{million|{{UN Population|Mali}}|1}}.{{UN Population|ref}} Mali's population grew from 7.7 million in 1982 to 19.9 million in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=2018&locations=ML&name_desc=true&start=1982|title=Population, total {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|date=2022|access-date=31 May 2023|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518181332/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=2018&locations=ML&name_desc=true&start=1982|url-status=live}}</ref> The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5%–10% of Malians are nomadic.<ref name="p6">Mali country profile, p. 6.</ref> More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 2 million residents.<ref name="p6" />

In 2024, about 47% of Malians were 14 years old or younger, 50% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older.<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali" /> The median age was 16.4 years.<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali" /> The birth rate in 2024 was 40 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate in 2024 was 5.35 children per woman.<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali" /> The death rate in 2024 was 8.1 deaths per 1,000.<ref name=CIA-2021-Mali/> Life expectancy at birth was 63.2 years total (60.9 for males and 65.6 for females).<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali" /> Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality,<ref name=p6/> with 57.4 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2024.<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali" />

=== Largest cities in Mali === {{main list|List of cities in Mali }} {{Largest cities of Mali}}

Mali's population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan ethnic groups. The Bambara are by far the largest single ethnic group, making up a third of the population.<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali"/> The largest ethnic groups are Bambara (33.3%), Fulani (Peuhl) (13.3%), Sarakole/Soninke/Marka (9.8%), Senufo/Manianka (9.6%), Malinke (8.8%), Dogon (8.7%), Sonrai (5.9%), Bobo (2.1%), Tuareg/Bella (1.7%), other Malian (6%), from members of Economic Community of West Africa (0.4%), other (0.3%) (2018 est.).<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali"/> In Mali and in Niger, the Moors are also known as Azawagh Arabs, named after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. They speak mainly Hassaniya Arabic, one of the regional varieties of Arabic.<ref>Popenoe, Rebecca (2003) ''Feeding Desire – Fatness, Beauty and Sexuality among a Saharan People''. Routledge, London. pp. 16–17. {{ISBN|0-415-28096-6}}</ref>

In the far north, there is a division between Berber-descended Tuareg nomad populations and the darker-skinned Bella or Tamasheq people, due to the historical spread of slavery in the region. An estimated 800,000 people in Mali are descended from slaves.<ref name=slaves>{{cite news|last=Tran|first=Mark|title=Mali conflict puts freedom of 'slave descendants' in peril|newspaper=The Guardian |date=23 October 2012 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/oct/23/mali-conflict-freedom-slave-descendants-peril|access-date=24 November 2012 |location=London |archive-date=5 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005100538/http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/oct/23/mali-conflict-freedom-slave-descendants-peril |url-status=live}}</ref> Slavery has persisted in Mali for centuries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fortin|first=Jacey|title=Mali's Other Crisis: Slavery Still Plagues Mali, And Insurgency Could Make It Worse|newspaper=International Business Times|date=16 January 2013 |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/malis-other-crisis-slavery-still-plagues-mali-insurgency-could-make-it-worse-1017280 |access-date=16 January 2013|archive-date=8 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208102058/http://www.ibtimes.com/malis-other-crisis-slavery-still-plagues-mali-insurgency-could-make-it-worse-1017280|url-status=live}}</ref> The Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century, until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid-20th century. There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships,<ref>"[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1206_021205_salakkayak.html Kayaking to Timbuktu, Writer Sees Slave Trade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190141/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1206_021205_salakkayak.html |date=10 October 2017 }}". National Geographic News. 5 December 2002.</ref><ref>"[http://www.kirasalak.com/Mali.html Kayaking to Timbuktu, Original National Geographic Adventure Article discussing Slavery in Mali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922151608/http://www.kirasalak.com/Mali.html |date=22 September 2010 }}". National Geographic Adventure. December 2002/January 2003.</ref> and according to some estimates, even today approximately 200,000 Malians are still enslaved.<ref>{{cite news|last=MacInnes-Rae|first=Rick|author-link=Rick MacInnes-Rae|title=Al-Qaeda complicating anti-slavery drive in Mali|publisher=CBC News |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/al-qaeda-complicating-anti-slavery-drive-in-mali-1.1150057 |date=26 November 2012|access-date=25 April 2014|archive-date=5 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305175918/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/al-qaeda-complicating-anti-slavery-drive-in-mali-1.1150057|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some mixed European/African descendants of Muslims of Spanish, as well as French, Irish, Italian and Portuguese origin, live in Mali, where they are known as the Arma people (1% of the nation's population).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory05fage|url-access=registration|title=The Cambridge History of Africa|first1=J. D.|last1=Fage|first2=Richard|last2=Gray|first3=Roland|last3=Oliver|date=1975|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521204132}}</ref>

Although Mali has enjoyed reasonably good inter-ethnic relationships based on a long history of coexistence, some hereditary servitude and bondage relationship exist, as well as ethnic tension between settled Songhai and nomadic Tuaregs of the north.<ref name=p6/> Due to a backlash against the northern population after independence, Mali is now in a situation where both groups complain about discrimination on the part of the other group.<ref>Hall, Bruce S. (2011) ''A History of Race in Muslim West Africa'', 1600–1960. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9781107002876}}: "The mobilization of local ideas about racial difference has been important in generating, and intensifying, civil wars that have occurred since the end of colonial rule in all of the countries that straddle the southern edge of the Sahara Desert.{{nbsp}}... contemporary conflicts often hearken back to an older history in which blackness could be equated with slavery and non-blackness with predatory and uncivilized banditry." (cover text)</ref> This conflict also plays a role in the continuing Northern Mali conflict where there is a tension between both Tuaregs and the Malian government, and the Tuaregs and radical Islamists who are trying to establish sharia law.<ref>Hirsch, Afua (6 July 2012) [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jul/06/mali-war-over-skin-colour Mali's conflict and a 'war over skin colour'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081540/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jul/06/mali-war-over-skin-colour |date=11 February 2017 }}, ''The Guardian''.</ref>

There is also a small Jewish community in Mali.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/mali-virtual-jewish-history-tour|title=Mali Virtual Jewish History Tour}}</ref>

=== Languages === {{bar box |title=Spoken Languages in Mali (2009 Census)<ref name="instat-mali.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.instat-mali.org/contenu/rgph/tdemo09_rgph.pdf |title=4ème Recensement General de la Population et de L'Habitat du Mali (RGPH) |language=French |publisher=Institut National de la Statistique |access-date=25 January 2020 |archive-date=11 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111002517/http://www.instat-mali.org/contenu/rgph/tdemo09_rgph.pdf }}</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Spoken Languages |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Bambara|darkgreen|51.82}} {{bar percent|Fula|purple|8.29}} {{bar percent|Dogon|red|6.48}} {{bar percent|Maraka / Soninké|black|5.69}} {{bar percent|Songhai / Zarma|orange|5.27}} {{bar percent|Mandinka|green|5.12}} {{bar percent|Minyanka|darkblue|3.77}} {{bar percent|Tamasheq|pink|3.18}} {{bar percent|Senufo|darkred|2.03}} {{bar percent|Bobo|gray|1.89}} {{bar percent|Bozo|red|1.58}} {{bar percent|Kassonké|lime|1.07}} {{bar percent|Maure|violet|1}} {{bar percent|Samogo|purple|0.43}} {{bar percent|Dafing|yellow|0.41}} {{bar percent|Arabic (other dialects)|brown|0.33}} {{bar percent|Hausa|black|0.03}} {{bar percent|Other Malian|green|0.49}} {{bar percent|Other African|orange|0.18}} {{bar percent|Other foreign|red|0.18}} {{bar percent|Not Stated|pink|0.75}} }} {{bar box |title=Mother Tongues in Mali (2009 Census)<ref name="instat-mali.org" /> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Mother Tongues |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Bambara|darkgreen|46.5}} {{bar percent|Fula|purple|9.39}} {{bar percent|Dogon|red|7.12}} {{bar percent|Maraka / Soninké|black|6.33}} {{bar percent|Mandinka|green|5.6}} {{bar percent|Songhai / Zarma|orange|5.58}} {{bar percent|Minianka|darkblue|4.29}} {{bar percent|Tamasheq|pink|3.4}} {{bar percent|Senufo|darkred|2.56}} {{bar percent|Bobo|gray|2.15}} {{bar percent|Bozo|red|1.85}} {{bar percent|Kassonké|lime|1.17}} {{bar percent|Maure|violet|1.1}} {{bar percent|Samogo|yellow|0.5}} {{bar percent|Dafing|purple|0.46}} {{bar percent|Arabic (other dialects)|brown|0.34}} {{bar percent|Hausa|black|0.04}} {{bar percent|Other Malian|green|0.55}} {{bar percent|Other African|orange|0.31}} {{bar percent|Other Foreign|red|0.08}} {{bar percent|Not Stated|pink|0.69}} }} {{Main|Languages of Mali}}

In January 2022, due to deteriorating relations between Mali and the French government, the Mali government announced making Bambara the official language.<ref name=2022endfrench>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/01/31/africa/mali-french-ambassador-expelled-intl/index.html |title=Mali's military rulers say French ambassador has 72 hours to leave the country |publisher=CNN |date=31 January 2022 |access-date=14 February 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213181820/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/01/31/africa/mali-french-ambassador-expelled-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2023, French was dropped as an official language, becoming instead a working language.<ref name="Lingua 2023"/> At the same time, the 13 national languages,<ref name="LangNat"/> namely Bambara, Bobo, Bozo, Dogon, Fula, Hassaniya Arabic, Kassonke, Maninke, Minyanka, Senufo, the Songhai, Soninke and Tamasheq, became official languages.<ref name="Lingua 2023"/> The ''lingua franca'' in Mali is mainly Bambara, which about 80 percent of the population can communicate in.<ref name=p6/> Over 40 other African languages are spoken by the various ethnic groups of Mali.<ref name=p6/>

According to the 2009 census, the languages spoken natively in Mali were Bambara by 51.5%, Fula (8.3%), Dogon (6.6%) Soninké (5.7%), Songhai (5.3%), Mandinka (5.2%), Minianka (3.8%), Tamasheq (3.2%), Sénoufo (2%), Bobo (1.9%), Tieyaxo Bozo (1.6%), Kassonké (1.1%), Maure or Hassaniya Arabic (1%), Dafing (0.4%), Samogo (0.4%), Arabic (other dialects) (0.3%), other Malian languages (0.5%), other African languages (0.2%), and other non-African languages (0.2%); 0.7% did not declare their first language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.instat-mali.org/contenu/rgph/rastr09_rgph.pdf |title=4ème RECENSEMENT GENERAL DE LA POPULATION ET DE L'HABITAT DU MALI (RGPH-2009) |publisher=Mali National Institute of Statistics |language=fr |trans-title=4th GENERAL POPULATION CENSUS AND HABITAT OF MALI (RGPH-2009) |access-date=14 December 2019 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819064921/http://www.instat-mali.org/contenu/rgph/rastr09_rgph.pdf }}</ref>

=== Religion === {{main|Religion in Mali}} {{bar box |title=Religion in Mali (Pew 2024)<ref name="Pew Research"/> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religion |right1=Percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Islam|green|90}} {{bar percent|Christianity|darkorchid|8}} {{bar percent|Traditional faiths|brown|1}} {{bar percent|Other religions|lightgrey|1}} }}

thumb|upright|An entrance to the Djinguereber mosque

Islam was introduced to West Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in much of the region. An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly non-denominational and Sunni<ref name="pew">{{cite web | url=http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf | title=The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity | access-date=2 June 2014 | date=9 August 2012 | publisher=Pew Forum on Religious & Public life | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024125551/http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/the-worlds-muslims-full-report.pdf | archive-date=24 October 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>), approximately 5% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5% adhere to traditional African religions such as the Dogon religion.<ref name = IRFR>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108379.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Mali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118035332/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108379.htm |date=18 January 2020 }}. State.gov (19 September 2008). Retrieved 4 May 2012.</ref> Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practise their religion daily.<ref name=p7/>

The constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right.<ref name=p7/>

Islam as historically practised in Mali has been malleable and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths have generally been amicable.<ref name=p7/> After the 2012 imposition of sharia rule in northern parts of the country, however, Mali came to be listed high (number 7) in the Christian persecution index published by Open Doors, which described the persecution in the north as severe.<ref name = DeutscheWelle>[http://www.dw.de/report-points-to-100-million-persecuted-christians/a-16507067 Report points to 100 million persecuted Christians.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406223430/http://www.dw.de/report-points-to-100-million-persecuted-christians/a-16507067 |date=6 April 2015 }}. Retrieved 10 January 2013.</ref><ref name = OpenDoor>[http://www.worldwatchlist.us/ OPEN DOORS World Watch list 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210101952/https://worldwatchlist.us/ |date=10 December 2019 }}. Worldwatchlist.us. Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref>

=== Education === {{main|Education in Mali}}

[[File:Lycéens kati.jpg|thumb|left|High school students in Kati]]

Public education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen.<ref name=p7/> The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age 7, followed by six years of secondary education.<ref name=p7/> Mali's actual primary school enrollment rate is low, in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and other fees required to attend.<ref name=p7/>

In 2017, the primary school enrollment rate was 61% (65% of males and 58% of females).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/country/mali|title=Education Statistics|website=datatopics.worldbank.org|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507101442/https://datatopics.worldbank.org/education/country/mali|url-status=live}}</ref> In the late 1990s, the secondary school enrollment rate was 15% (20% of males and 10% of females).<ref name=p7/> The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas, as well as shortages of teachers and materials.<ref name=p7/>

Estimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27–30 to 46.4%, with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men.<ref name=p7/> The University of Bamako, which includes four constituent universities, is the largest university in the country and enrolls approximately 60,000 undergraduate and graduate students.<ref>{{cite web|title=Université de Bamako – Bamako, Mali|url=http://globalhealth.northwestern.edu/meded/current-affiliations/Bamako_Mali.html|publisher=Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine|access-date=8 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513192022/http://globalhealth.northwestern.edu/MedEd/current-affiliations/Bamako_Mali.html|archive-date=13 May 2013}}</ref>

=== Health === {{main|Health in Mali}}

Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation.<ref name=p7>Mali country profile, p. 7.</ref> Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world.<ref name=p7/> Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 63.2 years in 2024.<ref name="CIA-2021-Mali"/> In 2000, 62–65% of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69% to sanitation services of some kind.<ref name=p7/> In 2001, the general government expenditures on health totaled about US$4 per capita at an average exchange rate.<ref name=p8>Mali country profile, p. 8.</ref>

Efforts have been made to improve nutrition, and reduce associated health problems, by encouraging women to make nutritious versions of local recipes. For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make ''equinut'', a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe ''di-dèguè'' (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.<ref>[http://www.impatientoptimists.org/Posts/2013/04/Nourishing-Communities-Through-Holistic-Farming ''Nourishing communities through holistic farming''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006235945/https://www.impatientoptimists.org/Posts/2013/04/Nourishing-Communities-Through-Holistic-Farming |date=6 October 2018 }}, Impatient optimists, Gates Foundation. 30 April 2013.</ref>

[[File:Village Telly in Mali.jpg|thumb|Village in the Sahel region]]

Medical facilities in Mali are very limited, and medicines are in short supply.<ref name=p8/> Malaria and other arthropod-borne diseases are prevalent in Mali, as are a number of infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis.<ref name=p8/> Mali's population also suffers from a high rate of child malnutrition and a low rate of immunization.<ref name=p8/> An estimated 1.9% of the adult and children population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year,{{clarify|date=January 2019}} among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name=p8/> An estimated 85%–91% of Mali's girls and women have had female genital mutilation (2006 and 2001 data).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090716094114/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html WHO | Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices]. Who.int (6 May 2011). Retrieved 4 May 2012.</ref><ref>[http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/CR7/CR7.pdf Female genital cutting in the Demographic Health Surveys: a critical and comparative analysis. Calverton, MD: ORC Marco; 2004 (DHS Comparative Reports No. 7)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426233743/http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/CR7/CR7.pdf |date=26 April 2014 }}. (PDF). Retrieved 18 January 2013.</ref>

In 2024, approximately 7.1 million people in Mali, including over 3.8 million children, require urgent humanitarian assistance due to escalating conflict and climate crises. UNICEF is amplifying its efforts to provide essential services like health, education, and protection, while appealing for $133.5 million to address these needs. The situation is dire, with over 522,000 children lacking access to education and millions at risk of malnutrition amid underfunded humanitarian responses. Urgent action is needed to mitigate the impacts of violence, insecurity and climate change on vulnerable populations in Mali.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In Mali, more than half of the 7.1 million people requiring humanitarian assistance in 2024 are children. |url=https://www.unicef.org/mali/en/press-releases/mali-more-half-71-million-people-requiring-humanitarian-assistance-2024-are-children }}</ref>

=== Gender inequality === In 2017, Mali ranked 157th out of 160 countries in the gender inequality index as reported by the United Nations Development Programme.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/MLI.pdf|title=Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update: Mali|website=United Nations Development Programme|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-date=25 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325093238/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/country-notes/MLI.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The Malian Constitution states that it protects women's rights, however many laws exist that discriminate against women.<ref name=":02">{{cite web|url=http://www.omct.org/files/2004/07/2409/eng_2003_07_mali.pdf|title=Violence against Women in Mali|date=7 July 2004|website=World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT)|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-date=8 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808040337/http://www.omct.org/files/2004/07/2409/eng_2003_07_mali.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Provisions in the laws limit women's decision-making power after marriage, in which the husband becomes superior to his wife.<ref name=":02" /> Women are blamed for not maintaining the appearance of their husbands and are also blamed for the actions of their children if they misbehave, which encourages the cultural attitude that women are inferior to men.<ref name=":02" /> The lack of participation of women in politics is due to the idea that politics is associated with men and that women should avoid this sector.<ref name=":02" /> Education is also an area in which boys dominate, since it is a better investment for the parents.<ref name=":02" /> As traditional values and practices have contributed to gender inequality in Mali, conflict and lawlessness have also influenced the growing gap in gender through gender-based violence.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/Mali%20Gender%20Assessment%20Addendum%20Final.pdf|title=USAID MALI:ADDENDUM TO THE 2012 GENDER ASSESSMENT|date=May 2015|website=United States Agency of International Development|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-date=5 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905122408/https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/Mali%20Gender%20Assessment%20Addendum%20Final.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The unstable government of Mali has led to organizations like USAID attempting to improve the lives of the people, mainly women and girls' rights in order to re-engage the development of the country.<ref name=":2" />

Religion, the patriarchal norms, and gender-based violence are major negative factors shaping the life of women in Mali.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Democratic%20Governance/Women-s%20Empowerment/MaliFinal%20-%20HiRes.pdf|title=GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: MALI CASE STUDY|date=2012|website=United Nations Development Programme|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-date=18 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181218054809/http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Democratic%20Governance/Women-s%20Empowerment/MaliFinal%20-%20HiRes.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Patriarchal norms cause major gender inequalities and lead to male domination within the household.<ref name=":1" /> Girls learn household activities like chores, cooking, childcare, etc. at a young age and are expected to take the main responsibility of household chores throughout their life. This hampers women's ability to enter the formal workforce and leads to a lack of education of girls.<ref name=":1" /> Gender-based violence in Mali happens both on a national and a family level. At the national level, in 2012 the conflict in the Northern part of the country increased cases of kidnappings and rapes.<ref name=":2" /> The conflict also reduced women's access to resources, economy, and opportunities.<ref name=":2" /> At the household level, Malian women face gender-based violence through domestic violence, forced marriages, and marital rape.<ref name=":02" /> The Demographic Health Survey for Mali in 2013 stated that 76% of women and 54% of men believed physical harm towards women was acceptable if the women burnt food, argued back, went out without notifying her husband, or refused sexual relations with her husband.<ref name=":2" /> In 2024, Mali officials approved a bill criminalising intimate relations between same-sex couples.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Billson |first=Chantelle |date=5 November 2024 |title=Mali moves to criminalise homosexuality for the first time with new anti-gay law |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2024/11/05/mali-moves-to-criminalise-homosexuality-with-new-anti-gay-law/ |access-date=20 November 2024 |website=PinkNews}}</ref> thumb|Malian women in Djenné After adjusting the entrance requirements and access to education, girls still have lower enrollment rates and less access to formal education.<ref name=":1" /> Drop-out rates for girls are 15% higher than that of boys because they have a higher responsibility at home and most parents refuse to allow all their children to go to school, so boys tend to become educated.<ref name=":1" /> Similarly, technical and vocational education has a lower numbers of girls participating and are inadequately distributed in the country because the training centers are focused in the urban cities.<ref name=":1" /> Finally, higher education for girls consist of short programs because early marriages prevent most girls from pursuing a longer term education program like those in science.<ref name=":1" /> Although women do not have the same access of education, in recent decades women have been entering and representing in decision-making positions in the Public Administration sector.<ref name=":1" /> Out of 147 members of Parliament, 15 were women in 2010.<ref name=":1" /> Recent decades show that women are slowly joining important decision-making positions which is changing the attitude and status of women in Mali, which has led to the promotion of women's rights in the political sphere.<ref name=":1" />

Legislation at the international and national levels have been implemented over the decades to help promote women's rights in Mali.<ref name=":1" /> At the international, Mali signed the Beijing Platform for Action which suggest that women should participate in decision-making and the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women which is the foundation to women's rights promotion.<ref name=":1" /> At the national level, Mali's Constitution has the Decree No. 092-073P-CTSP that claims equality to all Malian citizens and discrimination is prohibited, which has not been followed.<ref name=":1" /> The Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme (PRSP) and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme under the Malian Government seek to improve the well-being of the citizens, and changes to governance and gender in the country.<ref name=":1" /> The Ministry for Advancement of Women, Children and the Family was created specifically for women and children so that their basics rights and needs get met under the law.<ref name=":1" /> Although there exists legislation and policy for gender equality the institutionalization of the National Gender Policy of Mali is necessary to support the importance of women's rights.<ref name=":1" /> Strengthening and the support of girls' and women's access to education and training is recommended to improve gender equality in Mali.<ref name=":1" /> The involvement of international organizations like USAID assist Mali financially to enhance their development through the efforts of the improvement of women's rights.<ref name=":2" />

== Culture == {{main|Culture of Mali}}

[[File:Konoguel Mosque tower (6439210).jpg|thumb|upright|Konoguel Mosque tower]]

The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity.<ref name=p13>Pye-Smith, Charlie & Rhéal Drisdelle. ''Mali: A Prospect of Peace?'' Oxfam (1997). {{ISBN|0-85598-334-5}}, p. 13.</ref> Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies.<ref name=p13/>

=== Music === {{Main|Music of Mali}}

thumb|left|Mali Dogon dance

Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are known as "Keepers of Memories".<ref>Crabill, Michelle and Tiso, Bruce (January 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20030625150509/http://www.fcps.edu/KingsParkES/technology/mali/malihis.htm Mali Resource Website]. Fairfax County Public Schools. Retrieved 4 June 2008.</ref> Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabaté, the ngoni with Bassekou Kouyate the virtuoso of the electric jeli ngoni, the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, Khaira Arby, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita, the duo Amadou et Mariam, Oumou Sangare, Fatoumata Diawara, Rokia Traore, and Habib Koité. Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture.<ref name="embassy">{{cite web|title=Music|url=http://ambamali-jp.org/en/e04-05.html|publisher=Embassy of the Republic of Mali in Japan|access-date=8 July 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130708063354/http://ambamali-jp.org/en/e04-05.html|archive-date=8 July 2013}}</ref> Dance parties are common events among friends, and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events.<ref name="embassy" />

=== Literature === Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music,<ref name=p29>Velton, p. 29.</ref> Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers.<ref name="p128">Milet, p. 128.</ref> Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with ''jalis'' reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart.<ref name="p128" /><ref name="p28">Velton, p. 28.</ref> Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.<ref name="p28" />

The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem's ''Le devoir de violence'', which won the 1968 {{Lang|fr|Prix Renaudot|italic=no}} but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism.<ref name=p128/><ref name="p28" /> Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Massa Makan Diabaté, Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko.<ref name=p128/><ref name=p28/>

=== Sport === [[File:Mali football.jpg|thumb|Malian children playing football in a Dogon village]]

The most popular sport in Mali is association football,<ref name=p151>Milet, p. 151.</ref><ref name=p55>DiPiazza, p. 55.</ref> which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations.<ref name="p151" /><ref name="p320">Hudgens, Jim, Richard Trillo, and Nathalie Calonnec. ''The Rough Guide to West Africa''. Rough Guides (2003). {{ISBN|1-84353-118-6}}, p. 320.</ref> Most towns and cities have regular games;<ref name="p320" /> the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC, Stade Malien, and Real Bamako, all based in the capital.<ref name=p55/> Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball.<ref name="p55" />

Basketball is another major sport;<ref name="p55" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080101165700/http://www.africabasket.com/mli/mli.asp "Malian Men Basketball"]. Africabasket.com. Retrieved 3 June 2008.</ref> the Mali women's national basketball team, led by Hamchetou Maiga, competed at the 2008 Beijing Olympics.<ref>Chitunda, Julio. [http://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/news/lateNews/arti.asp?newsid=23726 "Ruiz looks to strengthen Mali roster ahead of Beijing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184921/http://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/news/latenews/arti.asp?newsid=23726 |date=3 March 2016 }}. FIBA.com (13 March 2008). Retrieved 24 June 2008.</ref> Traditional wrestling (''la lutte'') is also somewhat common, though popularity has declined in recent years.<ref name="p320" /> The game wari, a mancala variant, is a common pastime.<ref name="p55" />

Mali featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.<ref>{{cite news |title=Continental Cup Finals start in Africa |url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |access-date=7 August 2021 |work=FIVB |date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807141038/https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Cuisine === {{main|Malian cuisine}}

thumb|Malian tea

Rice and millet are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains.<ref name="p30">Velton, p. 30.</ref><ref name="p146">Milet, p. 146.</ref> Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves, such as spinach or baobab, with tomato peanut sauce, and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken, mutton, beef, or goat).<ref name="p30" /><ref name="p146" /> Malian cuisine varies regionally.<ref name="p30" /><ref name="p146" /> Other popular dishes include fufu, jollof rice, and maafe.

=== Media === {{main|Media of Mali}}

In Mali, there are several newspapers such as ''Les Echos'', ''L'Essor'', ''Info Matin'', ''Nouvel Horizon'', and ''{{ill|Le Républicain (Mali)|lt=Le Républicain|fr|Le Républicain (Mali)}}''.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Murison |editor-first=Katharine|title=Africa South of the Sahara 2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KBP7QbalX0C&pg=PA652|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-85743-131-5|pages=652–53|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906191638/https://books.google.com/books?id=1KBP7QbalX0C&pg=PA652|url-status=live}}</ref> Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision du Mali is the state-owned service. Telecommunications in Mali include 869,600 mobile phones, 45,000 televisions and 414,985 Internet users.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.best-country.com/africa/mali/traditions|title=Culture of Mali|last=Batvina|first=Iryna|website=Best-Country.com|access-date=18 September 2016|archive-date=5 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105173621/http://www.best-country.com/africa/mali/traditions|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also == {{Portal|Mali|Countries|Africa }} * Outline of Mali

== Notes == {{Notelist}}

== References == {{Reflist}}

== Bibliography == {{Refbegin}} *{{Cite web |translator-first=Daniel G. |translator-last=Anna |title=Constitution of Mali 1992 |ref={{Harvid|Constitution of Mali (1992)}} |access-date=27 April 2026 |work=Comparative Constitutions Project |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mali_1992 }} (see also in French: {{cite web |ref=Const |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN002746.pdf |title=Constitution of Mali |language=fr |access-date=2 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920144209/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/CAFRAD/UNPAN002746.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2018 }}) * {{cite web |ref=Prof|url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/copr/Mali.pdf|title=Country profile: Mali|publisher=Library of Congress – Federal Research Division|date=January 2005|access-date=30 July 2024}} ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.'' * {{cite book |ref=DiPiazza |last=DiPiazza |first=Francesca Davis |title=Mali in Pictures |publisher=Learner Publishing Group |date=2006 |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |isbn=978-0-8225-6591-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OR4Ovt7U_2IC&pg=PA55 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907193017/https://books.google.com/books?id=OR4Ovt7U_2IC&pg=PA55 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |ref=Milet|author1=Milet, Eric|author2=Manaud, Jean-Luc|name-list-style=amp|title=Mali|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DC0Dj2if8DwC_2|publisher=Editions Olizane |date=2007|isbn=978-2-88086-351-7|language=fr}} * {{cite book |ref=Velton|last=Velton |first=Ross|title=Mali|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-84162-077-0 }} {{Refend}}

== External links == {{Library resources box}} * [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ML Key Development Forecasts for Mali] from International Futures

=== Government === * [https://koulouba.ml Presidency] – official website of the president of Mali * [https://primature.ml Prime Minister] – official website of the prime minister of Mali * [https://assemblee-nationale.ml National Assembly] – official website of the National Assembly of Mali * [https://www.instat-mali.org Statistics] – official website of National Institute of Statistics

=== History === * [https://ambassademali.de/fr/histoire "History"] – Malian History at Embassy of the Republic of Mali in Berlin

=== Tourism === * [https://www.officetourismemali.com Mali Tourisme] – Mali's official tourism portal

=== Maps === * {{Wikiatlas}} * {{Osmrelation-inline|192785}}

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