United Wa State Army

{{Short description|Ethnic armed organisation in Myanmar}} {{Update|reason=Missing information related to the UWSA's role in the Myanmar civil war (2021–present)|date=July 2023}} {{Use British English|date=November 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox war faction | name = United Wa State Army | native_name = {{lang|prk|Kru' Naing' Rob Rom' Hak Tiex Praog}}<br />{{lang|zh-hans|佤邦联合军}}<br />{{lang|my|ဝပြည် သွေးစည်းညီညွတ်ရေး တပ်မတော်}} | native_name_lang = | war = the internal conflict in Myanmar | image = 200px | caption = Flag of the United Wa State Army | active = {{Start date|1989|4|17|df=yes}} – present | predecessor = {{flagicon image|Communist Party of Burma flag (1946-1969).png}} Communist Party of Burma | leaders = Bao Youxiang | ideology = Wa nationalism<ref name="WashingtonPost" /> | clans = | headquarters = Pangkham, Myanmar | area = Wa State | size = 30,000<ref name="UWSP/UWSA » Myanmar Peace Monitor">{{cite web |url=https://www.mmpeacemonitor.org/1600/uwsa/ |title=UWSP/UWSA » Myanmar Peace Monitor |date=6 June 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611144539/https://mmpeacemonitor.org/1600/uwsa/|archive-date=June 11, 2023}}</ref> | partof = United Wa State Party | allies = '''State allies''' * {{flag|China}} * {{flag|Myanmar}} (until 2023)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmars-wa-army-vows-neutrality-in-fight-between-regime-ethnic-alliance.html | archive-url=https://archive.today/20231101205345/https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmars-wa-army-vows-neutrality-in-fight-between-regime-ethnic-alliance.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=2023-11-01 | title=Myanmar's Wa Army Vows Neutrality in Fight Between Regime, Ethnic All… }}</ref> ** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Myanmar Armed Forces.svg}} Tatmadaw '''Non-state allies''' * {{flagicon image|Infobox AA.png}} Arakan Army * {{flagicon image|Karenni National People's Liberation Front flag.png}} Karenni National People's Liberation Front<ref name="Asia Times">{{Cite web |last=Davis |first=Anthony |date=2022-02-22 |title=Wa an early winner of Myanmar's post-coup war |url=https://asiatimes.com/2022/02/wa-an-early-winner-of-myanmars-post-coup-war/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=Asia Times |language=en-US|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20221007025812/https://asiatimes.com/2022/02/wa-an-early-winner-of-myanmars-post-coup-war/|archive-date=October 7, 2022}}</ref> * {{flagicon image|Flag of the National Democratic Alliance Army.svg}} National Democratic Alliance Army * {{flagicon image|Flag of United Liberation Front of Asom.svg}} United Liberation Front of Assam | opponents = '''State opponents''' * {{flag|Thailand}} <ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.thairath.co.th/news/local/north/2827538 | title= District border Pai is tense after the Thai army negotiates for "UWSA" to withdraw troops from the area. }}</ref> * {{flagdeco|Myanmar|1974}} Union of Myanmar (until 1989) '''Non-state opponents''' * {{flagicon image|Mong Tai Army flag.svg}} Mong Tai Army (until 1996) * {{flagicon image|Shan State National Army.svg}} Shan State National Army (until 2005) * {{flagicon image|Shan State Army (South) Flag.svg}} Shan State Army (RCSS) * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Wa National Army.svg}} Wa National Army (until 2007) | battles = Internal conflict in Myanmar | website = }}

The '''United Wa State Army''' (Parauk: {{lang|prk|Kru' Naing' Rob Rom' Hak Tiex Praog}}, {{lang-zh|s=佤邦联合军|t=佤邦聯合軍|p=Wǎbāng Liánhéjūn}}; {{langx|my|ဝပြည် သွေးစည်းညီညွတ်ရေး တပ်မတော်}}, {{IPA|my|wa̰ pjì θwésí ɲìɲʊʔjé taʔmədɔ̀|IPA}}), abbreviated as the '''UWSA''' or the '''UWS Army''', is the military wing of the United Wa State Party (UWSP), the ''de facto'' ruling party of Wa State (officially known as the Wa Self-Administered Division) in Myanmar. It is a well-equipped ethnic minority army of an estimated 20,000<ref name="WashingtonPost">{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=29 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100915145855/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/28/AR2009082803764.html |archive-date=15 September 2010 |url-status=live |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/08/28/AR2009082803764.html |title=China Urges Burma to Bridle Ethnic Militia Uprising at Border |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>–30,000<ref name="UWSP/UWSA » Myanmar Peace Monitor"/> Wa soldiers, led by Bao Youxiang. The UWSA was formed after the collapse of the armed wing of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) in 1989.<ref name=pac>{{Cite web |url=http://www.geopium.org/Myanmar-UWSA-AsiaTimes-chouvy2004.html |last=Chouvy |first=Pierre-Arnaud |title=Myanmar's Wa: Likely Losers in the Opium War |work=Asia Times |date=24 January 2004 |access-date=13 March 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922201315/http://geopium.org/Myanmar-UWSA-AsiaTimes-chouvy2004.html |archive-date=22 September 2010}}</ref>

The UWSA announced its territory as the "Wa State Government Special Administrative Region" on 1 January 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dvb.no/uncategorized/uwsa-declares-autonomous-region/1782 |title=UWSA declares autonomous region |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302125620/http://www.dvb.no/uncategorized/uwsa-declares-autonomous-region/1782 |archive-date=2 March 2011}}</ref> The ''de facto'' President is Bao Youxiang<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4909:wa-revamping-road-system&catid=93:general&Itemid=291 |title=Wa revamping road system |author=S.H.A.N. |access-date=29 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913061130/http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4909:wa-revamping-road-system&catid=93:general&Itemid=291|archive-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref> Although the Government of Myanmar does not officially recognise the sovereignty of Wa State, the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) has frequently allied with the UWSA to fight against Shan nationalist militia groups, such as the Shan State Army (RCSS).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.projectak47.com/blog-all-posts/myanmar-the-united-wa-state-armys-uncertain-future |title=The United Wa State Army's uncertain future |work=PROJECT AK-47 |date=22 July 2013 |access-date=29 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227104008/https://www.projectak47.com/blog-all-posts/myanmar-the-united-wa-state-armys-uncertain-future|archive-date=December 27, 2022|publisher=Strategic Forecasting Inc.}}</ref>

Despite being ''de facto'' independent from Myanmar, the Wa State officially recognizes Myanmar's sovereignty over all of its territory.<ref name=jqgc>2011-10-13, [http://www.jqgc.com/zgjq/18033.shtml 缅甸佤邦竟然是一个山寨版的中国] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126002541/http://www.jqgc.com/zgjq/18033.shtml |date=26 November 2016 }}, 军情观察</ref> In 1989 the two parties signed a ceasefire agreement, and in 2013 signed a peace deal.<ref name="bbc2013">{{cite news |title=Burma signs treaty with Wa ethnic group |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23300441 |date=2013-07-13 |work=BBC |language=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130153515/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23300441|archive-date=November 30, 2022}}</ref> As the largest non-state armed group in Myanmar, it has effectively led the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee (FPNCC) since 2017, representing nearly every pre-2021 non-ceasefire signatory armed groups.<ref name="usip">{{cite report |last=Lintner |first=Bertil |author-link=Bertil Lintner |date=April 2019 |url=https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2019-07/pw_147-the_united_wa_state_army_and_burmas_peace_process.pdf |title=The United Wa State Army and Burma's Peace Process |publisher=United States Institute of Peace |number=147 |access-date=2022-11-07 |language=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813050138/https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2019-07/pw_147-the_united_wa_state_army_and_burmas_peace_process.pdf|archive-date=August 13, 2022}}</ref> In not seeking independence or secession, UWSA is unlike most of the ethnic armed organizations in Myanmar.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Ong |first=Andrew |url= |title=Stalemate: Autonomy and Insurgency on the China-Myanmar Border |date=2023 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-7071-5 |doi= |jstor=10.7591/j.ctv2t8b78b}}</ref>{{Rp|page=4}}

== History == On 17 April 1989, ethnic Wa soldiers,under the command of Wei Sai-tang, the 417th, 412th, and 418th Battalions seized control of Panghsang (Bang Kang). The operation resulted in the capture and expulsion of the chairman of the Communist Party of Burma and marked the end of the party’s rule in the region.<ref>{{Cite news |last=秦孙全耀 |title=秦爷：邓小平停止输出革命后在中国突然消失了的三个外国人 |url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/dc9Rhj0IaYLZowkIfvVuMQ |access-date=2026-02-04 |work=Weixin Official Accounts Platform}}</ref>The United Wa State Party was formed as a merger of the Burma National United Party and the non-communist Wa National Council in November 1989, following the CPB mutiny in spring of 1989.<ref name="usip"/>

The UWSA is supported by China, who gives the UWSA more support than to the Myanmar government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=112&regionSelect=7-Eastern_Asia#, |title=UCDP Conflict Encyclopedia, Myanmar (Burma) |access-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102193918/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=112&regionSelect=7-Eastern_Asia#, |archive-date=2 January 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Until 1996 the United Wa State Army was involved in a conflict against the Shan Mong Tai Army led by drug kingpin Khun Sa which suited the objectives of the Tatmadaw in the area. During this conflict the Wa army occupied areas close to the Thai border, ending up with the control of two separate swathes of territory north and south of Kengtung.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5430:wa-will-not-budge-from-thai-border-areas&catid=86:war&Itemid=284 |title=Wa will not budge from Thai border areas |author=S.H.A.N. |access-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204232130/http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5430:wa-will-not-budge-from-thai-border-areas&catid=86:war&Itemid=284 |archive-date=4 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> UWSA is one of the 17 armed ceased fire groups that attended long National Convention orchestrated by Myanmar military.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.burmanet.org/news/2007/11/30/mizzima-news-uwsa-defy-juntas-pressure-refuse-to-sign-pre-written-statement/ |title=Mizzima News: UWSA defy junta's pressure, refuse to sign pre-written statement |access-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206031417/http://www.burmanet.org/news/2007/11/30/mizzima-news-uwsa-defy-juntas-pressure-refuse-to-sign-pre-written-statement/ |archive-date=6 December 2014 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> In 1990s the Wa Women's Association established an orphanage in Pangkham for children's whose parents were killed in fighting between UWSA and Shan forces.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Ong |first1=Andrew |last2=Steinmüller |first2=Hans |date=2021 |title=Communities of care: Public donations, development assistance, and independent philanthropy in the Wa State of Myanmar |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0308275X20974099 |journal=Critique of Anthropology |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=65–87 |doi=10.1177/0308275X20974099 |issn=0308-275X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In August 2009, the United Wa State Army became involved in the Kokang incident, a violent conflict with Burma's military junta's Myanmar Armed Forces (Tatmadaw). This was the largest outbreak of fighting between ethnic armies and government troops since the signing of the cease-fire 20 years earlier.<ref name="WashingtonPost" /> Myanmar signed a peace deal with the UWSA in 2013 in the leadup to the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA).<ref name="bbc2013"/> However, the UWSA did not sign the NCA in 2015.

In April 2017, China helped the UWSA establish a seven-member alliance called the Federal Political Negotiation and Consultative Committee (FPNCC), after the demise of another alliance, the United Nationalities Federal Council, in the wake of the NCA. Today, the UWSA maintains close links with FPNCC partners like the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA), the Ta'ang Army and the Arakan Army. The MNDAA is a Kokang CPB splinter group and both the Ta'ang Army and the Arakan Army fought alongside the MNDAA in Kokang in 2015. These three groups, among others, receive Chinese weapons from the UWSA either as gifts or purchases.<ref name="usip"/>

The United Wa State Army also works with the ULFA-ATF, an Assam resistance group which launches attacks in India through mobile bases in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120531/jsp/frontpage/story_15552595.jsp#.T8ntG9kg3IU |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130203161413/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120531/jsp/frontpage/story_15552595.jsp%23.T8ntG9kg3IU |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 February 2013 |location=Calcutta, India |work=The Telegraph |first=Nishit |last=Dholabhai |title=June date for Ulfa dialogue |date=31 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurasiareview.com/19062012-india-ulfa-atf-insignificant-force-analysis/ |title=Giriraj Bhattacharjee, ULFA-ATF: Insignificant force? |work=Eurasia Review |date=19 June 2012 |access-date=29 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227104009/http://www.eurasiareview.com/19062012-india-ulfa-atf-insignificant-force-analysis/|archive-date=December 27, 2022}}</ref> In November 2023, the UWSA vowed to use force against armed incursions from both sides in the Myanmar civil war after Wa State was declared a neutral zone.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmars-wa-army-vows-neutrality-in-fight-between-regime-ethnic-alliance.html|title=Myanmar's Wa Army Vows Neutrality in Fight Between Regime, Ethnic Alliance|work=The Irrawaddy|date=November 1, 2023|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20231101205345/https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmars-wa-army-vows-neutrality-in-fight-between-regime-ethnic-alliance.html|archive-date=November 1, 2023}}</ref>

Tensions between the UWSA and Thailand increased in November 2024 over alleged encroachment on Thai border territory.<ref>[https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/tensions-high-on-myanmar-border-as-thai-troops-demand-uwsa-withdrawal.html Tensions High on Myanmar Border as Thai Troops Demand UWSA Withdrawal]. The Irrawaddy. November 26, 2024.</ref>

On 20 August 2025, the UWSA declared that they would no longer provide weapons or financial aid to the TNLA, MNDAA, and Shan State Army - North.<ref>[https://yktnews.com/2025/08/225474/ UWSA က ကိုးကန့် MNDAA ၊ တအာင်း TNLA ၊ ရှမ်း SSPPတို့ကို တွေ့ဆုံပြီး စစ်လက်နက်နှင့် ငွေကြေး အကူအညီမပေးတော့ဟု ပြောဆို၊ “၀” ပြည်နယ်က အလွန်ဆိုးရွားသော အခြေအနေများကို ရင်ဆိုင်နေရဟုဆို]. August 21, 2025. Khit Thit Media.</ref> Speculation arose that the UWSA's announcement, combined with Tatmadaw offenses in Shan State contributed to a rise of weapon prices for anti-junta guerrillas.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/burmese/burma-59054651ခဲယမ်းလိုအပ်ချက်ပြန်မြင့်လာတဲ့ အညာတော်လှန်ရေး]. August 31, 2025. BBC Burmese</ref>

== Leadership == [[File:Bao_Youxiang_UWSA_chief.jpg|thumb|Bao Youxiang, Commander-in-Chief of UWSA]]

The Burma National United Party (BNUP) and, later, the United Wa State Army (UWSA) was founded and led by Chao Ngi Lai, also spelt as Zhao Nyi-lai. After his stroke in 1995, Bao Youxiang, the military commander of the UWSA, took over leadership, while Chao remained the General-Secretary of the United Wa State Party (UWSP) until he died at the age of 70 in 2009.<ref name="usip"/> Ai Xiaoxue, as the founder of the Wa National Council (WNC), was also instrumental in the merger establishing the UWSA with the BNUP. He formed the WNC with Maha Hsang Wiang Ngeun, his brother-in-law, in 1984. His group was the nucleus of UWSA's 171 Military Region near the Thai border. He died at the age of 78 in Mandalay on 29 October 2011.<ref>[http://www.chiangraitimes.com/news/3659.html Chiangrai Times] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325095810/http://www.chiangraitimes.com/news/3659.html |date=25 March 2013 }}</ref> Today, Bao Youxiang remains the Commander-in-Chief, running the UWSA with his brothers Bao Youyi and Bao Youliang. Youyi, who became the deputy-general secretary of the UWSP in 2005,<ref>{{cite web |title=Jane's World Insurgency and Terrorism: United Wa State Army |url=http://articles.janes.com/articles/Janes-World-Insurgency-and-Terrorism/United-Wa-State-Army-UWSA-Myanmar.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113052239/https://articles.janes.com/articles/Janes-World-Insurgency-and-Terrorism/United-Wa-State-Army-UWSA-Myanmar.html|archive-date=January 13, 2013}}</ref> holds an important position in the army. Youliang manages the headquarters of the northern Wa hills in Möng Mao<ref name="usip"/>

The first Deputy Commander-in-Chief was Li Ziru, an ethnically Chinese former Red Guard volunteer. He remained with the CPB through the 1970s when many Chinese CPB members returned to China and eventually joined the UWSA serving until his death in 2005. It is plausible that Li and other ethnic Chinese remained in the CPB splinter groups because China wanted to maintain influence even after the mutiny of 1989.<ref name="usip"/> The group's Deputy Commander-in-Chief today is Zhao Zhongdang.<ref name="english.panglong.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4602:wa-leader-uwsa-able-to-defend-itself&catid=85:politics&Itemid=266 |title=Shan Herald – Wa leader: UWSA able to defend itself |author=S.H.A.N. |access-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508020834/http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4602:wa-leader-uwsa-able-to-defend-itself&catid=85:politics&Itemid=266 |archive-date=8 May 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2022, due to the advanced age of both Bao Youxiang and Zhao, Bao Youxiang's nephew Bao Ai Chan was promoted to be Deputy Commander-in-Chief alongside Zhao, who retains his position. The 2022 reshuffle will not largely change the administration and leadership of the UWSA, but signals a lesson learnt from the 1989 CPB leadership crises.<ref>{{cite news|title=Myanmar's Most Powerful Ethnic Army Reshuffles Leadership: What Does it Mean? |url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmars-most-powerful-ethnic-army-reshuffles-leadership-what-does-it-mean.html |work=The Irrawaddy |date=2022-08-31 |access-date=2022-09-11 |language=en}}</ref>

The foreign affairs spokesperson role that Li Ziru played has been taken over by Zhao Guoan, another ethnically Chinese veteran. He took part in the Union Peace Conference – 21st Century Panglong peace talks in 2017 and 2018. Although he is from Yunnan, he was the only delegate comfortable speaking Burmese among the ethnic armies.<ref name="usip"/>

In October 2023, Deputy Commander-in-Chief Bao Ai Chan was arrested while in China, in a string of arrests and extraditions relating to over 1,000 Chinese citizens involved in cyber scams in connection with Wa State. The UWSA has reportedly appointed a successor but does not comment on the arrest.<ref>{{cite news |title= China's Crackdown on Cyber Scams in Myanmar Nets UWSA Deputy Chief |url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/chinas-crackdown-on-cyber-scams-in-myanmar-nets-uswa-deputy-chief.html |work=The Irrawaddy |date=19 October 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

== Territory == [[File:Wa state.png|thumb|260px|Areas under the control of the UWSA in 2015. The southern sector is not part of the traditional Wa territory but granted in 1989 by the then Burmese government for UWSA's cooperation in the war against Khun Sa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper68/6304/621943.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227120815/http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper68/6304/621943.html |archive-date=27 February 2019 |title="金三角"毒王 让缅、泰差点打起来}}</ref>]]

The towns of Pangkham and Mong Pawk are within the area of this special region.<ref name="pac" /> The UWSA negotiated a cease-fire agreement with the Burmese military in the 1990s, and currently backs a counterinsurgency strategy of the Myanmar Army against the Shan State Army (RCSS) (RCSS/SSA).<ref name="lw" /> The UWSA defied the military regime's recent demand to disarm and participate in the 2010 elections, and instead proposed to declare the territory under their control as a special autonomous region.<ref>{{Cite web |url = http://www2.irrawaddy.org/highlight.php?art_id=14874 |author=Lawi Weng |title = UWSP Proposes Wa Autonomous Region |publisher=The Irrawaddy magazine, 5 January 2009 |access-date=5 January 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111164539/http://www2.irrawaddy.com/highlight.php?art_id=14874|archive-date=January 11, 2016}}</ref>

According to 2008 constitution, six townships are designated as the Wa Self-Administered Division. Those are Mongmao, Pangwaun, Namphan, Pangkham (Pangsang), Hopang and Matman Township. Although Mong Pawk is not part of it, but part of Mong Yang Township, the UWSA was strongly against to give away that area from its control because it serves as a link with its ally, the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA) in Mongla. Hopang and Matman are not under UWSA control.<ref name="english.panglong.org"/> UWSA announced its territory as Wa State Government Special Administrative Region in January 2009.<ref>[http://www.mizzima.com/news/inside-burma/7521-powerful-wa-army-considers-becoming-peoples-militia-force.html Mizzima] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713114655/http://www.mizzima.com/news/inside-burma/7521-powerful-wa-army-considers-becoming-peoples-militia-force.html |date=13 July 2012}}</ref>

== Business operations == The cease-fire agreement allowed the United Wa State Army to freely expand their logistical operations with the Burmese military, including the trafficking of drugs to neighbouring Thailand and Laos.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/02/as-burma-reforms-its-narcotics-trade-might-be-worsening/253279/ |title=As Burma Reforms, Its Narcotics Trade Might Be Worsening |date=18 February 2012 |work=The Atlantic |access-date=19 February 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321091508/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/02/as-burma-reforms-its-narcotics-trade-might-be-worsening/253279/|archive-date=March 21, 2023}}</ref> The Wa have used revenue generated from the sale of drugs to finance political and economic goals, like weapons and hospitals.<ref name="lintner"/>

=== Illicit business === Using commercial concessions granted through favorable relations with General Khin Nyut, the UWSA operated illicit enterprises in the 1990s via affiliated businesspeople and enterprises.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=20}}

==== Drug trafficking ==== In August 1990, government officials began drafting a plan to end drug production and trafficking in Wa State.<ref name="fenghuang">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20211203005605/https://news.ifeng.com/mainland/200706/0626_17_142585_2.shtml A Reporter's Personal Experience with the Wa State in the Golden Triangle: A Formidable Army Propped up with Drugs. Sun Xiaoyun; Edited by Huo Jihe. June 26, 2007]}}</ref> According to an interview with Wa officials in 1994, Bao Youyi (Tax Kuad Rang; also known as Bao Youyu) became wanted by the Chinese police for his involvement in drug trafficking. As a result, Bao Youxiang and Zhao Nyi-Lai went to Cangyuan Va Autonomous County of China and signed the Cangyuan Agreement with local officials, which stated that, "No drugs will go into the international society (from Wa State); no drugs will go into China (from Wa State); no drugs will go into Burmese government-controlled areas (from Wa State)."<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190227060327/http://digest.creaders.net/articleViewer.php?atid=203629&id=203629 ''China's dangerous neighbor'']}} Phoenix Weekly 2003</ref> However, the agreement did not mention whether or not Wa State could sell drugs to insurgent groups.

In 1997, the United Wa State Party officially proclaimed that Wa State would be drug-free by the end of 2005.<ref name="fenghuang"/> With the help of the United Nations and the Chinese government, many opium farmers in Wa State shifted to the production of rubber and tea. However, some poppy farmers continued to cultivate the flower outside of Wa State.<ref name='TNI'>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20220901055616/https://www.tni.org/files/download/brief33.pdf China’s Opium Substitution Policy in Burma and Laos – TransNational Institute]}}</ref>

The United States government Drug Enforcement Administration labelled the UWSA as a narcotic trafficking organisation on 29 May 2003. On 3 November 2005, The Department of the Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control listed 11 individuals and 16 companies that were "part of the financial and commercial network of designated significant foreign narcotics trafficker Wei Hsueh-kang and the United Wa State Army (UWSA)." The UWSA is said to be the largest drug-producing organisation in Southeast Asia. The UWSP on its part blamed both the Ne Win military government and the CPB for using the Wa as "pawns in the violent destructive games" and encouraging them to grow the opium poppy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/BONDAGE.htm |title=UWSP:The Bondage of Opium – a proposal and a plea |website=ibiblio.org |access-date=29 October 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710073734/http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/BONDAGE.htm|archive-date=July 10, 2014}}</ref>

The opium poppy harvest had increased since the former drug baron and warlord Lo Hsing Han managed to rebuild his drug empire after he became the intermediary for cease-fire agreements between the military intelligence chief Khin Nyunt and the Kokang and Wa insurgents who had rebelled against and toppled the Communist leadership in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web |url = http://www.asiapacificms.com/papers/pdf/gt_opium_trade.pdf|author=Bertil Lintner|author-link=Bertil Lintner|title = The Golden Triangle Opium Trade: An Overview |publisher = Asia Pacific Media Services, March 2000 |access-date=5 January 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230194316/http://www.asiapacificms.com/papers/pdf/gt_opium_trade.pdf|archive-date=December 30, 2022}}</ref> In addition to the traditional Golden Triangle export of opiates, production has diversified to methamphetamine, or ''yaa baa'', which is cheaper and easier to manufacture than heroin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.geopium.org/yaabaa-methamphetamine-production-traffic-consumption.htm |last1=Chouvy |first1=Pierre-Arnaud |last2=Meissonnier |first2=Joël |name-list-style=amp |title=Yaa Baa. Production, traffic, and consumption of methamphetamine in Mainland Southeast Asia |publisher=Singapore University Press |date=2004 |access-date=13 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922162713/http://geopium.org/yaabaa-methamphetamine-production-traffic-consumption.htm |archive-date=22 September 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/security/law_enforcement/news/jir/jir041119_1_n.shtml |first=Anthony |last=Davis |title=Thai drugs smuggling networks reform |publisher=Jane's Information Group |date=19 November 2004 |access-date=5 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308072952/http://www.janes.com/security/law_enforcement/news/jir/jir041119_1_n.shtml |archive-date=8 March 2005}}</ref> Thai authorities have denounced methamphetamine production, trafficking, and consumption as a threat to national security. It denied involvement in the Mekong incident of 5 November 2011.{{explain|date=April 2021}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shanland.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4125:ndaa-and-uwsa-deny-involvement-in-mekong-incident&catid=89:drugs&Itemid=286|title=Shanland – NDAA and UWSA deny involvement in Mekong incident |author=S.H.A.N. |access-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204151122/http://www.shanland.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4125:ndaa-and-uwsa-deny-involvement-in-mekong-incident&catid=89:drugs&Itemid=286 |archive-date=4 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Poppy cultivation has declined in both northern Laos and the Wa region partly as a result of a ban imposed by the UWSP in 2005.<ref name=TK>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=14533&page=1 |first=Tom |last=Kramer |title=Burmese Daze |publisher=The Irrawaddy magazine |date=November 2008 |access-date=2 January 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915083216/https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=14533&page=1|archive-date=September 15, 2022}}</ref> In 1999, Bao Youxiang ordered a forced relocation, away from the poppy fields, of six northern Wa districts south to mainly Shan and Lahu areas.<ref name="TIME">{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/1101021216/story4.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021210000900/http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/1101021216/story4.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 December 2002 |first1=Andrew |last1=Marshall |first2=Anthony |last2=Davis |date=16 December 2002 |title=Soldiers of Fortune |publisher=TIME asia |access-date=21 February 2009}}</ref> The World Food Programme (WFP) and China also provided emergency food assistance to former poppy farmers. Chinese criminal organisations in the area however may have simply switched the production line from heroin to amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) such as ''yaa baa''.<ref name="TK" />

=== Mining operations === Chinese companies with close links to the UWSA have unregulated mining operations in UWSA-controlled territory, which has caused significant toxic pollution in Thailand's rivers, including the tributaries of the Mekong, representing Thailand's "largest-ever case of transboundary pollution."<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2025-06-11 |title=Toxic Thailand rivers pinned on Myanmar mines |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250611-toxic-thailand-rivers-pinned-on-myanmar-mines |access-date=2025-06-12 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref> Arsenic levels in water tests conducted in Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai have detected arsenic levels five times higher than international drinking water standards.<ref name=":2" />

=== Other operations === Wei Hsueh-kang founded the Hong Pang Group in 1998 with revenues from the drug trade after taking advantage of the privileges offered in the cease-fire deal by Khin Nyunt. Its position in the country's economy, not just the Wa State, is reflected by the multitude of businesses it owns and controls in construction, agriculture, gems and minerals, petroleum, electronics and communications, distilleries and department stores. Hong Pang Group is based at Pangkham with offices also in Yangon, Mandalay, Lashio, Tachilek and Mawlamyine<ref>{{cite news |url = http://www.bangkokpost.com/060708_Perspective/06Jul2008_pers11.php |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081201125249/http://www.bangkokpost.com/060708_Perspective/06Jul2008_pers11.php |url-status = dead |archive-date = 1 December 2008 |title = The Hong Pang Group|newspaper=Bangkok Post |date = 6 July 2008 |access-date = 20 February 2009}}</ref> and minor bases in Sankang and Khailong.<ref>[http://www.atria.nl/epublications/2002/LicenceToRape/SBII.pdf Rangoon’s “War on Drugs” in Shan State] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630112307/http://www.atria.nl/epublications/2002/LicenceToRape/SBII.pdf |date=30 June 2016 }}</ref> UWSA also operated its own bank in the past.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.monitor.net/monitor/9909a/copyright/thaimeth.html |title = Thailand Blames Burma Junta for Meth Epidemic |access-date = 29 November 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140913060531/http://www.monitor.net/monitor/9909a/copyright/thaimeth.html |archive-date = 13 September 2014 |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>[http://nationalstrategy.com/Portals/0/documents/Summer%202011%20NSFR/The%20Wa%20State.pdf National Strategy Page 3] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111164539/http://nationalstrategy.com/Portals/0/documents/Summer%202011%20NSFR/The%20Wa%20State.pdf |date=11 January 2016 }}</ref>

Ho Chun Ting (also known as Aik Haw and Hsiao Haw), the son-in-law of Bao Youxiang, is the principal owner and managing director of Yangon Airways and chairman of Tetkham Co Ltd that runs a chain of hotels. Close to Khin Nyunt and several other generals in the junta, he was also involved in gems auctions and several large construction projects with the Yangon City Development Council. He was reported to have fled to Pangkham following the arrest of his known associates in a drug-related offence in January 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=15139 |author=Min Lwin |title=Wa Businessman Flees Drug Charges |publisher=The Irrawaddy, 18 February 2009 |access-date=20 February 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528153448/https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=15139|archive-date=May 28, 2022}}</ref> Aik Haw was included in the Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List published by the US Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control on 25 November 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/financial/2008/fil08133.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118100903/http://www.fdic.gov/news/news/financial/2008/fil08133.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 January 2009 |title=Financial Institution Letter |publisher=Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) |date=25 November 2008 |access-date=20 February 2009}}</ref>

Despite publicly declaring neutrality, the UWSA allegedly supplies weapons (with the exception of MANPADS) to anti-Junta groups such as the Three Brotherhood Alliance.<ref>{{cite web|author=Bertil Lintner|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/guest-column/has-china-lost-control-of-ethnic-armies-in-myanmars-war-torn-borderland.html|title=Has China Lost Control of Ethnic Armies in Myanmar's War-Torn Borderland?|date=November 6, 2023|publisher=The Irrawaddy|quote=The UWSA has not passed on the most sophisticated of its supplies from China, such as surface-to-air missiles, but the Brotherhood Alliance apparently had enough guns and ammunition to be able to carry out their series of attacks, which seem to have been astonishingly successful.|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107203844/https://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/guest-column/has-china-lost-control-of-ethnic-armies-in-myanmars-war-torn-borderland.html|archive-date=November 7, 2023}}</ref>

== Relationship with China == UWSA has benefited from long-standing political and military ties to China, and has a close relationship with China's security agencies. Most significantly, this provides China leverage inside Burma allowing it to push other issues like the Sino-Myanmar pipelines. Beijing's official delegate is only one layer of its approach to diplomacy with not just the central government but also the various ethnic armies along the China–Myanmar border.<ref name="usip"/> China's involvement in the UWSA's peace process aims to create stability for its multiple large infrastructure investments<ref>{{cite news |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/11/17/china-myanmar-military-regime-recognition-investment/ |title=China Warms Up to Myanmar's Generals |last=Liu |first=John |work=Foreign Policy |date=2021-11-17 |language=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321182437/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/11/17/china-myanmar-military-regime-recognition-investment/|archive-date=March 21, 2023}}</ref> and keep its natural resource trade across the border protected.<ref name="lintner"/>

The Chinese government uses former CPB forces like UWSA as proxies within Burma, and works to ensure the drugs they produce are not smuggled into China. Wa State has benefited from substantial Chinese tourism, turning Mong La into a Chinese tourist hub.<ref name="usip"/> China also helped the UWSA establish themselves as the de facto leaders of the FPNCC. The Chinese also supply military hardware, arms, and training to the UWSA.<ref name="Asia Times"/>

== Deployment == The United Wa State Army (UWSA) has five "divisions" deployed along the Thai-Burma border: # 778th Division commanded by Ta Marn # 772nd Division commanded by Ta Hsong # 775th Division commanded by Yang Guojong # 248th Division commanded by Ta Hsang # 518th Division commanded by Li Hsarm-nab

On the China-Burma border are stationed another three "divisions": # 318th Division # 418th Division # 468th Division<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.shanland.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2610:transfer-of-wa-commander-raises-questions&catid=85:politics&Itemid=266 |title=Transfer of Wa commander raises questions |publisher=S.H.A.N. |date=9 June 2009 |access-date=12 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809035348/http://www.shanland.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2610:transfer-of-wa-commander-raises-questions&catid=85:politics&Itemid=266 |archive-date=9 August 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The United Wa State Army has 30,000 active service men with a 10,000 strong auxiliary force.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=22013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220528153449/https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=22013|url-status = dead|archive-date = 2022-05-28|title=WikiLeaks Cables Show China's Support for UWSA|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> It is one of the largest cease fire groups. Monthly salary is only 60 CNY (US$7.5).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4898:united-wa-state-army-uwsa-payroll-still-going-communist-way&catid=93:general&Itemid=291|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043704/http://www.english.panglong.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4898:united-wa-state-army-uwsa-payroll-still-going-communist-way&catid=93:general&Itemid=291|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-03-04|title=United Wa State Army (UWSA) payroll still going Communist way |author=S.H.A.N. |access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> UWSA had clashes with the Thai Army in Mar–May 2002.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationmultimedia.com/opinion/Talk-of-reopened-border-stirs-bad-memories-for-arm-30189119.html |title=Talk of reopened border stirs bad memories for army |date=27 August 2012 |work=The Nation |access-date=29 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205173054/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/opinion/Talk-of-reopened-border-stirs-bad-memories-for-arm-30189119.html|archive-date=December 5, 2014}}</ref>

=== Arms supply === According to ''Jane's Intelligence Review'' in April 2008, China has become the main source of arms to the United Wa State Army, displacing traditional black market sources in South East Asia such as Thailand and Cambodia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/china-emerging-as-main-source-of-arms-to-n-e-rebels-janes-review/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130193953/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/china-emerging-as-main-source-of-arms-to-n-e-rebels-janes-review/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2023-01-30|last=Pubby |first=Manu |title=China emerging as main source of arms to N-E rebels: Jane's Review |work=Indianexpress |date=22 May 2008 |access-date=8 June 2008}}</ref> Arms transfers to the UWSA from China are directed from the highest level in Beijing.<ref name="lintner">{{cite book |last=Lintner |first=Bertil |author-link=Bertil Lintner |title=The Wa of Myanmar and China's Quest for Global Dominance |date=March 2021 |location=Chiang Mai |publisher=Silkworm Books |isbn=9786162151705}}</ref>

Jane's reported in 2001 that the UWSA had acquired HN-5N surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) from China as part of the build-up near the Thai border where they were reported to be operating 40–50 laboratories manufacturing ''yaa baa''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/jdw/jdw010328_2_n.shtml |first=Anthony |last=Davis |title=Myanmar heat turned up with SAMs from China |publisher=Jane's Information Group |date=28 March 2001 |access-date=5 March 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> In November 2014, Janes further reported that the UWSA have acquired the FN-6 Surface-to-air missile to supplant the HN-5N in service,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/45910/uwsa-fielding-chinese-fn-6-manpads |first=Anthony |last=Davis |title=UWSA fielding Chinese FN-6 MANPADS |publisher=Jane's Information Group |date=18 November 2014 |access-date=23 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101003408/https://www.janes.com/article/45910/uwsa-fielding-chinese-fn-6-manpads|archive-date=January 1, 2015}}</ref> which was promptly denied by the UWSA.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/burma/united-wa-state-army-denies-anti-aircraft-purchase.html |title=United Wa State Army Denies Anti-Aircraft Purchase |publisher=The Irrawaddy |date=20 November 2014 |access-date=23 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525192626/https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/united-wa-state-army-denies-anti-aircraft-purchase.html|archive-date=May 25, 2022}}</ref> It is also the middleman between Chinese arms manufacturers and other insurgent groups in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asiancorrespondent.com/93164/can-burma-influence-wa-army-to-abide-by-its-constitution/ |title=Can Burma Influence Wa Army to Abide by its Constitution?|access-date=29 November 2014|publisher=Asian Correspondent|last=Linn|first=Zin|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913060021/http://asiancorrespondent.com/93164/can-burma-influence-wa-army-to-abide-by-its-constitution/|archive-date=September 13, 2014|date=December 7, 2012}}</ref> By 2012, Chinese support had increased to the point of supplying armoured vehicles such as the 6&nbsp;×&nbsp;6 PTL-02 assault gun being sighted in Pangkham.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2013/01/mil-130125-voa05.htm |title=With Burma in Mind, China Quietly Supports Wa Rebels. |first2=John |last2=Pike |access-date=29 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915083212/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2013/01/mil-130125-voa05.htm|archive-date=September 15, 2022|website=Global Security|publisher=Voice of America|date=January 25, 2013|first1=Daniel|last1=Schearf}}</ref>

On 29 April 2013, Janes IHS reported that several Mil Mi-17 helicopters armed with TY-90 air-to-air missiles were supplied to UWSA by China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/12159/china-sends-armed-helicopters-to-myanmar-separatists |title=China 'sends armed helicopters to Myanmar separatists' – IHS Jane's 360 |website=www.janes.com |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425180018/http://www.janes.com/article/12159/china-sends-armed-helicopters-to-myanmar-separatists |archive-date=25 April 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The allegations were dismissed by China, Thai military sources, other Myanmar ethnic sources and the UWSA themselves.<ref>{{cite news |title=After Chinese Arms Allegations, UWSA Shows Off 'Thai' Military Hardware |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/archives/34538 |access-date=14 May 2013 |newspaper=The Irrawaddy |date=14 May 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220919141542/https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/after-chinese-arms-allegations-uwsa-shows-off-thai-military-hardware.html|archive-date=September 19, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Doubts cast on Wa helicopter rumors |url=http://www.mizzima.com/news/ethnic-issues/9562-doubts-cast-on-wa-helicopter-rumors |access-date=20 June 2013 |newspaper=Mizzima News |date=20 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620101019/http://mizzima.com/news/ethnic-issues/9562-doubts-cast-on-wa-helicopter-rumors |archive-date=20 June 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015 IHS Jane's reported that UWSA members had been photographed training with Chinese Type 96 122&nbsp;mm howitzers and HJ-8 ATGMs.<ref name="JanesDefence">{{cite magazine|last1=Davis|first1=Anthony|title=Wa army fielding new Chinese artillery, ATGMs|url=http://www.janes.com/article/53155/wa-army-fielding-new-chinese-artillery-atgms|magazine=IHS Jane's Defence Weekly|access-date=23 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150816230127/http://www.janes.com/article/53155/wa-army-fielding-new-chinese-artillery-atgms|archive-date=2015-08-16}}</ref>

A ''Jane'''s report in December 2008 stated that the UWSA had turned to arms production to supplement their income from arms and drug trafficking, and started a small arms production line for AK-47s.<ref name="lw">{{cite magazine |url=http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=14804|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605223313/http://www2.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=14804|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-06-05|author=Lawi Weng |title=AK-47s – Made in Wa State |magazine=The Irrawaddy |date=16 December 2008 |access-date=22 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=14829|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915083216/https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=14829|url-status=dead|archive-date=2022-09-15|author=Lawi Weng |title=Armed Insurgents in Burma Face Shortage of Ammunition |publisher=The Irrawaddy 22 December 2008 |access-date=22 December 2008}}</ref>

=== Conscription policies === The UWSA requires that at least one male in each household serve in either the UWSA or Wa State administration.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=180}} Larger families are obligated to provide two males for the army or administration.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=180}}

== Gallery == {{Gallery | title = UWSP/UWSA | width = 160 | height = 170 | align = center | File:UWSA female soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies.jpg | alt2 = UWSA female soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies | UWSA female soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies | File:UWSA soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies.jpg | alt3 = UWSA soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies | UWSA soldiers stand at attention during ceremonies }}

== References == === Citations === {{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources === * "U.S. Links 11 Individuals, 16 Companies to Burma Drug Syndicate." Distributed by the Bureau of International Information Programs, US Department of State. 4 November 2005. * Jack Picone. "A Gentler War on Drugs." Utne, September–October 2005, pp.&nbsp;68–71; originally in [http://www.colorsmagazine.com/ Colors] magazine (Winter 2004–05)

{{Insurgent groups in Myanmar}}

Category:Communism in Myanmar Category:Military wings of communist parties Category:Wa people Category:Ethnic armed organisations in Myanmar Category:1989 establishments in Myanmar Wa Category:Organized crime groups in Myanmar