{{short description|King of Malwa from 1010 to 1055}} {{About|the 11th century Paramara king|other kings with similar names|Bhoja (disambiguation)}} {{protection padlock|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=August 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}} {{Infobox royalty | image = Statue of Raja Bhoja 01.jpg | alt = | caption = Statue of Raja Bhoja in [[Bhopal]] | title = Parama-bhattaraka<br>Maharajadhiraja<br>Parameshvara | succession = [[King of Malwa]] | reign = 1010–1055 | dynasty = [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] | predecessor = [[Sindhuraja]] | successor = [[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayasimha I]] | birth_date = | birth_place = | death_date = 1055 | death_place = | spouse = {{Plain list| *Queen Lilavati *Padmavati * [[#Personal life|and others…]] }} | issue = Probably [[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayasimha I]] | regnal name = śri-Bhōja-deva | father = [[Sindhuraja]] | mother = Savitri (according to ''Bhoja-Prabandha'') | religion = [[Hinduism]] ([[Shaiva Siddhanta]]) | signature = File:Bhoja's royal sign-manual.png | signature_type = [[Royal sign-manual]] }} {{Infobox military person | battles = [[Military career of Bhoja]] }} '''Bhoja''' ({{r.c.}} 1010–1055 CE), popularly known as '''Raja Bhoj''' and '''Bhoj Parmar''', was the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] king of [[Malwa]] region in central India. He ruled from [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]] (modern Dhar), and [[Military career of Bhoja|fought wars]] with nearly all his neighbours in attempts to extend his kingdom, with varying degrees of success. He was defeated by [[Vidyadhara (Chandela ruler)|Vidyadhara Varman]] and accepted the supremacy of the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]]. At its zenith, his empire extended from [[Chittorgarh Fort|Chittor]] in the north to upper [[Konkan]] in the south, and from the [[Sabarmati River]] in the west to [[Vidisha]] in the east.
Bhoja was the one of the most celebrated kings in Indian history for his patronage of scholars. After his death, his legacy was featured in several legends as a righteous scholar-king. The body of legends clustered around him is comparable to that of the Emperor [[Vikramaditya]].
He is best known as a patron of arts, literature, and sciences. The establishment of the [[Bhoj Shala]], a centre for [[Sanskrit]] studies, is attributed to him. He was a [[polymath]], and several books covering a wide range of topics are attributed to him. He is also said to have constructed a large number of [[Shiva]] temples, although [[Bhojeshwar Temple]] in [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]] (a city founded by him) is the only surviving temple that can be ascribed to him with certainty.
== Early life == Bhoja's father and predecessor was [[Sindhuraja]]. According to ''Bhoja-Prabandha'', his mother's name was Savitri.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=22}} Bhoja's reputation as a scholar-king suggests that he was well-educated as a child. The ''Bhoja-Prabandha'' states that he was educated by his guardians as well as other learned scholars.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=23–24}}
According to ''Bhoja-Prabandha'', early in his life, Bhoja suffered from intense headaches. Two [[Brahmin]] surgeons from [[Ujjain]] made him unconscious using an [[anaesthetic]] powder called ''moha-churna'', opened his [[cranial bone]], removed a tumor, and then made him regain his consciousness by administering another powder called ''sanjivani''.{{sfn|Rudolf Hoernlé|1907|p=xvii}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Ramamurthi |title=Textbooks of Operative Neurosurgery (2 Vol.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-OD2LP4sTwC |year=2005 |publisher=BI |isbn=978-81-7225-217-5 |page=4 }}</ref>
=== Legend of persecution by Munja ===
According to ''Tilaka-Manjari'', composed by Bhoja's contemporary Dhanapala, Bhoja's feet had auspicious birthmarks indicating that he was fit to be a king.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=38}} His uncle [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]] (and his father's predecessor) loved him greatly, and appointed him as the king.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=16}}
[[File:Paramaras of Vidarbha. Bhojadeva. Circa 1000-1055 CE.jpg|thumb|Coinage of King Bhoja. Paramaras of Vidarbha.]] However, several later legendary accounts state that Munja was initially jealous of Bhoja, and tried to prevent him from becoming a king. For example, the 14th century ''[[Prabandha-Chintamani]]'' states that during the reign of Munja, an astrologer prophesied Bhoja's long reign. Munja, who wanted his own son to become the king, ordered Bhoja's killing.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=24}} Bhoja was appointed as the king by the royal ministers after Munja's death.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=38}} According to a Gujarati legend documented in [[Alexander Kinloch Forbes|Rasmala]], Munja ordered Bhoja's murder, but later appointed him as the crown prince.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=16}}
''Bhoja-Prabandha'' states that Munja ordered one Vatsaraja to kill Bhoja at the Mahamaya temple in Bhuvaneshvari forest. On hearing Bhoja's cultured manner of talking, Vatsaraja and his men abandoned the murder plan. They faked Bhoja's death, and presented to Munja a fake head and a verse from Bhoja. The verse described how great kings like [[King Mandhata|Mandhata]], [[Rama]] and [[Yudhishthira]] died leaving behind all their property; it then sarcastically added that Munja would be the only one whom the earthly possessions would follow. The verse moved Munja to tears, and made him realize his mistake. When he learned that Bhoja was still alive, he invited Bhoja to back to his court. To repent for his sin, he also went on a pilgrimage to Dharmaranya, where he established a town called Munjapuram.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=24–25}} The sarcastic verse, purportedly written by Bhoja to Munja, also appears as an antonymous extract in ''[[Sharngadhara-paddhati]]'' (1363 CE).{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=25–26}}
These stories of Bhoja's persecution by Munja are essentially mythical. This legend is not found in the works composed by the contemporaries of Munja, Sindhuraja and Bhoja. For example, the ''[[Nava-sahasanka-charita]]'' makes no mention of this story. The legend appears to be the poetic imagination of later composers.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=26-27}} ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' also contains a variation of this account, but completely distorts the legend, naming Munja as the one who was persecuted by Bhoja. This account is also completely unreliable from a historical point of view.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=26}}
== Anointment ==
Some literary works suggest that Bhoja succeeded his uncle [[Vakpati Munja|Munja]] as the Paramara king. These works include ''Tilaka-Manjari'', ''Prabandha-Chintamani'', and ''Rasmala''. However, several other works as well as epigraphic evidence indicate that Bhoja succeeded his father [[Sindhuraja]]. Padmagupta, the court poet of Sindhuraja and Bhoja, also supports this fact. According to ''Bhoja-Prabandha'', Munja left the Paramara administration in hands of Sindhuraja before departing on a military expedition. Munja unexpectedly died in this campaign, and as a result, Sindhuraja succeeded him as the king.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=16–17}} Sindhuraja's court poet Padmagupta, in his ''Nava-Sahasanka-Charita'', states that Munja "placed the world in Sindhuraja's hands" before leaving for Ambika's town. This indicates that he left the administration in Sindhuraja's hands before leaving for his fatal expedition against [[Tailapa II]].{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=27–28}} ''Udaipur Prashasti'' inscription seems to confirm this.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=38}}
=== Period of reign ===
The [[Inscriptions of Bhoja#1011 CE Modasa copper-plates|Modasa copper plates]] (1010–11 CE) are the earliest historical record of Bhoja's reign.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|pp=71–72}} The ''Chintamani-Sarnika'' (1055 CE) was composed by Bhoja's court poet Dasabala.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|pp=71–72}} An inscription of Bhoja's successor Jayasimha I is also dated 1055 CE. Thus, 1055 CE can be taken as the last year of Bhoja's reign.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=21}} Based on these evidences, scholars such as Pratipal Bhatia assign Bhoja's reign to 1010–1055 CE.{{sfn|K. C. Jain|1972|p=341}}
However, some scholars assign the beginning of Bhoja's reign variously between 1000 CE and 1010 CE, based on their interpretations of inscriptions and legendary texts.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=30–33}} For example, Merutunga's ''[[Prabandha-Chintamani]]'' states that Bhoja ruled for 55 years, 7 months and 3 days.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=21}} Based on this, scholars such as D. C. Ganguly and K. C. Jain assign Bhoja's reign to 1000–1055 CE.{{sfn|K. C. Jain|1972|p=341}} However, as [[K. M. Munshi]] states, dates are "the weakest point in Merutunga's narratives".{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=30}} [[A. K. Warder]], who dismisses Merutunga as "completely unreliable" and his narratives as "essentially fiction", believes there is no evidence that Bhoja's reign began much earlier than 1010 CE.{{sfn|A. K. Warder|1992|p=151}}
=== Names and titles ===
In the Paramara inscriptions, Bhoja is mentioned as ''Bhoja-[[deva (Hinduism)|deva]]''. In some modern north Indian languages such as [[Hindi]], he is also known as "Bhoj" (because of [[schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages|schwa deletion]]). Bhoja's inscriptions mention his titles as ''Parama-bhattaraka'', ''[[Maharajadhiraja]]'' and ''Parameshvara''.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=33}} ''Ganaratna Mahodadhi'' (1140 CE), a work on grammar by Vardhamana, suggests that "Tribhuvan Narayana" or "Triloka Narayana" ("Lord of the three [[loka|worlds]]") was also a title of Bhoja. This is corroborated by epigraphic evidence: the [[Samadhishvara Temple, Chittorgarh#History|Shiva temple ascribed to Bhoja]] in the Chittor fort has an idol which was named "Bhojasvamindeva" as well as "Tribhuvan Narayanadeva".{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=129}}
==Military career==
{{main|Military career of Bhoja}}
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While Bhoja became famous as a benevolent king and a patron of arts and culture, he was also renowned as a warrior.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=129}} He inherited a kingdom centered around the [[Malwa]] region, and made several attempts to expand it with varying results. The ''Udaipur [[Prashasti]]'' inscription of Bhoja's brother compares Bhoja to the legendary king [[Prithu]], and states that he "ruled the earth from [[Mount Kailash|Kailasha]] to [[Malaya Mountains|Malaya hills]] and up to the mountains of the setting and the rising sun".{{sfn|Arvind K. Singh|2012|p=19}} This is an obvious exaggeration:{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=37}} historical evidence indicates that Bhoja's empire extended from [[Chittorgarh Fort|Chittor]] in the north to upper [[Konkan]] in the south, and from the [[Sabarmati River]] in the west to [[Vidisha]] in the east.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=62}}
Several legends mention conflicts between the ruler of Malwa and the [[Chaulukya dynasty|Chaulukyas]], during the reign of the Chaulukya kings [[Vallabharaja|Vallabha-raja]] and [[Durlabharaja (Chaulukya dynasty)|Durlabha-raja]]. Vallabha is said to have died of smallpox during an expedition against the Paramaras. This incident may have happened during the early part of Bhoja's reign, or during the reign of his father [[Sindhuraja]].{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=130–132}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=38–40}} Vallabha's successor Durlabha is said to have repulsed an attack by a confederacy that included the ruler of Malwa, but modern historians doubt the authenticity of this legend.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=41}}
Bhoja's first military aggression appears to be his invasion of the [[Lata (region)|Lata region]] (in present-day [[Gujarat]]), around 1018 CE. Bhoja subjugated the [[Chalukyas of Lata]], whose ruler Kirtiraja may have served as his feudatory for a brief period.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=137}}{{sfn|S. N. Sen|1999|p=320}} Bhoja's invasion of Lata brought him close to the [[Shilahara]] kingdom of northern [[Konkana kingdom|Konkana]], which was located to the south of Lata.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=136}} Bhoja invaded and captured Konkana sometime between 1018 and 1020 CE, during the reign of the Shilahara king [[Arikesarin|Arikesari]].{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=139}} He celebrated this victory in a big way by making generous donations to [[Brahmin]]s. His 1020 CE inscription states that he organized a ''Konkana-Grahana Vijaya Parva'' ("Konkan Victory Festival").{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=140–141}} The Shilaharas probably continued to administer Konkana as Bhoja's vassals.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=46}} By the end of his reign, Bhoja had lost this territory to the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani]].{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=141–144}}
Sometime before 1019 CE, Bhoja formed an alliance against the Chalukyas of Kalyani with [[Rajendra Chola]] and [[Gangeyadeva]] [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]]. At this time, [[Jayasimha II (Western Chalukya dynasty)|Jayasimha II]] was the Chalukya king.{{sfn|M. C. Choubey|2006|p=63}} The triple alliance engaged the Chalukyas at their northern and southern frontiers simultaneously.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=144–145}} The extent of Bhoja's success in this campaign is not certain, as both Chalukya and Paramara [[panegyric]]s claimed victory.{{sfn|Saikat K. Bose|2015|p=27}} Historian D. C. Ganguly believes that Bhoja achieved some early victories against the Chalukyas, but was ultimately defeated. Others, including D. B. Diskalkar and [[Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|H. C. Ray]], believe that Bhoja was defeated by Jayasimha after some early successes, but ultimately emerged victorious against the Chalukyas after 1028 CE. According to [[Georg Bühler]], the struggle probably ended with some advantage for Bhoja, which might have been exaggerated into a great victory by the Paramara poets.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=50}}
The ''Udaipur Prashasti'' states that Bhoja defeated a ruler named Indraratha. Modern historians identify this king with Indranatha, the [[Somavaṃśī dynasty|Somavamshi]] king of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]. This king was defeated by [[Rajendra Chola]]: Bhoja may have played a secondary role in the Chola campaign as part of an alliance.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=167–168}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=56–57}}
The [[Ghaznavids]], a Muslim dynasty of [[Turkic people|Turkic]] origin, invaded north-western India in the 11th century, led by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]]. The ''Udaipur Prashasti'' claims that Bhoja's mercenaries defeated the Turushkas (Turkic people).{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=155–156}} There are some legendary accounts of Bhoja's military successes against the foreign invaders identified with the Ghaznavids. However, there is no clear evidence to show that Bhoja fought against the Ghaznavids or any other Muslim army.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=60}} Bhoja might have contributed troops to the [[Hindu Shahi|Kabul Shahi]] ruler [[Anandapala]]'s fight against the Ghaznavids. He is believed to have granted asylum to Anandapala's son Trilochanapala.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=158}} Several medieval Muslim historians state that Mahmud avoided a confrontation with a powerful Hindu ruler named Param Dev after sacking the [[Somnath]] Hindu temple. Modern historians identify Param Dev as Bhoja: the name may be a corruption of Paramara-Deva or of Bhoja's title ''Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka''.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=163–165}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=61–62}} Bhoja may have also been a part of the Hindu alliance that expelled Mahmud's governors from [[Hansi]], [[Thanesar]] and other areas around 1043 CE.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=166}}{{sfn|S. N. Sen|1999|p=320}}
Bhoja's attempt to expand his kingdom eastwards was foiled by the [[Chandela]] king [[Vidyadhara (Chandela ruler)|Vidyadhara]].{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=69}} However, Bhoja was able to extend his influence among the Chandela feudatories, possibly after Vidyadhara's death. The [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghatas]] of Dubkund, who were the northern neighbours of the Paramaras, were originally Chandela feudatories. However, their ruler Abhimanyu accepted Bhoja's suzerainty.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=172–173}} Bhoja also launched a campaign against the Kachchhapaghatas of [[Gwalior]], possibly with the ultimate goal of capturing [[Kannauj]], but his attacks were repulsed by their ruler Kirtiraja.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=173}}
According to the ''Udaipur Prashasti'' inscription, Bhoja defeated the [[Gurjaradesa|Gurjara]] king. The identity of this king is debated by the historians, but he is generally identified as a weak [[Gurjara-Pratihara]] ruler of [[Kannauj]]. Bhoja did not retain control of Kannauj for a long time, if at all.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=174–175}}
The 1046 CE [[Inscriptions of Bhoja#1046 CE Tilakwada inscription|Tilakawada copper plate inscription]] states that Bhoja's general Suraditya stabilized his royal fortune by slaughtering one Sahavahana in a battle.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=175}} Some earlier historians identified Sahavahana as a king of [[Chamba State|Chamba]], but this identification is doubtful, considering the distance between Chamba and Malwa, and the fact that the ruler of Chamba was not powerful enough to destabilize Bhoja's kingdom.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=175–176}} Sahavahana might been a general of one of Bhoja's rivals, possibly the Kalachuri king Karna.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=176}}
Bhoja defeated and killed [[Viryarama]], the [[Chahamanas of Shakambhari|Shakambhari Chahamana]] ruler. Encouraged by this success, he also waged a war against the [[Chahamanas of Naddula]]. But in this second campaign, his army was forced to retreat, and his general Sadha was killed.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=177}}
During the last years of Bhoja's reign, sometime after 1042 CE, Jayasimha's son and successor [[Someshvara I]] invaded Malwa, and sacked his capital [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]].{{sfn|S. N. Sen|1999|p=320}} Multiple Chalukya inscriptions dated between 1058 and 1067 CE state that the Chalukyas plundered the important Paramara cities, including Dhara, [[Ujjayini]] and [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandapa]].{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=151–153}} Bhoja re-established his control over Malwa soon after the departure of the Chalukya army. Nevertheless, the defeat was a major setback for the Paramaras, and pushed back the southern boundary of their kingdom from [[Godavari River|Godavari]] to [[Narmada River|Narmada]].{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=154}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=56}}
Although the Bhoja and Kalachuri king Gangeya were part of an alliance against the Chalukyas, Bhoja defeated Gangeya. It is not certain when they turned into enemies. According to one theory, Bhoja defeated Gangeya before his Chalukya campaign, in which Gangeya must have fought as a Paramara vassal. A contradictory theory is that the two turned enemies after their Chalukya campaign, sometime between 1028 CE and 1042 CE.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=65–66}}{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=170–171}} The ''Udaipur Prashasti'' also claims that Bhoja defeated one Togglala,{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=36}} who might have been Gangeya's predecessor [[Kokalla II]].{{sfn|Saikat K. Bose|2015|p=281}}
== Death ==
During the last year of Bhoja's reign, or shortly after his death, the Chaulukya king [[Bhima I]] and the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]] king [[Lakshmikarna|Karna]] attacked his kingdom. According to the 14th century author Merutunga, Bhoja had once thought of subjugating Bhima, but Bhima's diplomat avoided a Paramara invasion by instigating Bhoja against the [[Chalukyas of Kalyani]] instead.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=148-150}} Sometime before 1031 CE, Bhima launched an expedition against the Paramara branch at [[Mount Abu|Abu]], forcing its ruler Dhandhuka to seek shelter with Bhoja.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=180–181}} [[Hemachandra]], who was patronized by the Chaulukyas, states that Bhoja's general Kulachandra once sacked the Chaulukya capital while Bhima was fighting a war at the [[Sindh]] frontier.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|pp=179–181}} Bhima later dispatched his soldiers to raid Malwa several times. Merutunga's ''Prabandha-Chintamani'' states that once two such soldiers attacked Bhoja in the vicinity of his capital [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]], but the Paramara king escaped unhurt.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=181}}
Merutunga also states that Karna once challenged Bhoja to either a war or a palace-building contest. Bhoja, who was an old man by this time, chose the second option. Bhoja lost this contest, but refused to accept Karna's suzerainty. As a result, Karna, in alliance with Bhima, invaded Malwa. According to Merutunga, Bhoja died of a disease at the same time the allied army attacked his kingdom.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=182}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|pp=66–67}} Several literary works written under Chaulukya patronage suggest that Bhima subjugated Bhoja while Bhoja was still alive. However, such claims are not corroborated by historical evidence.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=184}}{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=68}}
== Cultural contributions == [[File:Bhojpur Mandir.jpg|thumb|The incomplete [[Bhojeshwar Temple]] in [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh]]]]
Raja Bhoja is best remembered for his intellect and patronage to cultural activities. Noted poets and writers of his time sought his sponsorship. The Kashmiri writer [[Bilhana]] famously rued that Bhoja died before him, because of which he failed to seek the king's patronage. Several later kings also emulated Bhoja. For example, [[Krishnadevaraya]] of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] styled himself as ''Abhinava-Bhoja'' ("the new Bhoja") and ''Sakala-Kala-Bhoja'' ("Bhoja of all the arts").{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2003|p=179}}
Bhoja was himself a polymath. Under his rule, Mālwa and its capital [[Dhara (city)|Dhara]] became one of the chief intellectual centres of India. He is said to have paid great attention to the education of his people, so much so that even humble weavers in the kingdom are supposed to have composed metrical [[Sanskrit]] kavyas.
Bhoja is said to have founded the city of [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]], a belief supported by historical evidence. Besides the [[Bhojeshwar Temple]] there, the construction of three now-breached dams in that area is attributed to him.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=71}} The temple originally stood on the banks of a reservoir 18.5 long and 7.5 miles wide.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=68}} This reservoir was formed through construction of 3 earth-and-stone dams during Bhoja's reign. The first dam, built on [[Betwa River]], trapped the river waters in a depression surrounded by hills. A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills, near present-day Mendua village. A third dam, located in present-day Bhopal, diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river into the Betwa dam reservoir. This man-made reservoir existed until 15th century, when [[Hoshang Shah]] emptied the lake by breaching two of the dams.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=71}}
Bhoja established the [[Bhoj Shala]] which was a centre for [[Sanskrit]] studies and a temple of [[Sarasvatī]] in present-day [[Dhar]]. According to folklore, the [[Bhopal]] city was established by and named after him ("Bhojpal"),<ref>{{cite book | title = The táj-ul ikbál tárikh Bhopal, or, The history of Bhopal | url = https://archive.org/details/tjulikbltrikhbh00begagoog | author = Sultan Shah Jahan, Begum of Bhopal | publisher = Thacker, Spink | year = 1876 | page = 222 | oclc = 28302607 | author-link = Sultan Shah Jahan, Begum of Bhopal }}</ref> but it is possible that the city derives its name from another king called Bhupala (or Bhupal).<ref>{{cite book | title = Historical Geography of Madhya Pradesh from Early Records | author = Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya | publisher = [[Motilal Banarsidass]] | year = 1977 | isbn = 978-0-8426-9091-1 | page = 275 }}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110530121421/http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/MP-BHO-cpi-joins-campaign-against-naming-bhopal-as-bhojpal-1939473.html CPI joins campaign against naming Bhopal as Bhojpal]. Daily Bhaskar, 16 March 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ashfaq Ali|title=Bhopal, Past and Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owMMAQAAIAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Jai Bharat |page=xxix}}</ref>
===Literary works===
Bhoja was renowned as a scholar-king, and several books are attributed to him. Because these books cover an enormous range of topics, it is not certain if he actually wrote all these books or if he only commissioned these works, acting as a patron of their actual writers. But it is known that he was an expert on poetry, and the treatise ''Shringara-Prakasha'' was definitely authored by him.<ref name="JLM_2001">{{cite book |title=Semiosis in Hindustani music |last=Martinez |first=José Luiz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwJRnFIcM4cC&pg=PA219 |year=2001 |orig-year=1997 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn=81-208-1801-6 |page=169}}</ref>
According to Ajada, who wrote a commentary titled the ''Padaka-prakasha'' on the ''[[Sarasvati-Kanthabharana]]'', Bhoja wrote 84 books. The surviving works attributed to Bhoja include the following [[Sanskrit]]-language texts ([[IAST]] titles in bracket):<ref>{{cite book |last=Banerji |first=Sures |title=A companion to Sanskrit literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC&pg=PA24 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |year=1989 |isbn=978-81-208-0063-2 |page=24 }}</ref>{{sfn|Pratipal Bhatia|1970|pp=318–321}} * ''Bhujabala-bhima'' (''Bhujabalabhīma''), a work on astrology. Also known as the ''Bhujabala Nibandhah'', edited by Bhagwatilal Rajpurohit (in Sanskrit). Gyan Bharati Publications: 2022. {{ISBN|9789385538513}}. * ''Champu-Ramayana'' or ''Bhoja-Champu'' (''Campūrāmāyaṇa''), a re-telling of the ''[[Ramayana]]'' in mixture of prose and poetry, which characterises the [[champu]] genre. The first five ''kanda''s (chapters) are attributed to Bhoja. The sixth and seventh chapters were completed by Lakshmana and Venkatadhvarin respectively. Archive.org copy: [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.312741/mode/2up?view=theater]. * ''Charucharya'' (Cārucārya), a treatise on personal hygiene * ''Govinda-vilasa'', poem * ''Nama-Malika'', a compiled treatise on [[lexicography]]. Published by the [[Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute]] (1955). Sanskrit edition by ED Kulkarni and VD Gokhale. Archive.org copy: [https://archive.org/details/namamalikaofbhojabyd.d.kulkarniv.d.gokhaledeccancollege_356_D/mode/2up]. * ''Raja-Martaṅda'' (''Rājamārtanḍa'') or ''Patanjali-Yogasutra-Bhashya'', a major commentary on the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]; includes an explanation of various forms of meditations * ''Raja-Mriganka-Karana'' (''Rājamrigankakaraṅa''), a treatise on chemistry, especially dealing with the extraction of metals from ores, and production of various drugs. Published along with the ''Rājamārtanḍa'' by the Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, Varanasi (2011). Sanskrit edition with Hindi translation by Dr. Shri Krishna 'Jugnu', Prof. Bhanwar Sharma. {{ISBN|9788170803522}}. * ''[[Samarangana Sutradhara|Samarangana-Sutradhara]]'' (''Samarāṇgaṇasūtradhāra''), a treatise on architecture and iconography. It details construction of buildings, [[fort]]s, temples, idols of deities and mechanical devices including a so-called flying machine or glider. * ''Sarasvati-Kanthabharana'' (''Sarasvatīkaṇṭhabharaṇa''), a treatise on Sanskrit grammar for poetic and rhetorical compositions. Most of it is a compilation of works by other writers. Some of the poetic examples provided by him in this work are still appreciated as the highest cream of Sanskrit poetry. Archive.org copy: [https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.1603/mode/2up]. * ''Shalihotra'' (''Śālihotra''), a book on horses, their diseases and the remedies. Published by the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (1953). Sanskrit edition by ED Kulkarni. Archive.org copy: [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.326397/mode/2up]. * ''[[Shringara-Prakasha]]'' (''Śṛṅgāraprakāśa''), treatise on poetics and dramaturgy * ''[[Shringara-manjari-katha]]'' (''Śṛṅgāramanjarīkathā''), a poem composed in ''akhyayika'' form * ''Tattva-Prakasha'' (''Tattvaprākaśa''), a treatise on [[Shaivite]] philosophy. It provides a synthesis of the voluminous literature of the [[shaiva Siddhanta|siddhanta]] tantras. Archive.org copy: [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.496102/mode/2up?view=theater]. * ''Vidvajjana-Vallabha'', treatise on astronomy. Sanskrit edition by [[David Pingree]] published in the [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]] Oriental Series No. 9 (1970). * ''Vyavahara-Manjari'' (''Vyavahāramanjarī''), a work on [[dharmaśāstra]] or Hindu law * ''[[Yukti-Kalpataru]]'', a work dealing with several topics including statecraft, politics, city-building, jewel-testing, characteristics of books, shipbuilding etc. Sanskrit edition by Isvara Chandra Shastri, Narendra Nath Law (1917). Calcutta: Abinash Chandra Mandal. Archive.org copy: [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.513517/mode/2up?view=theater]. Another edition by Bhagwatilal Rajpurohit (2008): {{ISBN|8177021052}}.
The [[Prakrit]] language poems ''Kodanda-Kavya'' and ''Kurma-Sataka'' are also attributed to Bhoja.{{sfn|Pratipal Bhatia|1970|pp=318–321}} The ''Kodanda-Kavya'' (Kodaṅḍakāvya) was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Influence of Classical Poets on the Inscriptional Poets |author=D. B. Diskalkar |journal=Journal of Indian History |volume=38 |issue=2 |year=1960 |editor=P. S. Raghavan |publisher=University of Kerala |url=https://zenodo.org/records/16895075 |page=292 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817133552/http://dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/98852 |archive-date=17 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''Kurma-Sataka'' (''Avanikūrmaśataka''), which praises the [[Kurma]] (tortoise) incarnation of [[Vishnu]], was found inscribed at the Bhoj Shala in Dhar.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-1jAAAAMAAJ |title=Kūrmaśatakadvayam: Two Prakrit Poems on Tortoise who Supports the Earth |author=V. M. Kulkarni |publisher=L.D. Institute of Indology |year=2003 |pages=13–14 |isbn=9788185857183 }}</ref>
''Sangitaraja'', attributed to Kalasena or [[Kumbha of Mewar|Kumbha]], names Bhoja as an authority on music, which suggests that Bhoja also compiled or wrote a work on music.{{sfn|Pratipal Bhatia|1970|pp=318–321}}
== Religion == [[File:Chittorgarh-Samiddheshwara Temple-01-20131014.jpg|thumb|The [[Samadhishvara Temple, Chittorgarh|Samadhishvara Shiva Temple]] in [[Chittor Fort]] is identified with the Tribhuvana-Narayana or Bhoja-svamin temple attributed to Bhoja. The original temple has been renovated several times since its construction.]] Historical evidence suggests that Bhoja was a devotee of [[Shiva]]. His writings qualify Shiva as "Jagadguru" ("World teacher"),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OrgSAAAAMAAJ |title=Technical Literature in Sanskrit |volume=10 |author=S. Venkitasubramonia Iyer |publisher=Department of Sanskrit, University of Kerala |year=1978 |page=161 }}</ref> and [[Inscriptions of Bhoja|his inscriptions]] begin with verses praising Shiva.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=33}} The ''[[Udaipur (Madhya Pradesh)|Udaipur]] Prashasti'' inscription of the later Paramara rulers states that Bhoja "covered the earth with temples" dedicated to the various aspects of Shiva, including Kedareshvara, Rameshwara, Somanatha, [[Kal Bhairav|Kala]], and Rudra. The Jain writer Merutunga, in his ''Prabandha-Chintamani'', states that Bhoja constructed 104 temples in his capital city of [[Dhar]]a alone. However, the [[Bhojeshwar Temple]] in [[Bhojpur, Madhya Pradesh|Bhojpur]] is the only surviving shrine that can be attributed to Bhoja with certainty.{{sfn|Kirit Mankodi|1987|p=61}} Several historians, including [[Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha|G. H. Ojha]] and [[R. Nath]], have identified the [[Samadhishvara Temple, Chittorgarh|Samadhishvara Shiva Temple]] in [[Chittor Fort|Chittor]] with the Tribhuvana Narayana Shiva or Bhoja-svamin temple attributed to Bhoja; the temple has been restored several times since its construction.{{sfn|R. Nath|1984|pp=46-50}}
The Jain legends state that Bhoja converted to [[Jainism]]. According to this account, his court poet Dhanapala convinced the king to give up [[animal sacrifice in Hinduism|Vedic animal sacrifices]].{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=12}} The poet also openly ridiculed Bhoja's other religious beliefs, including his worship of [[Kamadeva]]-[[Rati]] and [[cattle in religion|cow]].{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=13}} Gradually, Dhanapala convinced Bhoja to become a Jain.{{sfn|Ganga Prasad Yadava|1982|p=14}}
These accounts of Bhoja's conversion to Jainism are irreconcilable with historical evidence.<ref name="LHG_1950">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzXhAAAAMAAJ |title=The Narrative of Bhoja (Bhojaprabandlha) |author=Ballala |translator=[[Louis Herbert Gray|Louis H. Gray]] |year=1950 |page=3 }}</ref> In a ''Bhoja-Prabandlha'' legend, a Brahmin named Govinda calls Bhoja a [[Vaishnavite]].<ref name="LHG_1950"/> It is possible that Bhoja patronized other faiths despite being a Shaivite.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnwYAQAAMAAJ |title=Art & Architecture of Daśārṇa (Malwa) Region |author=Rahman Ali |publisher=Sharada |year=2008 |isbn=9788188934546 |page=38 }}</ref>
== Personal life ==
Bhoja married multiple women as part of matrimonial alliances with other ruling dynasties. His chief queen was Liladevi or Lilavati. His other queens included Padmavati (princess of [[Kuntala country|Kuntala]]), Chandramukhi (princess of [[Anga]]) and Kamala.{{sfn|K. N. Seth|1978|p=130}}
Inscriptional evidence suggests that he was succeeded by [[Jayasimha I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayasimha]], who was probably his son.{{sfn|A. K. Warder|1992|pp=177}} Jayasimha's [[Mandhata]] grant of 1055 CE mentions his predecessors as Bhoja, Sindhuraja and Vakpati.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=62}} However, this inscription does not specify the relationship between Bhoja and Jayasimha, and it is the only epigraph that mentions a Paramara king named Jayasimha. The ''Udaipur Prashasti'' and ''Nagpur Prashasti'' inscriptions of the later Paramara kings give a detailed genealogy of the Paramara kings, but do not mention Jayasimha. These two inscriptions name [[Udayaditya]] as the next ruler after Bhoja. Udayaditya is now known to be Bhoja's brother.{{sfn|H. V. Trivedi|1991|p=63}}
== Legends ==
In terms of the number of legends centered around him, Bhoja is comparable to the legendary [[Vikramaditya]].{{sfn|A. K. Warder|1992|pp=176}} [[Sheldon Pollock]] describes Bhoja as "the most celebrated poet-king and philosopher-king of his time, and perhaps of any Indian time".{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2003|p=178}} Bhoja came to be featured in several legends as a righteous scholar-king, who was the ultimate judge of literary qualities and generously rewarded good poets and writers. Most of these legends were written three to five centuries after his death.{{sfn|Sheldon Pollock|2003|pp=179–180}}
Apart from epigraphic records, much of the information about Bhoja comes from these legendary accounts, including Merutunga's ''Prabandha-Chintamani'' (14th century), Rajavallabha's ''Bhoja-Charitra'' (15th century), and Ballala's ''Bhoja-Prabandha'' (17th century). However, many of the popular legends about Bhoja do not have any historical basis.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uywqAQAAIAAJ |title=Sruti, Issues 184–195 |editor=P.N. Sundaresan |year=2000 |page=253 }}</ref> For example, the ''Bhoja-Prabandha'' [[anachronism|anachronistically]] describes the ancient poet [[Kalidasa]] as a contemporary of Bhoja.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVxjAAAAMAAJ |title=Sanskrit and Indological Studies: Dr. V. Raghavan Felicitation Volume |author=Venkataraman Raghavan |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1975 |page=3 |isbn=9780842608213 |author-link=Venkataraman Raghavan }}</ref>
In order to enhance their imperial claims, the Paramaras promoted several legends associating Bhoja with the ancient legendary kings. For example, in ''[[Simhasana Dvatrimsika]]'' (popularly known as ''Singhasan Battisi''), Bhoja finds a throne of Vikramaditya, and each of the 32 divine figurines attached to the throne tell him a story about Vikramaditya.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziolkowski |first=Jan M. |title=Fairy Tales from Before Fairy Tales: The Medieval Latin Past of Wonderful Lies |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJ12yPfBL4IC&pg=PA220 |page=220 |isbn=978-0472025220 }}</ref>{{sfn|Alf Hiltebeitel|2009|p=264}} A ''[[Bhavishya Purana]]'' legend describes Bhoja as a descendant of Vikramaditya and [[Shalivahana]]. According to this legend, the [[mleccha]] (foreign) influence had corrupted Indian culture by the time of Bhoja's ascension. Bhoja marched up to the banks of the [[Indus river]], and defeated several mleccha kings. The poet [[Kalidasa]], who accompanied him, magically turned into ashes a mleccha named Mahamada, whose followers came to be known as Muslim (The character Mahamada is based on [[Muhammad]] possibly combined with [[Mahmud of Ghazni]]). After returning to his capital, Bhoja established [[Sanskrit]] language among the top three [[varna in Hinduism|varnas]] and [[Prakrit]] language among the [[Shudra]]s. During his 50-year reign, [[Aryavarta]] (the land between the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Vindhyas]]) became a blessed land where the varna system was established. On the other hand, caste mixture took place beyond the Vindhyas (that is, in [[South India]]).{{sfn|Alf Hiltebeitel|2009|pp=273–275}} Again, this is an imaginary account not supported by any historical evidence.{{sfn|Mahesh Singh|1984|p=60}}
== In popular culture == He has been depicted numerous times in Indian cinema. Some films based on him include: ''Raja Bhoj'' (1922), ''Raja Bhoj'' (1926) by D. J. Jhaveri, ''King Bhoj'' (1930) by A. Narayanan and ''Bhoja Kalidasa'' (1940) by Hanumappa Vishwanath Babu.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha|author2=Paul Willemen|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOtkAAAAMAAJ|year=1994|publisher=[[British Film Institute]]|isbn=978-0-85170-455-5|page=98}}</ref>
==References== {{Reflist|30em}}
== Sources ==
{{refbegin}} * {{cite book |author=A. K. Warder |author-link=A. K. Warder |title=Indian Kāvya Literature |volume=VI: The Art of Storytelling |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl0l5ZTkNxIC&pg=PA151 |year=1992 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0615-3 }} * {{cite book |author=Alf Hiltebeitel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMFdosx0PokC&pg=PA263 |title=Rethinking India's Oral and Classical Epics: Draupadi among Rajputs, Muslims, and Dalits |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780226340555 }} * {{cite journal |author=Arvind K. Singh |title=Interpreting the History of the Paramāras |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society |volume=22 |issue=1 |year=2012 |pages=13–28 |jstor=41490371 }} * {{cite book |author=Ganga Prasad Yadava |title=Dhanapāla and His Times: A Socio-cultural Study Based Upon His Works |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aY_I3zgxfpsC&pg=PA32 |publisher=Concept |year=1982 }} * {{cite book |author=Harihar Vitthal Trivedi |title=Inscriptions of the Paramāras (Part 2) |series=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume VII: Inscriptions of the Paramāras, Chandēllas, Kachchapaghātas, and two minor dynasties |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B4LAQAAMAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] |ref={{harvid|H. V. Trivedi|1991}} }} * {{cite book |author=K. C. Jain |title=Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA158 |year=1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 }} * {{cite book |author=K. N. Seth |title=The Growth of the Paramara Power in Malwa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q4dAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Progress |year=1978 |oclc=8931757 }} * {{cite journal |author=Kirit Mankodi |url=http://vmis.in/Resources/digital_publication_popup?id=140#page/2 |title=Scholar-Emperor and a Funerary Temple: Eleventh Century Bhojpur |journal=[[Marg (magazine)|Marg]] |volume=39 |issue=2 |publisher=[[National Centre for the Performing Arts (India)|National Centre for the Performing Arts]] |year=1987 |pages=61–72 }} * {{cite book |author=M. C. Choubey |title=Tripurī, history and culture |year=2006 |publisher=Sharada |isbn=9788188934287 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axpuAAAAMAAJ }} * {{cite book |author=Mahesh Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPsgAAAAMAAJ |title=Bhoja Paramāra and His Times |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan |year=1984 |oclc=11786897 }} * {{cite book |author=Pratipal Bhatia |title=The Paramāras, c. 800–1305 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5gcAAAAMAAJ |year=1970 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=9788121504102 |oclc=776890380 }} * {{cite book |author=R. Nath |author-link=Ram Nath |title=Antiquities of Chittorgadh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lE7QAAAAMAAJ |year=1984 |publisher=Historical Research Documentation Programme}} * {{cite book|author=Rudolf Hoernlé |author-link=Rudolf Hoernlé |title=Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Part I: Osteology |url=https://archive.org/stream/studiesinmedicin01hoeruoft#page/n3/mode/2up|year=1907|publisher=Clarendon Press, Oxford }} * {{cite book |author=Saikat K. Bose |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywfsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT281 |title=Boot, Hooves and Wheels: And the Social Dynamics behind South Asian Warfare |publisher=Vij Books |year=2015 | isbn=978-9-38446-454-7 }} * {{cite book |author=S. N. Sen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA172 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |publisher=New Age International |year=1999 |isbn=9788122411980 }} * {{cite book |author=Sheldon Pollock | author-link=Sheldon Pollock | title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India | publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UCh7r2TjQIC&pg=PA179 | year=2003 | isbn=0-5202-4500-8 }} {{refend}}
{{Paramara dynasty}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Bhoja| ]] [[Category:11th-century Indian monarchs]] [[Category:Paramara dynasty]] [[Category:11th-century Indian writers]] [[Category:Sanskrit writers]] [[Category:Hindu monarchs]] [[Category:Indian male writers]] [[Category:11th-century maharajadhirajas]] [[Category:Kings of Malwa]] [[Category:Indian city founders]]