Celtic currency of Britain

{{short description|Ancient British currency}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}

thumb|right|Part of the Farmborough Hoard consisting of staters inscribed "CORIO"

The '''Celtic currency of Britain''' were the various items and coins used as currency between approximately 200 BC and AD 60. The earliest currency consisted of various forms of iron bars. Coins were first imported in large numbers in around 150 BC and domestic minting began around 100BC. Coin production was largely ended by the Roman conquest of Britain, first by the Claudian invasion of AD 43 and later by the Defeat of Boudica in AD 60 or 61. Cast coins may have been produced for a few more years around Hengistbury Head. Exact dating of coins often changes in the light of new research.<ref name="Curteis23">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=5.Iron Age coinages of the south midlands |page=23 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref>

Coin use is usually divided into a core area which covers the home counties as well as parts of Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Cambridgeshire.<ref name=Curteis20 /> This was surrounded by a periphery of coin using groups some of which, the Corieltauvi, Durotriges, Dobunni and Iceni, appear to have minted their own coinage.<ref name=Curteis20 /> The coins in the core area are generally attributed to the Atrebates and Cantii in the areas south of the Thames and the Trinovantes and Catuvellauni to the north.<ref name="Curteis20">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=4.The study area |page=20 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref>

The archaeological record may be distorted by cases of the deliberate falsification of find spots.<ref name="Burnett">{{Cite journal |last=Burnett |first=A.M. |date=1990 |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain III: The Waltham St Lawrence Treasure Trove |url=http://www.britnumsoc.org/publications/Digital%20BNJ/pdfs/1990_BNJ_60_4.pdf |journal=British Numismatic Journal |publisher=The British Numismatic Society |volume=60 |pages=13–28 |access-date=24 November 2015}}</ref><ref name=Beanmeth22 /> Historically this falsification may have been driven by farm-workers wanting to hide that they had taken the coins from their employer's land.<ref name=Beanmeth22 /> More recently, false provenances have been produced to hide the source of coins looted by metal detectorists such as the mass looting of the Wanborough Temple site.<ref name="Beanmeth22">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Methodology |pages=22–23 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="Thomastc">{{Cite web |url=http://traffickingculture.org/case_note/wanborough/ |title=Wanborough |last=Thomas |first=Suzie |date=27 May 2013 |website=Trafficking Culture |access-date=21 July 2016}}</ref>

==Iron bar and other non-coinage currency==

thumb|right|Sword type iron bar currency

The first currency in Britain appears to have been iron currency bars first appearing around 200BC.<ref name=Cunliffe499 /> Currency bars have been found in four forms known as sword-shaped, spit-shaped, plough-shaped, and bay-leaf-shaped.<ref name=Cunliffe499 /> It has been suggested that these shapes were used to show the origin of the bars.<ref name=Cunliffe499 /> The bars generally weigh between {{cvt|0.3|-|0.5|kg}}.<ref name="Cunliffe499">{{Cite book |title=Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415562928 |edition=4th |page=495}}</ref> Spit-shaped bars are the most commonly found, representing half of all finds.<ref name=Henderson280 /> Sword-shaped bars make up another 40 percent.<ref name="Henderson280">{{Cite book |title=The Science and Archaeology of Materials: An Investigation of Inorganic Materials |last=Henderson |first=Julian |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0415199344 |pages=280–282}}</ref>

What appears to be iron bar currency was mentioned in Julius Caesar's ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico''.<ref name=Einzig /> There are variances in the surviving texts, meaning that it is possible the original text was referring to iron ring money.<ref name=Einzig /> However, iron bar currency is considered more likely in the light of archaeological discoveries.<ref name="Einzig">{{Cite book |title=Primitive Money: In its Ethnological, Historical and Economic Aspects |last=Einzig |first=Paul |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1483157153 |pages=234–238}}</ref>

Historically it has been claimed that gold rings were used as currency, but improved dating has rendered this claim unlikely.<ref name="Arsdellring">{{Cite web |url=http://www.vanarsdellcelticcoinageofbritain.com/history/earliest_use_of_money_1.html |title=Earliest use of money |last=Van Arsdell |first=R. D |date=2013 |website=Celtic Coinage of Britain |access-date=30 December 2015}}</ref> John Lesley, writing in the 16th century, claimed that leather money had been issued in Scotland in the second century BC.<ref name=Henderson280 /> No evidence for this claim has been found.<ref name=Einzig />

==Coins==

===Names===

The original names of British Celtic coins are unknown.<ref name="Beanmeth17">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Methodology |pages=17–18 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref>

Modern researchers have given coins whether inscribed or uninscribed various names. Gold coins are described as staters or quarter staters, with the name deriving from Greek coins.<ref name=denominations /><ref name=Beanmeth17 /> Gold staters generally weighed between {{cvt|4.5|-|6.5|g}}.<ref name=Beanmeth17 /> Quarter staters, as their name suggests, had about a quarter of the weight of gold staters.<ref name=Beanmeth17 /> A few gold coins without clear weight relationships to staters are sometimes called gold fractions.<ref name=Beanmeth17 />

Silver coins are described as staters, units, half units and minims.<ref name=denominations /> Units generally weighed between {{cvt|0.8|-|1.4|g}}, with half units about half the weight of units.<ref name=Beanmeth17 /> Minims covers the various silver coins weighing less than {{cvt|0.4|g}}.<ref name=Beanmeth17 />

Copper alloy coins are described as staters, quarter staters, and units with cast staters and potins being considered separately.<ref name="denominations">{{Cite web |url=https://finds.org.uk/ironagecoins/denominations |title=Iron Age denominations |website=Portable Antiquities Scheme |publisher=British museum |access-date=2 January 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925103012/https://finds.org.uk/ironagecoins/denominations |url-status=dead }}</ref>

More specific names for individual coin types generally consist of catalog numbers, although in some cases simple descriptions are used.<ref name=Creighton222 /> Over the decades various catalogs have been compiled, with Van Arsdell's 1989 catalog being the most popular.<ref name=Creighton222 /> Overlap between catalogs does, however, mean that a coin can have as many as seven different names.<ref name=Creighton222>{{Cite book |title=Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain |url=https://archive.org/details/coinspowerlateir00crei |url-access=limited |last=Creighton |first=John |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521114516 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/coinspowerlateir00crei/page/n237 222]–225}}</ref>

===Methods of manufacture===

thumb|right|Top to bottom: A die for striking a Gallo-Belgic A stater, a blank of the type that would be struck, a Gallo-Belgic A stater

Most British Celtic coins were struck although a few were cast.<ref name=jersey10 />

The exact details of the method by which struck coins were struck remains unclear.<ref name=jersey10 /> It is thought most likely that struck coins were made by a four-step process.<ref name=jersey10 /> First, a fairly exact amount (accuracies of a few milligrams or better have been recorded) of metal would be weighed out in the form of powder or nugget.<ref name=jersey10 /> The metal would then be placed in a clay mould and heated to form a blank.<ref name=jersey10 /> Examples of these moulds have been found in archaeological excavations.<ref name=jersey10 /> The blank would then be flattened before finally being placed between two dies and struck.<ref name=jersey10 /> The lower die would be concave in order to hold the blank in place while the upper die would be convex.<ref name=jersey10 /> The dies were frequently larger than the blanks being struck, resulting in only part of the design appearing on the coin.<ref name=jersey10 /> Experimental archaeology suggests that a lower die could be expected to last for up to 10,000 strikes depending on the level of wear deemed acceptable.<ref name=Beanmeth28 /> Upper dies seem to have a far greater range of lives, with usable lives ranging from just over 100 strikes to nearly 8,000 being reported.<ref name=Beanmeth28 /> Combining archaeological evidence with historic records suggests ancient coin producers could get as many as 47,000 strikes out of an individual die.<ref name="Beanmeth28">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Methodology |pages=28–29 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref>

It is possible that in some cases, instead of moulds being used, the metal would be melted and poured onto a flat surface.<ref name=jersey10 />

A number of coins from the period consisting of a base metal core and a precious metal coating have been found.<ref name=jersey10 /> These would have been made by coating the base metal with a thin layer of precious metal, then striking the blank.<ref name=jersey10 /> While these coins for the most part appear to have been straightforward forgeries, some appear to have been struck using the same dies as non forgeries, making their status less clear.<ref name=jersey10 />

In the case of cast coins, a series of clay moulds joined by runners were used.<ref name=jersey10 /> The patterns on the coins were produced by pressing a pattern into the clay or, in simpler cases, scratching lines in it.<ref name=jersey10 /> Molten metal would then be poured into the moulds.<ref name=jersey10 /> Once the metal had cooled, the moulds would be broken to access the coins.<ref name="jersey10">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=10–14}}</ref>

===Imported coins===

The earliest coins to appear in the British archaeological record are third or fourth century BC Carthaginian bronzes, although it seems unlikely that they were used as currency.<ref name=jersey15 /> It is possible that these coins entered Celtic society as payment to mercenaries by Carthage and Syracuse.<ref name="Reden61">{{Cite book |title=Money in Classical Antiquity |last=Reden |first=Sitta von |date=18 Nov 2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521453370 |page=61}}</ref> Other coins from the end of the third century and start of the second century BC have been found but there is no evidence for their use as currency and the situation is complicated by contamination by modern losses.<ref name="jersey15">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=15}}</ref> Post antiquity a direct trade route for Greek coins into Britain has existed since the creation of the Levant Company in the late 16th century.<ref name="Penhallurick2">{{Cite book |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/files/83/8814102.pdf |title=Ancient and Early Medieval Coins from Cornwall & Scilly |last=Penhallurick |first=R.D |date=2010 |publisher=Royal Numismatic Society |isbn=978-0-901405-49-4 |pages=2–3 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Around 150BC Gallo-Belgic staters started being imported into Britain.<ref name=jersey159 /> These coins followed designs ultimately derived from the staters issued by Philip II of Macedon and were made from gold.<ref name=jersey159 /> Philip's staters featured on the obverse the head of Apollo wearing a wreath.<ref name=jersey6 /> On the reverse they carried an image of a Biga chariot being pulled by two horses and carrying a figure wielding a whip.<ref name="jersey6">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=6}}</ref> Six series of Gallo-Belgic staters issues are known as A through to F with subtypes such as AA and AB (in this case defined by the direction in which the bust faces).<ref name=jersey159 /><ref name="Beanmeth36">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Gallo-Belgic gold coinage |page=36 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> Of these it is C through to F that would have the most impact on later British coin designs.<ref name=jersey159 /> The minting of these coins came to an end with the Roman conquest of Gaul.<ref name="jersey159">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=15–19}}</ref> It is possible that at least some of these coins were produced in Britain instead of being imported.<ref name="Curteis24">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=5.Iron Age coinages of the south midlands |pages=24–26 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref> A die for striking Gallo Belgic A coins has been found in Bredgar, Kent but it isn't clear if it was used for official strikes or forgeries.<ref name="leins">{{Cite web |url=http://blog.britishmuseum.org/2014/04/11/the-die-that-struck-britains-first-coins/ |title=The die that struck Britain's first coins? |last1=Leins |first1=Ian |last2=Morris |first2=Emma |date=11 April 2014 |website=British Museum blog |publisher=British Museum |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref>

Along with the Gallo-Belgic stater series other coins from the continent have been found in Britain.<ref name=Penhallurick4 /> Ambiani coins have been found along the south coast of the West Country, possibly arriving there as the result of trade across the English Channel.<ref name="Penhallurick4">{{Cite book |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/files/83/8814102.pdf |title=Ancient and Early Medieval Coins from Cornwall & Scilly |last=Penhallurick |first=R.D |date=2010 |publisher=Royal Numismatic Society |isbn=978-0-901405-49-4 |page=4 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Potins===

Kentish cast bronzes (historically referred to as Thurrock potins) appear to have been the first coins made in Britain dating from the end of the second century BC.<ref name=jersey20 /> They appear to have circulated mainly in Kent and were based on coins issued by Massalia (now Marseille in modern France).<ref name="jersey20">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=20}}</ref><ref name="Cunliffe133">{{Cite book |title=Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415562928 |edition=4th |page=133}}</ref> Various other potins were issued with production ending around 50BC.<ref name="jersey21">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=21}}</ref> These coins were cast rather than struck.<ref name="jersey14">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=14}}</ref> Although potins were around at the same time as the first British gold coins they are not found together which suggests they served a different role in society.<ref name="Curteis27">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=5.Iron Age coinages of the south midlands |page=27 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref> Potins continued to circulate for some time after the Roman conquest of Britain and they have been found in burials dating to the late Roman period.<ref name="Atkinson">{{Cite book |author=R. Hobbs |section=Late Iron Age Coins |section-url=http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue40/1/3-4.html |date=2015 |editor=M. Atkinson |editor2=S.J. Preston |title=Heybridge: A late Iron Age and Roman settlement. Excavations at Elms Farm 1993-5. Volume 2 |journal=Internet Archaeology |issue=40 |doi=10.11141/ia.40.1 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Uninscribed staters===

thumb|right|British A stater scale in cm

The first known British stater was based on the Gallo-Belgic C stater and appears to have been made by melting down said staters and re-striking them.<ref name=Curteis28 /> It is referred to as the British A stater or the Westerham and Ingoldisthorpe stater, and was probably made shortly after 100BC.<ref name=Curteis28 /> The coin is often credited to the Atrebates kingdom but this is uncertain.<ref name="Curteis28">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=5.Iron Age coinages of the south midlands |page=28 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref> At much the same time or shortly afterwards, a range of uninscribed British staters was produced by various groups, with inscribed coins not appearing until after 50BC.<ref name="jersey217">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=21–27}}</ref> As with the Gallo-Belgic staters, these coins have been divided into a number of series which have in turn been divided into various subtypes.<ref name="Beanmeth77">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Early local stater issues (British A, C and D) |pages=77–110 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |- !Series !Alternative names !First minted !Minted by !Mainly found !Based on !Image |- |A |Westerham and Ingoldisthorpe,<ref name=Curteis28 /> Westerham |100BC or shortly after<ref name=Curteis28 /> |Atrebates?<ref name=Curteis28 /> | |Gallo-Belgic C<ref name=Curteis28 /> |120px |- |B |Chute<ref name="Curteis2830">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=5.Iron Age coinages of the south midlands |pages=28–30 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref> |60-50BC<ref name=papworth55 /> |Durotriges?<ref name=papworth55 /> |Dorset, Wiltshire and Somerset<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |Gallo-Belgic C<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |120px |- |C |Yarmouth<ref name=jersey217 /> | | |Hampshire, Isle of Wight<ref name=jersey217 /> |British A<ref name="Beanmeth86">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=British C |page=86 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> | |- |D |Cheriton<ref name=jersey217 /> |50BC-30BC<ref name="Beanmeth105">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Dating |page=105 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> | |Hampshire, Isle of Wight<ref name=jersey217 /> |British B<ref name="Beanmeth87">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=British D |pages=87–92 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> | |- |F |Clacton<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |100BC or shortly after<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | | | | |- |G |Clacton<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |100BC or shortly after<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | | | | |- |H |North-east coast<ref name="jersey24">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=24}}</ref> |70BC<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |Corieltauvi<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | |Gallo-Belgic C<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |120px |- |I | |70BC<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |Corieltauvi<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | |Gallo-Belgic C<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | |- |J |Norfolk wolf<ref name="Curteis33">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=5.Iron Age coinages of the south midlands |page=33 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref> |50BC<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |Iceni<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | |Gallo-Belgic E<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |120px |- |K |South Ferriby<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |40BC<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |Corieltauvi<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | | |120px |- |L |Whaddon Chase<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |50BC<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |Cassivellaunus?<ref name=Curteis2830 /> |Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire and Essex<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | |120px |- |N |Freckenham<ref name="jersey47">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=47–48}}</ref> |40BC<ref name=jersey47 /> |Iceni<ref name=jersey47 /> | | |120px |- |Q | |50BC<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | | |Gallo-Belgic F<ref name=Curteis2830 /> | |- |R | | |Dobunni<ref name=sellwood /> | |British Q?<ref name="sellwood">{{Cite journal |last=Sellwood |first=Lyn |date=March 1983 |title=A numismatic note on the Dobunnic branched emblem |journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=113–114 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0092.1983.tb00098.x }}</ref> | |}

During the Gallic Wars the weight of gold staters being issued fell slightly.<ref name="Cunliffe141">{{Cite book |title=Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415562928 |edition=4th |pages=141–145}}</ref> At the same time silver coinage started to be issued in some areas.<ref name=Cunliffe141 />

===Inscribed coins===

====Core area north of the Thames==== thumb|right|Silver unit of Tasciovanus showing Roman influence The first inscribed coins in this area date from approximately 35BC and are credited to Addedomarus.<ref name=jersey33 /> The coins consisted of gold staters based on the British L stater, gold quarter staters, and silver and bronze coins of lower value.<ref name="jersey33">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=33–34}}</ref> Addedomarus's coins overlap with those of Tasciovanus, who also initially issued inscribed staters based on the British L stater.<ref name="jersey34">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=34–36}}</ref> Tasciovanus's later coins appear more Romanised, most noticeably in the case of those struck in silver and bronze.<ref name=jersey34 /> Another feature in the later part of Tasciovanus's rule are coins in the names of Andoco, Sego, Dias, and Rues.<ref name=jersey34 /> Issued in the decade either side of AD 1, they most likely belonged to sub-rulers who answered to Tasciovanus.<ref name="Curteis31">{{Cite thesis |last=Curteis |first=Mark Edward |title=The Iron Age coinages of the south midlands, with particular reference to distribution and deposition |date=2001 |publisher=Durham University |chapter-url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1231/2/1231_v2.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=5.Iron Age coinages of the south midlands |page=31 |access-date=2015-10-27}}</ref>

A number of Addedomarus's coins featured a palm branch, which also appeared on the stater of his apparent successor Dubnovellaunus.<ref name=jersey34 /> Like his predecessor Dubnovellaunus, he produced silver and bronze coins although in fairly small amounts.<ref name=jersey34 />

Tasciovanus's apparent son Cunobelin managed to gain control of the entire region.<ref name=jersey36 /> His staters again featured the palm branch among other images.<ref name=jersey36 /> His bronze and silver coins developed over time from Celtic-influenced designs to those influenced by a very wide range of Mediterranean coinage.<ref name=jersey36 /> Cunobelin's coins may have been the last issued in the area prior to the Roman invasion in AD 43.<ref name=jersey36 /> A few coins have been attributed with little certainty to his sons.<ref name="jersey36">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=36–38}}</ref>

====Core area south of the Thames====

The first inscribed coinage in this area was struck around 30BC and was based on the British Q stater.<ref name=jersey27 /> These coins were inscribed COMMIOS and appear to have been issued by the son of the Commius mentioned by Julius Caesar in his writings,<ref name=jersey27 /> although it is possible that the first of these coins was issued by the original Commius.<ref name="Beanmeth242">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Coinage of Commios |pages=242–247 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> The only coins with the COMMIOS inscription are gold staters, but quarter starters and silver coins have been linked to the series.<ref name=Beanmeth242 /> The COMMIOS Gold staters contained about 47% gold and weighed between 5.3g and 5.5g.<ref name="Beanmeth253">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Coinage of Commios |pages=253–4 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> After Commius two series of coins appear to have been issued by Tincommius and another by Eppillus.<ref name=jersey27 />

Tincommius initially issued coins that followed much the same pattern as Commius but at the end of the first century BC switched to heavily Roman-inspired designs with what has been called the proto-classical series.<ref name=jersey27 /><ref name="Beanmeth309">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Tincommius |pages=309–310 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> In all Tincommius's coins have been divided into 4 series; first the Celtic then the Proto-classical, followed by the Crude and Classical which appear to have been struck around the same time.<ref name="Beanmeth301">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Tincommius |pages=301–307 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> Tincommius issued silver coins as well as gold and his Roman-derived silver coins have a metal content that suggests they were made from melted down Denarii.<ref name="jersey27">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=27–32}}</ref> Stylistic considerations and a lack of Mules for certain designs suggest Tincommius may have operated two mints.<ref name=Beanmeth280 /> However find-spot data suggests that they may both (if there were indeed two mints) have operated in the vicinity of modern Chichester or alternatively it possible that one of the mints was located at Calleva Atrebatum.<ref name="Beanmeth280">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Tincommius |pages=280–281 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> Tincommius's gold staters weighed around 5.3g while his gold quarter staters weighed around 1.03g.<ref name=Beanmeth291 /> The various silver units assigned to Tincommius weighed between 1.14 and 1.32g while the silver minims were around 0.3g.<ref name="Beanmeth291">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Tincommius |pages=291–295 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> thumb|right|Stater of Anarevito Eppillus appears to have held land in two areas and issued a different series of coins in each of them.<ref name=jersey27 /> In particular the gold coins Eppillus had circulated in the area around Calleva Atrebatum were thicker than those circulated in Eppillus's holdings in northern Kent and the silver coins heavier.<ref name="Beanmeth321">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Eppilus |page=321 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> The style of the coins suggests a different die cutter in each region with a few cases of each cutter producing a die for the other region.<ref name="Beanmeth333">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Eppilus |pages=333–336 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref> The coins issued around Calleva Atrebatum represent something of a break from previous styles although some of them appear to have derived design elements from the coins of Tincommius as well as various Roman denari.<ref name="Beanmeth341">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Eppilus |pages=341–347 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref> A single stater has been found in Dover baring the name of Eppillus and an otherwise unknown Anarevito.<ref name="Anarevitobm">{{Cite web |url=http://culturalinstitute.britishmuseum.org/asset-viewer/iron-age-gold-coin-of-anarevito-and-eppillus/6QGNtRNK6b0DYg?hl=en |title=Iron Age gold coin of Anarevito and Eppillus |website=culturalinstitute.britishmuseum.org |publisher=British Museum |access-date=8 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="Anarevitobmsm">{{Cite web |url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=3374198&partId=1 |title=Coin |website=British museum Collection Online |publisher=British museum |access-date=8 April 2016}}</ref> A small number of coins have been found in kent that appear to have been jointly minted by Eppillus, Tincommius and a third leader named Verica.<ref name="Beanabs">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham. |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=Abstract |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> The style of these coins is similar to those circulated in Eppillus's holdings in northern Kent with elements similar enough to suggest a common die cutter.<ref name="Beanmeth349">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of the Alliance |pages=349–357 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref>

Eppillus and Tincommius appear to have had their holdings taken over by Verica who from around AD 10 issued gold staters and quarter staters based on those of Tincommius and Eppillus.<ref name=jersey27 /><ref name=Beanmeth360 /> Differences in style between coins suggests that Verica was operating two mints one using an engraver formerly employed by Eppillus and the other derived from Tincommius.<ref name="Beanmeth360">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Verica |pages=360–369 |access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref> Verica's stater series weighed between 5.27g and 5.29g while the gold content varied between 42% and 44.5%<ref name="Beanmeth377">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Verica |page=377 |access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref><ref name=Beanmeth382 /> The gold content appears to have remained stable over time with no sign of debasement.<ref name="Beanmeth382">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of Verica |page= |pages=382–384 |access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref> Verica also issued silver coins striking both units and minims.<ref name=jersey27 /> As with his staters these made heavy use of Roman motifs.<ref name=jersey27 /> In the AD 30s Epaticcus issued staters along with silver units and minims in an area around Silchester.<ref name=jersey27 /> British coin striking in the area came to an end with the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43.<ref name=jersey27 />

====Periphery to the north of the core area====

The first inscribed coinage in this area appear to have been struck by the Corieltauvi around AD 1 and were closely based on the proceeding British K stater.<ref name=jersey45 /> The coins were inscribed with the letters VEP and it has been suggested that this and other inscriptions refer to the names of leaders.<ref name=jersey45 /> These were followed by coins inscribed either AVN AST or AVN COST.<ref name=jersey45 /> After these issues the chronology becomes unclear and it is possible that at times there were multiple coin issuing authorities.<ref name=jersey45 /> The standard denominations appear to have been staters, silver units and silver half units although some of the rarer inscriptions haven't been found in all denominations.<ref name="jersey45">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=45–52}}</ref>

The other main tribal group in this region was the Iceni who started producing inscribed coins around AD 20.<ref name="VanArsdelliceni">{{Cite web |url=http://www.vanarsdellcelticcoinageofbritain.com/history/last_uninscribed_coinages_2.html |title=Last uninscribed coinages Coinage in the North Thames Region 54 B.C. – 20 A.D |last=Van Arsdell |first=Robert |date=2013 |website=Celtic Coins of Britain |access-date=30 November 2015}}</ref> Their coins were fairly creative while sticking to firmly Celtic themes up until their final issues.<ref name=jersey45 /> Its not clear who or what most of the inscriptions on the coins refer to although it has been suggested that ECEN is a version of Iceni.<ref name=jersey45 /> This would though run against general Celtic coin inscription practices.<ref name=jersey45 /> The last coins struck by the Iceni appear to have been those of Prasutagus.<ref name=jersey45 /> Unlike their predecessors these coins show heavy Roman influence in their design.<ref name=jersey45 /> The defeat of the Iceni and the end of Boudicca's revolt in AD 60 or 61 brought an end to Iceni coin production.<ref name=jersey45 />

====Periphery to the west of the core area====

Two tribes in this area issued coins the Dobunni and Durotriges.<ref name=jersey39 /> Their coin designs tended to be fairly conservative and show little Roman influence.<ref name="jersey39">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |pages=39–44}}</ref>

The first inscribed Dobunni coins were those inscribed (and presumably issued by) BODVOC and CORIO.<ref name=jersey39 /> The exact chronology is unclear but CORIO appears to have started issuing coins around 30BC.<ref name="Cunliffe124">{{Cite book |title=Iron Age Communities in Britain: An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest |last=Cunliffe |first=Barry |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1134938039 |edition=3rd |pages=124–127}}</ref><ref name=jersey39 /> It is possible that Bodvoc and Corio were ruling different parts of the Dobunni territory at around the same time.<ref name=jersey39 /> The Dobunni during this period appear to have mostly issued in silver with only irregular minting of gold coinage.<ref name=Cunliffe141 /> Bodvoc and Corio appear to have been followed by Comux and Catti.<ref name=jersey39 /> Again the chronology is unclear and it is possible that they were ruling different parts of the Dobunni territory.<ref name=jersey39 /> Of the four (Bodvoc, Corio, Comux and Catti) only Bodvoc appears to have issued inscribed silver coins with the others possibly being to connected to various uninscribed silver coins that appear to have been issued in the area.<ref name=jersey39 /> Comux and Catti appear to have been followed by Anted and Eisv probably in that order.<ref name=jersey39 /> Unlike their predecessors they did issue inscribed silver units.<ref name=jersey39 /> A branched emblem appears on the obverse of a number of the Dobunni's gold staters.<ref name=sellwood /> The symbol's significance and origins are unclear although corn, ferns and a derivative of the wreath on the British Q stater have all been suggested.<ref name=sellwood /> thumb|right|Hengistbury Head cast coins The Durotriges issued a series of rapidly debased coins through this period probably starting around 50BC with a largely silver (80%) stater (British B) with a fairly small percentage of gold.<ref name=Cunliffe124 /><ref name=jersey39 /><ref name=papworth55 /> It has been suggested that the tribe simply lacked access to gold at this point.<ref name=Cunliffe124/> Due to a lack of coins being found in a secure archaeological context there is some uncertainty over assigning some of the earlier coins to the Durotriges so it is possible true Durotrigian coinage didn't start until a few years later.<ref name="papworth55">{{Cite book |title=The Search for the Durotriges Dorset and the West Country in the Late Iron Age |last=Papworth |first=Martin |date=2011 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=9780752498478 |pages=55–99}}</ref> Regardless of the starting point the level of silver used in Durotrigian coins rapidly declined until by 30BC their coins were being struck in bronze.<ref name=Cunliffe124/> Somewhere between AD 10 and 40, the Durotriges appear to have issued a silver unit inscribed with CRAB.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/179362 |title=COIN |publisher=The British Museum |access-date=31 December 2019 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925103012/https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/179362 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The final Durotrigian coins were cast bronzes that have largely been found around Hengistbury Head.<ref name=papworth55 /><ref name="jersey43">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=43}}</ref> These have been found alongside Roman coins and it certainly seems possible that they were minted after the Roman conquest although the reason for this minting and why it would be allowed is unclear.<ref name=papworth55 /> Minting came to an end by AD 100.<ref name=papworth55 />

===Scotland and Wales===

No coins were minted in Wales or Scotland during this period.<ref name=guest /><ref name=Hunter /> As of 2015 only 35 Celtic coins had been found in Wales with nearly 50% being those produced by the Dobunni.<ref name="guest">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/share/research/projectreports/romancoins/ironage/index.html |title=Iron Age Coins |last=Guest |first=Peter |website=Cardiff School of History, Archaeology and Religion |publisher=Cardiff University |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> In the early 2020s a hoard of a further 15 coins minted by the Corieltavi were found near Llangoed on Anglesey.<ref name=Anglesey>{{cite web |url=https://museum.wales/news/1330/TREASURE-FOUND-ON-ANGLESEY/ |title=Treasure Found on Anglesey |date=1 August 2023 |website=museum.wales |publisher=Amgueddfa Cymru |access-date=16 August 2023}}</ref>

thumb|right|Two of the Globules à la Croix from the Netherurd hoard

As of 1997 there had been 7 finds of Celtic-era coins in Scotland.<ref name=Hunter /> Five of these are poorly documented or could credibly be modern (or in one case 19th century) losses.<ref name=Hunter /> Of the remaining two one is a single South Ferriby stater found in Lauderdale.<ref name=Hunter /> The other is a hoard, found near Netherurd, that contained forty-plus Globules à la Croix (bullet coins) along with a number of gold torcs.<ref name=Hunter /> The coins were struck in Gaul, possibly in an area to the north-east of Paris although the exact area is far from clear.<ref name=Hunter /> Coins of this type were first struck around 200BC but remained in use until the Roman occupation.<ref name=Hunter /> It has been suggested that their presence in Scotland is due to direct political or military contact.<ref name="Hunter">{{Cite journal |last=Hunter |first=Fraser |date=1997 |title=Iron Age coins in Scotland |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_127/127_513_525.pdf |journal=Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |publisher=Society of Antiquaries of Scotland |volume=127 |pages=513–525 |doi=10.9750/PSAS.127.513.525 |access-date=16 November 2015}}</ref>

===Post-Celtic===

With the defeat of the Iceni and the occupation of their territory the minting of Celtic coinage came to an end; the cast coins of Hengistbury Head may have continued a few years longer.<ref name=papworth55 /><ref name="jersey52">{{Cite book |title=Celtic Coinage in Britain |last=De Jersey |first=Philip |date=1996 |publisher=Shire Publications |isbn=0-7478-0325-0 |page=52}}</ref> Some coin production of an unclear level of officialdom had already restarted in occupied areas.<ref name=dom2/> After the first wave of Roman occupation in AD 43 low quality copies of asses appear to have been produced, possibly to make up for a lack of low denomination coins being imported from mints in Rome.<ref name=dom2/> This appears to have stopped by the AD 70s.<ref name="dom2">{{Cite web |url=http://blogs.warwick.ac.uk/numismatics/entry/coining_in_roman_1/ |title=Coining in Roman Britain Part 2. After AD 43: British Imitations |last=Chorney |first=Dom |date=7 November 2014 |website=Coins at Warwick |publisher=University of Warwick |access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref>

Further production of unclear and possibly varying officialdom took place with the production of cast copies of silver denarii around the year 200.<ref name="dom3">{{Cite web |url=http://blogs.warwick.ac.uk/numismatics/entry/coining_in_roman_1_2/ |title=Coining in Roman Britain Part 3: Counterfeiting |last=Chorney |first=Dom |date=14 November 2014 |website=Coins at Warwick |publisher=University of Warwick |access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref> Official minting would not begin again until Carausius set up mints after the Carausian Revolt in 286.<ref name="hull">{{Cite web |url=http://www.hullcc.gov.uk/museumcollections/collections/storydetail.php?irn=685 |title=The Roman Mint |website=Hull Museums Collections |publisher=Kingston upon Hull City Council |access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref>

Celtic coins have appeared in archaeological deposits dated to long after minting ceased.<ref name=Beanmeth354 /> For example, a single silver unit was found along with 4 sceattas in a deposit near Birchington-on-Sea that has been dated to around 600.<ref name="Beanmeth354">{{Cite thesis |last=Bean |first=Simon C |title=The coinage of Atrebates and Regni |date=1994 |publisher=University of Nottingham |chapter-url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11944/1/262143.pdf |type=Ph.D. |chapter=The coinage of the Alliance |page=354 |access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref>

==References== {{reflist}}

Category:Ancient currencies Category:Celtic archaeology Category:Coins Category:Currencies of England Category:Currencies of the United Kingdom