{{Short description|Militia groups in Myanmar}} {{Infobox war faction | name = Pyusawhti Militias | native_name = {{lang|my|ပျူစောထီးပြည်သူ့စစ်အဖွဲ့များ}} | native_name_lang = my | logo = Shoulder sleeve insignia of the Myanmar Border Guard Forces.svg | caption = Arm patch of Pyusawhti militias<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tachileik.net/mm/2020/07/ptslogo.html|title=Tatmadaw order to change the arm patch of local people's militias}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=tAmaaiHQQeo|title=Pyusawhti capture and burn down PDF's bases|website=YouTube |date=16 August 2023|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20240530160646/https://youtube.com/watch?v=tAmaaiHQQeo|archive-date=May 30, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://myanmar-now.org/en/news/prominent-pyu-saw-htee-militia-leader-assassinated-in-bago-region/|title=Pyusawhti leader shot dead in Bago region}}</ref> | war = the Internal conflict in Myanmar | identification_symbol_label = Flag of the Pyusawhti militia groups | identification_symbol = 150px|border | active = 1955–1962; 2000s–present | ideology = Buddhist nationalism<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 10, 2023|title=A Silent Sangha? Buddhist Monks in Post-coup Myanmar|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/330-silent-sangha-buddhist-monks-post-coup-myanmar|access-date=2024-04-16 |website=Crisis Group |language=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311133726/https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/330-silent-sangha-buddhist-monks-post-coup-myanmar|archive-date= March 11, 2023}}</ref><br>Militarism<br>Ultranationalism | position = Right-wing to far-right | allies = '''State allies''' * {{flagdeco|MYA}} Myanmar (1956–2021) * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Myanmar Armed Forces.svg}} Tatmadaw (2021–present) * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Myanmar Police Force.svg}} Myanmar Police Force (2021–present) '''Non-state allies''' * {{flagicon image|Flag of the AFPFL.svg|size=25px}} Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (1956–1962)<ref name=irr2/> * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Pa-O National Organisation.svg|size=25px}} Pa-O National Army (2021–present) * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Shanni Nationalities Army.png}} Shanni Nationalities Army (2022–present) | opponents = '''State opponents''' * {{flagdeco|MYA}} '''National Unity Government''' (2021–present)
'''Non-state opponents''' * {{flagicon image|Fighting peacock flag.svg}} All Burma Students' Democratic Front * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Anti-fascist Internationalist Front.jpg}} Anti-Fascist Internationalist Front * Black Leopard Army * {{flagicon image|Chin National Army Flag.svg}} Chin National Army * {{flagicon image|CNO-CNDF_Flag.svg}} Chin National Defence Force * {{flagicon image|Flag of Chin State.svg}} Chinland Defense Force * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Danu people.svg}} Danu People's Liberation Army * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Karen National Defence Organisation.png}} Karen National Defence Organisation * {{flagicon image|Flag of the KNLA.svg}} Karen National Liberation Army * {{flagicon image|KNDF Flag.jpg}} Karenni Nationalities Defence Force * Kawthoolei Army * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kayan people.svg}} Kayan National Army * {{flagicon image|KNLPflag.jpg}} Kayan New Land Army * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kuki people.svg}} Kuki National Army * {{flagicon image|Flag of Myanmar's Royal Dragon Army.svg}} Myanmar Royal Dragon Army * {{flagicon image|Myanmar National Liberation Army.svg}} National Liberation Army * {{flagicon image|Flag of PDF Myanmar.svg}} People's Defence Force * {{flagicon image|Pdfkalay.png}} People's Defence Force - Kalay * {{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Liberation Army (Myanmar).png|size=25px}} People's Liberation Army * {{flagicon image|Flag of People's Revolution Alliance (Magway).svg|border|150px}} People's Revolution Alliance (Magway) * {{flagicon image|Flag of Student Armed Force.svg|frameless}} Student Armed Force * {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ta'ang National Liberation Army.svg}} Ta'ang National Liberation Army * Various Ethnic Armed Organizations | battles = Internal conflict in Myanmar * Conflict in Shan State * Myanmar civil war (2021–present) }}
'''Pyusawhti militias''' ({{langx|my|ပျူစောထီးပြည်သူ့စစ်အဖွဲ့များ}} {{IPA|my|pjù.sɔ́.tʰí pjì.θu̼ sɪʔ.tæʔ.mjá}}, also spelt '''Pyu Saw Htee''') refers to three distinct groups of pro-military militias in Myanmar.<ref name=":0"/>
The term was first used in 1955, when U Nu's government created Pyusawhti paramilitary units to assist the military with counterinsurgency operations. After a coup in 1958, the army tried to disband them as they had become loyal to local ruling-party politicians. However, their attempt was not completely successful.<ref name=irr2/>
In the 2000s, Burmese media began using the term to refer to poorly trained irregulars mobilized by the military.<ref name=":0"/>
In 2021, new village-based, loosely organised militia groups collectively known as the Pyusawhti emerged. These militias, officially called '''People's militias''',<ref name="weed">{{cite news |last=Hein Thar |first= |date= 2024-07-02 |title=‘Killing the weeds’: Village warfare in Myingyan |url=https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/killing-the-weeds-village-warfare-in-myingyan/ |url-status=live |work=Frontier Myanmar |location= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717103925/https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/killing-the-weeds-village-warfare-in-myingyan/ |archive-date=2024-07-17 |access-date=2024-07-25}}</ref> were formed by supporters of the military of Myanmar and those suspected to be its supporters, who feared attacks by the resistance forces, most of which later turned into the People's Defence Forces.<ref name=":0" /> They conduct attacks on the resistance forces and their perceived supporters.<ref name="threat"/> They are given some assistance by the military of Myanmar, which in turn utilises them to compensate for its lack of local knowledge and intelligence, as well as its shortage of manpower.<ref name=":0"/> Observers have noted ties with extremist nationalist groups like the Patriotic Association of Myanmar.<ref name="threat">{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-07-14 |title='A threat to the revolution': Pyusawhti returns to post-coup Myanmar |url=https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/a-threat-to-the-revolution-pyusawhti-returns-to-post-coup-myanmar/ |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=Frontier Myanmar |language=en-US|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315200141/https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/a-threat-to-the-revolution-pyusawhti-returns-to-post-coup-myanmar/|archive-date= March 15, 2023}}</ref>
== History == The name comes from Pyusawhti, a legendary king in Burmese history. In 1955, the Burmese government under U Nu devised a local village and town defence scheme, which used paramilitary units called 'Pyusawhti' to assist the Burmese military in counterinsurgency operations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thang |first=Lian Bawi |date=9 March 2023 |title=As the Conflict Worsens, Myanmar's Junta Arms the Populace |url=https://thediplomat.com/2023/03/as-the-conflict-worsens-myanmars-junta-arms-the-populace/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311084143/https://thediplomat.com/2023/03/as-the-conflict-worsens-myanmars-junta-arms-the-populace/ |archive-date=11 March 2023 |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=The Diplomat |language=en-US}}</ref> The army attempted to disband and disarm them after the 1958 coup with mixed success.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-06 |title=Resisting the Resistance: Myanmar's Pro-military Pyusawhti Militias |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/resisting-resistance-myanmars-pro-military-pyusawhti-militias |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=Crisis Group |language=en|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315192507/https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/resisting-resistance-myanmars-pro-military-pyusawhti-militias|archive-date= March 15, 2023}}</ref> The Pyusawhti quickly became the personal militaries of local leaders appointed by the Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League, the dominant political party at the time. They would rampage rural areas to force votes during the 1956 and 1960 elections. After the 1962 Burmese coup d'état, Ne Win would replace them with his own ''Kakweye'' ({{langx|my|ကာကွယ်ရေး}}; Protection) militia units, making the Pyusawhti obsolete.<ref name=irr2>{{cite magazine |title=From Pyusawhti to the Present |magazine=The Irrawaddy |date=Jan 2003 |author=Pho Thar Aung |volume=11 |number=1 |location=Yangon |url=https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=2822&page=1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319155027/https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=2822&page=1|archive-date= March 19, 2023}}</ref>
The term 'Pyusawhti' re-emerged in the 2000s, used by Burmese media in reference to pro-military networks of irregulars mobilized by the military of Burma.<ref name=":0" /> Burmese security forces had previously deployed similar networks, including ''swan ar shin'' ({{lang|my|စွမ်းအားရှင်}}, {{Lit|masters of force}}), during the crackdown on the Saffron Revolution in 2007.<ref name=":0" /> Similar tactics were used against demonstrators in the Myanmar protests (2021–present), but the irregulars faced strong resistance and were often fought off.<ref name=":0" />
During the 2021 Myanmar civil war, newly formed militias called the Pyusawhti often fought with Tatmadaw troops and helped to occupy contested areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/thirty-junta-soldiers-reportedly-killed-in-upper-myanmar.html|title=Thirty Junta Soldiers reportedly killed in Upper Myanmar|publisher=The Irrawaddy|date=1 February 2022|accessdate=1 February 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204133325/https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/thirty-junta-soldiers-reportedly-killed-in-upper-myanmar.html|archive-date= February 4, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wah |first=Maung Shwe |date=December 19, 2021 |title=At least 20 killed in air raid on Magway village |work=Myanmar NOW |url=https://myanmar-now.org/en/news/at-least-20-killed-in-air-raid-on-magway-village/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405173241/https://myanmar-now.org/en/news/at-least-20-killed-in-air-raid-on-magway-village/|archive-date= April 5, 2023}}</ref> In the wake of the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and ensuing Myanmar civil war (2021–present), the Pyusawhti emerged out of existing local networks of Buddhist nationalists, members of the military's proxy party, Union Solidarity and Development Party, and army veterans<ref>{{cite web | url = https://myanmar.iiss.org/analysis/dryzone | title = The Dry Zone: an existential struggle in central Myanmar | last = Loong | first = Shona | date = July 5, 2022 | website = The Myanmar Conflict Map | publisher = The International Institute for Strategic Studies | access-date = April 16, 2024 | archive-date = July 5, 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220705135016/https://myanmar.iiss.org/analysis/dryzone }}</ref> formed in the lead-up to the 2020 Myanmar general election to defeat the National League for Democracy.<ref name=":0" /> They formed these militias in response to attacks on pro-regime figures and suspected supporters of the military.<ref name=":0" /> Police forces armed them with seized hunting guns and other older weapons.<ref name=":0" /> They were initially not given more effective weapons by the military, as they feared that arms they give might end up in the hands of the resistance forces.<ref name=":0" /> But by January 2024, it began transferring assault rifles to them and allowed them more autonomy.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://myanmar.iiss.org/updates/2024-03 | title = Myanmar's regime shrinks further towards the centre | last = Loong | first = Shona | date = March 2024 | website = The Myanmar Conflict Map | publisher = The International Institute for Strategic Studies | access-date = April 17, 2024 | archive-date = March 31, 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240331145018/https://myanmar.iiss.org/updates/2024-03 }}</ref> Burmese security forces have leveraged Pyusawhti militias for reinforcements, military intelligence, and knowledge of local terrain, especially in the Dry Zone theater.<ref name=":0" />
Observers have noted ties with extremist nationalist groups like the Patriotic Association of Myanmar.<ref name="threat"/>
On 16 August 2024, the State Administration Council junta's Ministry of Border Affairs formed committees to oversee “people’s security and anti-terrorism [militias].” In March of 2025, these "anti-terrorism groups" in the Mandalay Region were being supplied arms such as the G3 rifle. These forces consist mostly of men too old for regular military service, and are dressed in blue uniforms.<ref> [https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-junta-arming-grassroots-militias-to-control-urban-centers.html Myanmar Junta Forms Nationwide Militia Panel Amid Mounting Losses]. The Irrawaddy. August 20, 2024.</ref> <ref> [https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-junta-arming-grassroots-militias-to-control-urban-centers.html Myanmar Junta Arming Grassroots Militias to Control Urban Centers]. Hein Htoo Zan. The Irrawaddy. March 20, 2024.</ref>
Since 2021, the Warazup People's Militia (along with ethnic Lisu militias) supported Tatmadaw operations against the Kachin Independence Army. Warazup claims that they were formed as a self-defence group.<ref> [https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/militias-10162023155601.html Myanmar junta enlists ethnic militias in fight for Kachin state]. October 16, 2023. Radio Free Asia.</ref> Many Kachin locals accuse the Warazup militias of extortion and looting.<ref> [https://kachinnews.com/2023/04/07/warazup-pmf-detentions-a-money-making-scheme-say-locals/ Warazup PMF detentions a money making scheme, say locals] April 7. 2023. Kachin News Group </ref><ref> [https://kachinnews.com/2025/04/17/lawa-village-devastated-100-homes-burned-civilians-detained-amid-heavy-fighting/ Lawa Village Devastated: 100 Homes Burned, Civilians Detained Amid Heavy Fighting] April 17. 2025. Kachin News Group </ref> Documents acquired by The Irrawaddy from a whistleblower in the Department of Civil Aviation revealed that the Warazup PMF received weapons from the Tatmadaw via Myanmar National Airlines aircraft.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Myanmar Junta Using Civilian Passenger Flights to Transport Weapons|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/myanmar-junta-using-civilian-passenger-flights-to-transport-weapons.html|access-date=2026-02-27|publisher=The Irrawaddy|date=February 26, 2026}}</ref>
== Effect on local communities == {{hatnote|This section deals with Pyusawhti militias after the coup in 2021.}}
=== Increase in communal violence=== Pyusawhti militias target resistance members and participate in atrocities committed by regime forces. Such actions lead to retaliations by the resistance. Consequently, both sides engage in reprisals against suspected supporters of the opposite side.<ref name=":0"/>
Some villages with Pyusawhti militias face social isolation, and the People’s Defense Forces restrict their access to necessities like food and fuel.<ref name="weed"/>
=== Forcible recruitment ===
Pyusawhti militias are accused of forcible recruitment. Locals claimed that they and soldiers of the military of Myanmar threatened to cut off food and water supply or seize houses if they didn't agree to join them.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated-->|date= 2022-05-18|title=Conflict between Myanmar's proxy forces may outlast a political resolution|url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/proxies-05182022213414.html |url-status=live |work=Radio Free Asia |location= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519015624/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/proxies-05182022213414.html |archive-date=2022-05-19 |access-date=2024-04-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ye Mon |first= |date=2023-12-06 |title=Cannon fodder: Inside Myanmar's Pyusawhti militias |url=https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/cannon-fodder-inside-myanmars-pyusawhti-militias/ |url-status=live |work=Frontier Myanmar |location= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105065601/https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/cannon-fodder-inside-myanmars-pyusawhti-militias/ |archive-date=2024-01-05 |access-date=2024-04-17}}</ref>
== Myingyan Pyusawhti militia force == One of the strongest Pyusawhti militias is based in Myingyan Township, an area regarded as strategically important in the ongoing conflict. The Myingyan militias is led by Thida Yu Mon. Resistance forces have described the township as central to control of the wider region, stating that gaining control of Myingyan would effectively determine control over Central Myanmar. The area has therefore been the focus of major offensives, including the "Myingyan District Special Operation" launched by the National Unity Government's Ministry of Defence. Owing to the district's strategic importance, junta authorities have supplied the militia with weapons and ammunition. During clashes in the area, junta forces have also provided air support to operations involving Myingyan-based militias. The group operates primarily in Myingyan, Taungtha, and Ngazun townships.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news |title=မြင်းခြံ စစ်ရေး၊ ခင်ပွန်းဆိုသူ ဖမ်းခံရမှု ဒေါ်သီတာယုမွန်ဘာပြောလဲ |url=https://www.bbc.com/burmese/articles/cdex3l04096o |work=BBC News မြန်မာ |date=15 January 2026 |language=my}}</ref>
The Myingyan Pyusawhti militias have been accused of human rights violations against civilians. Local sources and human rights observers have alleged that the militia was involved in arrests, raids, and violence against civilians in villages around Myingyan.<ref>{{cite news |title=မြင်းခြံတွင် အုပ်ချုပ်ရေးမှူး ဇနီးအား ပျူခေါင်းဆောင် ဒေါ်သီတာယုမွန် ရိုက်နှက် |url=https://bur.mizzima.com/2025/07/29/63579 |work=Mizzima |date=29 July 2025}}</ref> According to residents cited in media reports, approximately 20 victims were individually identified among those confirmed killed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Civilians arrested and killed by Myanmar junta and Pyu Saw Htee militias in Myingyan |url=https://www.bnionline.net/en/news/civilians-arrested-and-killed-myanmar-junta-and-pyu-saw-htee-militias-myingyan |work=Burma News International |date=24 July 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
A source cited by ''Mizzima'' reported that a man was killed during a joint operation by junta forces and a Pyusawhti group in a village in Myingyan. According to the report, the victim was burned and beheaded, and his body parts were left in separate locations. The killing was attributed to a Pyusawhti unit led by Thida Yu Mon. The same report stated that at least 26 people were killed in the incident, including civilians, pregnant women, and children. Homes in no fewer than 10 villages were reportedly burned, and civilian houses were looted and subjected to extortion.<ref name="miz">{{cite news |title=ရက်စက်မှုကြောင့် မြန်မာပြည်အလယ်ပိုင်းတွင် သြဇာကြီးထွားလာသည့် ပျူခေါင်းဆောင် သီတာယုမွန် [Rise of Pyu Leader Thida Yu Mon's Influence in Central Myanmar Amid Allegations of Brutality] |url=https://bur.mizzima.com/2025/09/19/68108 |work=Mizzima |date=September 19, 2025 |language=my}}</ref>
== References == {{reflist}}
== External links ==
* [https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/resisting-resistance-myanmars-pro-military-pyusawhti-militias Crisis Group report on Pyusawhti militias]
{{Insurgent groups in Myanmar}}
Category:Paramilitary organisations based in Myanmar Category:Military of Myanmar