Pumpokol language

{{Short description|Extinct Yeniseian language}} {{Infobox language | name = Pumpokol | states = Russia | extinct = 1740 | ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=The ASJP Database - Wordlist Pumpokol |url=https://asjp.clld.org/languages/PUMPOKOL |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=asjp.clld.org}}</ref> | familycolor = Dené-Yeniseian | fam1 = Yeniseian | fam2 = Pumpokolic<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fortescue |first=Michael D. |title=Mid-holocene language connections between Asia and North America |last2=Vajda |first2=Edward J. |date=2022 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-43681-7 |series=Brill's studies in the indigenous languages of the Americas |location=Leiden; Boston}}</ref> | iso3 = xpm | glotto = pump1237 | glottorefname = Pumpokol | linglist = xpm | map = Pumpokol language.png | mapcaption = The historical, pre-contact range of Pumpokol.<ref name=":0" /> | region = Yenisei | ethnicity = Pumpokols | nativename = {{lang|xpm|Gebéŋ-aj, Gebèng-ai}}<ref name=":1" /> }} '''Pumpokol''' (Pumpokol: {{Lang|xpm|gebeŋ-aj}}<ref name=":1" />) is one of the Yeniseian languages, formerly spoken by the Pumpokol people ({{Lang|xpm|Gebéŋ}}). It has been extinct since the 18th century. It shares many features with the ancient Xiongnu<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vovin |first=Alexander |year=2000 |title=Did the Xiong-nu speak a Yeniseian language? |journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=87–104 |jstor=41928223}}</ref> and Jie languages,<ref name="Vovin et al. 2016">{{Cite journal |last=Vovin |first=Alexander |last2=Vajda |first2=Edward |last3=de la Vaissière |first3=Etienne |date=2016 |title=Who Were the *Kjet (羯) and What Language Did They Speak? |url=https://www.academia.edu/28673935 |journal=Journal Asiatique |volume=304 |issue=1 |pages=125–144 |doi=10.2143/JA.304.1.3146838}}</ref> and according to Alexander Vovin, Edward Vajda, and Étienne de la Vaissière, is closely related to them. It is poorly attested, and some of the vocabulary has been identified as being Yugh, not Pumpokol.<ref name="Georg" />

== Classification == It has traditionally been viewed as being grouped with Arin in an Arin-Pumpokol subfamily of Southern Yeniseian, but Vajda (2024) challenges this, stating that "Arin, Pumpokol and Kott-Assan display no shared innovations to support them as an opposite "'Southern Yeniseian' branch" of Yeniseian, reflecting only their geographical position rather than a genealogical grouping.<ref name=":0" /> According to O. Tailleur, it should be considered a dialect of the Ket language, as most materials labeled 'Pumpokol' are in reality of Ketic affiliation, not Pumpokol. Furthermore, the term 'Pumpokol' was originally geographic, referring to the name of a town and a former district (volost),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Batashev |first=Mikhail S. |date=June 2013 |title=Ethnic History of Indigenous Peoples of the Yeniseysky Uyezd in the 17 Century and Their Fortunes |url=https://elib.sfu-kras.ru/bitstream/handle/2311/9837/12_Batashev.pdf;jsessionid=E8B5A6E043C584293D540A767EB69BB5?sequence=1 |journal=Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences}}</ref> originating from {{Langx|kca|pum-poxəl|label=Khanty}} "grassy village".<ref name="Georg">{{Cite book |last=Georg |first=Stefan |title=Introduction, phonology, morphology |last2=Georg |first2=Stefan |date=2007 |publisher=Global Oriental |isbn=978-1-901903-58-4 |series=A descriptive grammar of Ket (Yenisei-Ostyak) / Stefan Georg |location=Folkestone}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Vajda |first=Edward |title=8 The Yeniseian language family |date=2024-02-19 |work=The Languages and Linguistics of Northern Asia |pages=365–480 |editor-last=Vajda |editor-first=Edward |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110556216-008/html |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=De Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110556216-008 |isbn=978-3-11-055621-6|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Pumpokols and Yughs frequently mixed with each other in the Pumpokol volost. This may be the reason for the mislabeling of these words.

== Phonology == Pumpokol is notable among the Yeniseian languages in that the phoneme {{IPAslink|s}} is often replaced by {{IPAslink|t}}. This idiosyncrasy of Pumpokol seems to be shared with the language of the Jie, suggesting that Jie is more closely related to Pumpokol than other Yeniseian languages. For example the Jie word {{lang|mis|kot}} 'catch' seems to be a cognate with the Ket word {{lang|ket|qos}}, having the same sound change.<ref name="Vovin et al. 2016" />

Moreover, this aforementioned characteristic of Pumpokol has been used by Vajda to demonstrate that Yeniseian-derived hydronyms in northern Mongolia (the southernmost known extent of Yeniseian influence), {{Lang|xpm|-tat}}, {{Lang|xpm|-dat}}, {{Lang|xpm|-tet}}, {{Lang|xpm|-det}}, {{Lang|xpm|-tom}}, {{Lang|xpm|-dɨt}} are exclusively Pumpokolic.<ref name="Vovin et al. 2016" /><ref name=":1" /> Since the Jie, as a tribe of the Xiongnu, are likely to have come from the same area, rather than further north, this finding lends credence to the possibility that Jie is a Pumpokolic language.

=== Vowels === The reconstructed vowels of Pumpokol are as follows, based on G. F. Müller's materials:<ref name=":1" /> {| class="wikitable" border="1" style="text-align:center;" ! !Front !Central !Back |- !Close |i {{IPAblink|i}} |ɨ {{IPAblink|ɨ}} |u {{IPAblink|u}} |- !Close-mid |e {{IPAblink|e}} | |o {{IPAblink|o}} |- !Open-mid |ɛ {{IPAblink|ɛ}} | |ɔ {{IPAblink|ɔ}} |- !Open | |a {{IPAblink|a}} | |}

=== Consonants === According to G. F. Müller's notes, the consonants of Pumpokol are as follows:<ref name=":1" /> {| class="wikitable" border="1" style="text-align:center;" ! colspan="2" | !Labial !Dental !Palatal !Velar !Uvular !Laryngeal/ Pharyngeal |- ! rowspan="2" |Plosive !{{Small|voiceless}} |p {{IPAblink|p}} |t {{IPAblink|t}} |(t'''ʼ''' {{IPAblink|tʲ}}) |k {{IPAblink|k}} |q {{IPAblink|q}} |(ʔ {{IPAblink|ʔ}})1 |- !{{Small|voiced}} |b {{IPAblink|b}} |d {{IPAblink|d}} |(d'''ʼ''' {{IPAblink|dʲ}}) |g {{IPAblink|g}} (g'''ʼ''' {{IPAblink|gʲ}}) | | |- ! rowspan="2" |Fricative !voiceless |f {{IPAblink|f}} |s {{IPAblink|s}} | | |x {{IPAblink|χ}}, xʼ {{IPAblink|χʲ}} | -h- {{IPAblink|h}}?2 |- !voiced |(v {{IPAblink|v}}) |(z {{IPAblink|z}}) |(ž {{IPAblink|ʒ}}) | | | |- ! colspan="2" |Affricate |(pf {{IPAblink|pf}} pʰ {{IPAblink|pʰ}}) |c {{IPAblink|t͡s}} |č {{IPAblink|t͡ʃ}} (dž {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}) | | | |- ! colspan="2" |Nasal |m {{IPAblink|m}} |n {{IPAblink|n}} |(nʼ {{IPAblink|nʲ}}) |ŋ {{IPAblink|ŋ}} | | |- ! colspan="2" |Lateral | |l {{IPAblink|l}} |(lʼ {{IPAblink|lʲ}}) | | | |- ! colspan="2" |Approximant | | |j {{IPAblink|j}} | | | |- ! colspan="2" |Trill | |r {{IPAblink|r}} | | | | |}

# {{IPAblink|ʔ}} only occurs as a prosodic device of tone, as in other Yeniseian languages.<ref name=":1" /> # Pumpokol word-initial {{IPAblink|h}} only sometimes corresponds to Arin {{IPAblink|k}}, and is not present in other Yeniseian languages.

The phonemes {{angbr|č}}, {{angbr|dʼ}}, and {{angbr|dž}} are allophones of {{angbr|č}}, {{angbr|k}} and {{angbr|g}} are allophones of {{angbr|k}}, and {{angbr|x}}, {{angbr|q}} and {{angbr|xʼ}} are allophones of {{Angbr|χ}}.<ref name=":1" /> Thus, the phonemes in brackets are not really phonologically relevant.

Sibilant phonemes are absent in words of native Yeniseian origin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Пумпокольский язык {{!}} Библиотека сибирского краеведения |url=https://bsk.nios.ru/enciklodediya/pumpokolskiy-yazyk |access-date=2024-10-27 |website=bsk.nios.ru}}</ref>

== Vocabulary == Selected Pumpokol words are presented here, sourced from Werner 2005.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Werner |first=Heinrich |title=Die Jenissej-Sprachen des 18. Jahrhunderts |date=2005 |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-05239-9 |series=Veröffentlichungen der Societas Uralo-Altaica |location=Wiesbaden}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Word !Meaning !Comment |- |{{lang|xpm|ab}} |father | |- |{{lang|xpm|am}} |mother | |- |{{lang|xpm|ak}} |to lie down | |- |{{lang|xpm|hóxon}} |forest, tree | |- |{{lang|xpm|eg}} |egg |cf. Ket {{Lang|ket|ɛˀj}} |- |{{lang|xpm|fala}} |son | |- |{{lang|xpm|falla}} |boy, son | |- |{{lang|xpm|hixem}} |Sun | |- |{{lang|xpm|xaj}} |mountain | |- |{{lang|xpm|kut}} |horse | |- |{{lang|xpm|meža}} |measure |Russian loan |- |{{lang|xpm|píkola}} |daughter, girl | |- |{{lang|xpm|hukút}} |house, village |Literally "together-tent" |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="16" |Pumpokol words in Pallas 1789<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pallas |first=Peter Simon |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=mPBLAAAAcAAJ&rdid=book-mPBLAAAAcAAJ&rdot=1 |title=Linguarum totius orbis vocabularia comparativa |date=1786 |publisher=Schnoor |language=ru}}</ref> |- ! Russian gloss |бог||небо||вечер||лес||дерево||земля||поле||снег||вода||дух||вино |свинья |труд |здоров |они |- !English translation |God |sky, heaven |evening |forest |tree |earth |field |snow |water |spirit |wine |pig |work |healthy |they |- !Pumpokol translation |''{{lang|xpm|еч}}''||''{{lang|xpm|еч}}''||''{{lang|xpm|бичиди}}'', ''{{lang|xpm|бись}}''||''{{lang|xpm|акь}}''||''{{lang|xpm|оксы}}''|| ''{{lang|xpm|бинг}}''||''{{lang|xpm|ембагь}}''||''{{lang|xpm|тыгь}}'', ''{{lang|xpm|бечь}}''|| ''{{lang|xpm|уль}}''||''{{lang|xpm|бей}}'' |''{{lang|xpm|бино}}'' |''{{Lang|xpm|фохириць}}'' |''{{Lang|xpm|ирдлег}}'' |''{{Lang|xpm|етыкеть}}'' |''{{Lang|xpm|буегь}}'' |}

=== Numerals === {| class="wikitable" |+Pumpokol numerals<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pallas |first=Peter Simon |author-link=Peter Simon Pallas |url=https://books.googleusercontent.com/books/content?req=AKW5QaczRzIAS63TrPmErNLK7CUcOlxE48AjnSiKoCSJe8KAFcnk-nGRpyUYFrkOgiiMEYcgz7SwjgOaBMfKzHnhjo2YPLLt_fMBehLpJivwpNfs8bb5VhiXMLaCOHCe8N1XT5t6g9npnc66k9AHQsMir8jB6Gu1X0hQ3RLOOvEYTHlRB4yE3wdnDIQevAriOOoIkXTVytuT6_9bgUkt10Knb80-bp4V-r1h9iA9a67tsHjTnXKIYub86vjx7XHv1rQzkNlN-pm5WyOF0cBlC9DDpLy-U8yn5ub2fivZRp4jpzoMiw21_ic |title=Linguarum Totius Orbis Vocabularia Comparativa, Pars 2 |date=1789 |pages=484-485}}</ref> !No. !Numerals (Werner 2005) !Numerals (Pallas 1789) |- |1 |{{IPA|xúta}} |{{lang|xpm|ху́та}} |- |2 |{{IPA|hínɛaŋ}} ~ {{IPA|hínɛa}} |{{lang|xpm|нинеангь}} |- |3 |{{IPA|dóŋa}} |{{lang|xpm|донга}} |- |4 |{{IPA|ciaŋ}} |{{lang|xpm|ци́ангь}} |- |5 |{{IPA|héjlaŋ}} |{{lang|xpm|хе́нлангь}} |- |6 |{{IPA|aɡɡiaŋ}} ~ {{IPA|áɡiang}} |{{lang|xpm|аггьянгь}} |- |7 |{{IPA|ónʼaŋ}} |{{lang|xpm|оньянгь}} |- |8 |{{IPA|hinbasiaŋ}} |{{lang|xpm|г̧инбассїангь}} |- |9 |{{IPA|xúta-xamóssa-xaíaŋ}} |{{lang|xpm|ху́та-ямосса-хайянгь}} |- |10 |{{IPA|xaiáŋ}} ({{IPA|xajáŋ}}) |{{lang|xpm|хайянгь}} |- |11 |{{IPA|xúta}}-iga-{{IPA|xaiáŋ}} | |- |12 |{{IPA|hínɛa}}-{{IPA|xaiáŋ}} | |- |20 |{{IPA|hédiaŋ}} | |- |30 |{{IPA|doŋbaksɨn}} | |- |40 |{{IPA|situdi}} | |- |50 |{{IPA|xeiltudi}} | |- |60 |{{IPA|altudi}} | |- |70 |{{IPA|óntudi}} | |- |80 |{{IPA|hinbassitudi}} | |- |90 |{{IPA|xatósaxa}} | |- |100 |{{IPA|útamsa}} |{{lang|xpm|утанса}} |- |200 |{{IPA|hin-útamsa}} | |- |300 |{{IPA|doŋ-útamsa}} | |- |400 |{{IPA|ci-útamsa}} | |- |500 |{{IPA|xeil-útamsa}} | |- |600 |{{IPA|ag-útamsa}} | |- |700 |{{IPA|on-útamsa}} | |- |800 |{{IPA|hintassi-útamsa}} | |- |900 |{{IPA|xatóssa-xága-útamsa}} | |- |1000 |{{IPA|xa-útamsa}} |{{lang|xpm|ха-утанса}} |}

== References == {{reflist}}

==External links== * [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\yen\yen&limit=-1 Pumpokol basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pumpokol Language}} Category:Extinct languages of Asia Category:Yeniseian languages Category:Languages extinct in the 18th century Category:Extinct languages of Russia