{{Short description|Coin}} '''Pūl''' ({{langx|ru|пул}}, {{langx|tt-Arab|پول}})<ref>{{cite web |via=Academia.org |url=https://www.academia.edu/501990/Persian_Legends_on_Islamic_Coins_From_Traditional_Arabic_to_the_Challenge_of_Leadership |title=Persian Legends on Islamic Coins: From Traditional Arabic to the Challenge of Leadership |author=Vladimir Nastich |access-date=16 July 2017 }}</ref> was a historical currency that circulated in [[Russian Turkestan]]. Pūls were used in [[Golden Horde]], [[Afghan pul|Afghanistan]], [[Emirate of Bukhara|Bukhara]],<ref>{{cite |work=[[ANS Magazine]] |url=http://numismatics.org/magazine/bukharaspring07/ |title=The Coinage of the Mangit Dynasty of Bukhara |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715160835/http://numismatics.org/magazine/bukharaspring07/ |archive-date=2020-07-15 |author=Peter Donovan |access-date=16 July 2017 }}</ref> [[Chagatai Khanate]], [[Kokand tenga|Kokand Khanate]], [[Dzungar Khanate]], and other Eurasian principalities, it was a copper coin of very small denomination, {{frac|1|60}} of an [[altyn]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Eric R. Schena |title=The Influence of Islamic Coins on the Russian Monetary System: An Introduction |journal=As-Sikka: The Online Journal of The Islamic Coins Group |volume=1 |issue=2 <!-- date? page numbers? 1999–2000 }}</ref>
== Etymology == From [[Middle Persian]] {{lang|pal-Latn|*pōl}}, Borrowing from [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὀβολός}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|obolós}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/greece-xiv |title=Greece xiv. Greek Loanwords in Medieval New Persian |work=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] }}</ref>
== In the Golden Horde ==
In the [[Golden Horde]] pūl coins were officially set to a rate of 16 pūls per ''dannik'' as was escribed on many pūl coins, and were often struck by banks at the request of private customers who exchanged their raw copper for coins. The Khans, and their financial advisors often manipulated the market value of pūls by issuing new coins with the inscription “a new pūl” while declaring all other pūls in circulation to no longer be valid media of exchange, and the population was forced to exchange their old pūl coins for new ones. Generally speaking the newer pūl coins tended to be heavier, though their weights weren't standard. Officially they remained set at 16 pūls per ''dannik'' however this was purely symbolic and many local government issued their own exchange rates.<ref>{{cite |author=German A. Fedorov-Davydov |url=http://www.paleog.com/im/fd/summary.pdf |title=The Monetary System of The Golden Horde |translator=Translated by L. I. Smirnova |publisher=Holden |access-date=14 July 2017 }}</ref>
== Dzungar pūls under Manchu rule == {{Main|Qing dynasty coinage#Xinjiang}}
After [[Dzungar–Qing Wars|the Manchu conquest of the Dzungar Khanate]] pūl coins were offered by the [[Qing government]] to be exchanged for [[Cash (Chinese coin)|”Red Cash”]] at a ratio of 2 pūl for 1 cash, but after 1762 the exchange was altered to 1:1. Under the Qing dynasty pūl coins continued to be produced until 1745, and the Manchus stopped pulling them out of circulation to cast “Red Cash” in 1768. Small amounts of pūl coins returned to the market during the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–77)]].<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=[[Náprstek Museum]] |url=http://orient.avcr.cz/miranda2/export/sitesavcr/data.avcr.cz/humansci/orient/kontakty/pracovnici/publikace/Klimes/coins.pdf |title=Xinjiang Cast Cash in the Collection of the Náprstek Museum, Prague |author=Ondřej Klimeš |journal=Annals of the Náprstek Museum |volume=25 |pages=109–122 |date=2004 |acess-date=5 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Michael Fedorov |author2=Chokan Valikhanov |title=On Monetary Systems and Money Circulation in East Turkestan, Khoqand and Bukhara Khanates |journal=Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter |issue=163 |date=Spring 2000. |pages=10–12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite |author=Yuan Mu |title=Qingdai Xinjiang huobi shi |trans-title=History of Currency in Qing Xinjiang |publisher=[[Xinjiang University]] Press |location=[[Ürümqi]] |date=1994 |language=cmn }}</ref>
=== Pūl coins of Yaqub Beg ===
The [[Tajik people|Tajik]] Dungan leader [[Yakub Beg of Yettishar|Yaqub Beg]] first issued pūl coins with the name of the late Kokandi leader Malla Khan (1858–1862), and despite being minted in Kashgar, Xinjiang they bore the inscription “Struck in the Mint of Kokand”, however from 1873 new coins produced under Yaqub Beg bearing the name of [[Abdülaziz]], Sultan of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and this time these pūls did bear the inscription "Struck in the Mint of Kashgar, the Capital".<ref>{{cite book |author=Svat Soucek |title=A History of [[Inner Asia]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2000 |page=265 }}</ref>
== Pūl coins in the Kokand Khanate ==
The monetary system of the [[Khanate of Kokand]] was dependent on the influx of foreign coins into its territory, particularly coins from [[Bukhara]]. However under the reign of Narbuta Beg monetary reforms were enacted to produce local coinage, pūl (or ''ful'') coins which were referred to as “black money”, and at the time of their introduction a single pūl could buy a [[sheep]].<ref>{{Cite |author= T. K. Beycembiyev <!-- Бейсембиев Т. К. --> |script-title=ru:Как источник “Тарихи Шахрухи” |location=[[Almaty]] |date=1985 |page=67 |language=ru }}</ref> The [[mint (facility)|mint]] of the khanate had a capacity to produce 1000 coins on a daily basis.<ref>{{Cite |author=E. F. Timkovsky <!--Тимковский Е. Ф. --> |script-title=ru:Путешествие в Китай через Монголию в 1820–1821 годах. Частъ II. |trans-title=Journey to China through Mongolia in 1820–1821, Part 2 |location=[[Saint Petersburg]] |date=1824 |page=91 |language=ru }}</ref><ref>{{cite |author=A. Khoroshkhin <!-- Хорошхин А. --> |script-title=ru:Заметки о Кокане |trans-title=Notes on Kokan |encyclopedia=Turkestan Collection |volume=23 |date=1870 |page=187 |language=ru }}</ref>
The exchange between copper, silver, and gold coinages as well as the purchasing power of Kokandi pūls often changed, Kokandi pūls generally weighed 1 ''[[mithqāl]]'' (4.55 g), in the 1850s 6 pūls were needed for 1 ''Miri'', and 24 pūls for a silver coin.<ref>{{cite |author=N. I. Potanin <!--Потанин Н. И. --> |script-title=ru:Записки о Кокандском ханстве хорунжего Потанина |title=Notes on the Kokand Khanate by Ensign Potanin |publisher=[[Russian Geographical Society|Imperial Russian Geographical Society]] |volume=5 |issue=18 |location=[[Saint Petersburg]] |date=1856 |page=278 |language=ru }}</ref><ref>{{cite |script-title=ru:Обозрение Кокандского ханства в нынешном его состоянии |trans-title=Review of the Kokand Khanate in its current state |journal=[[Russian Geographical Society|Notes of the Russian Geographical Society]] |volume=3 |location=[[Saint Petersburg]] |date=1849 |page=211 |language=ru }}</ref><ref>{{cite |author=Ch. Ch. Balikhanov <!--Валиханов Ч. Ч.--> |script-title=ru:состоянии Алтышара или шести восточных городов китайской провинции в 1858–1859 годах / Собрание сочинений в 5-томах |trans-title=On the state of Altyshar or six eastern cities of the Chinese province in 1858–1859, Collected Works in 5 volumes |location=[[Almaty]] |volume=3 |date=1985 |page=218 |language=ru }}</ref> Silver coins minted by Mingbashi Musulmonqul were valued at 24–32 pūls, this the 1870s this fluctuated between 42 and 64 pūls with the highest exchange rate being at 100 pūls.<ref>{{cite |script-title=ru:Весы и меры в Средней Азии |trans-title=Scales and measures in Central Asia |work=Turkestan News |date=1875 |issue=16 |language=ru }}</ref> Generally 3 Kokandi pūls were valued at 1 Russian silver [[Russian ruble|kopek]], and Kokandi pūls also circulated in the [[Khanate of Khiva]], the [[Emirate of Bukhara]], and the Chinese city of [[Kashgar]].<ref>{{cite thesis |author=A. G. Adinarov <!--Адинаров А. Г.--> |script-title=ru:Торговые взаимоотношения между Туркестанским генерал-губернаторством и Кокандским ханством |trans-title=Trade relations between the Turkestan Governorate-General and the Kokand Khanate |degree=Historical Sciences |date=1946 |page=136 |language=ru }}</ref><ref>{{Cite |script-title=kk:ЎзР МДА, И. 1-фонд, 16-рўйхат, 876-иш, 7-варақнинг орқаси ва 8-варақ. |language=kk }}</ref><ref>{{Cite |author=Z. Sh. Madrakhimob <!--Мадрахимов З. Ш.--> |via=Moloch.ru |url=https://moluch.ru/archive/60/8647/ |title=From the history of coin-money relations in the khanate of Kokand |work=Молодой учёный. [Young Scientist] |date=2014 |issue=1 |pages=291–293 |access-date=15 July 2017 |language=en }}</ref>
== Pūl coins of Tashkent ==
In 1784 [[Tashkent]] became independent from the [[Kazakh Khanate]], this was briefly followed by the concurrent rule of 4 ''ḥākims'' (circuit justice administrators), the ''ḥākim'' Shaykhantaur took control from the others and proclaimed himself as the only ruler of Tashkent. As the title of ''ḥākim'' was elected this period in Tashkent's history is sometimes referred to as the “Republic of Tashkent”, during this era Tashkent issued its own copper pūl (or ''Fulūs''), and silver ''tanga'' coins.<ref>''14th All-Russian Numismatic Conference'' ([[St. Petersburg]], April 2007).</ref>
Pūl coins produced in Tashkent generally had 2 sizes with the lower denomination pūl being between {{convert|14|and(-)|17|mm}} in diameter, while those of higher value would be {{cvt|20-24|mm}}. The coins often contained the mint mark of Tashkent in Persian as “Coinage of Tashkent” ({{langx|fa|ضرب تاشكند}}), and had a Persian blessing inscribed on them reading “May the future life be good” ({{langx|fa|عاقبت خير باد}}). The obverse of Tashkent's pūls often would not bear any [[mint mark]]s but various images like [[cat]]s, [[bird]]s, [[fish]], or mythological creatures.<ref>{{cite conference |publisher=[[Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences]] |url=http://charm.ru/info/library/Nastich/Nastich=INC-14_Paper.pdf |title=Latest Contributions to the Numismatic History of Central Asia (late 18–19th Century) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929044035/http://charm.ru/info/library/Nastich/Nastich=INC-14_Paper.pdf |archive-date=2017-09-29 |conference=14th International Numismatic Congress (Glasgow 2009), Section IV: Oriental and African Studies |author=Vladimir Nastich |location=[[Moscow]] |date=July 2009 <!-- last updated 11 November 2010 --> |access-date=15 July 2017 }}</ref> These coins continued to be produced until Tashkent was annexed by the Khanate of Kokand in 1809.
== See also == {{Portal|Money}} * [[Afghan afghani]] * [[Dirham]] * [[Yuan dynasty coinage]] * [[Manghir]]
== References == {{reflist}}
== Literature == * Uzdennikov V. Coins of Russia (1700—1917): Third edition. Moscow, Collector's Books; IP Media Inc., 2004 (Узденников В. Монеты России (1700—1917): Издание третье. — М.: Collector's Books; IP Media Inc., 2004). * Album, S. 1998. ''A Checklist of Islamic Coins, 2nd ed.'' * Bosworth, C. E. 1996. ''The New Islamic Dynasties''. New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. * Bregel, Y. 1988. S.v. “Mangit/Mangits” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., 6: 417–419. * Burnasheva, R. 1967. Monety Bukharskogo Khanstva pri Mangytakh: Epigrafika Vostoka, 18: 113–128. 4 plates, 3 tables. (Shah Murad, Haydar Tora, and Husayn). * Burnasheva, R. 1972. Monety Bukharskogo Khanstva pri Mangytakh: Epigrafika Vostoka, 21:69-80. 4 tables (Nasr Allah, Muzaffar, ʿAbd al-Ahad, and ʿAlim Khan). * Davidovich, E. A. 1964. Istoriia Monetnogo Dela Srednei Azii XVII-XVIII vv. [Gold and Silver of the Janids]. Dushanbe. * Fedorov, M. 2002. “Money circulation under the Janids and Manghits of Bukhara, and the Khans of Khoqand and Khiva.” Supplement to ONS Newsletter 171. * Kennedy, H., ed. 2002. ''An Historical Atlas of Islam''. Brill. * Krause, C. L., and C. Mishler. 2002. [[Standard Catalog of World Coins]], 1701–1800, 3rd ed. * Krause, C. L., and C. Mishler. 2004. Standard Catalog of World Coins, 1801–1900, 4th ed. * Krause, C. L., and C. Mishler. 2005. Standard Catalog of World Coins, 32nd ed. * Lane-Poole, S. 1882. The Coinage of Bukhara in the British Museum: The Mangit Dynasty, 74–85. (No AE coins listed). * Torrey, C. C. 1950. “Gold coins of Khokand and Bukhara.” Numismatic Notes and Monographs 117.
[[Category:Modern obsolete currencies]] [[Category:Business in Russia]] [[Category:Economic history of Russia]]