{{short description|Scientific study of mental disorders}} {{hatnote group|{{for|the academic journal|Psychopathology (journal)}}{{Distinguish|Psychopathy}}}} {{Use British English|date=September 2021}}
'''Psychopathology''' is the study of mental illness. It includes the signs and symptoms of all mental disorders. The field includes [[Abnormal psychology|abnormal cognition, maladaptive behavior, and experiences]] which differ according to [[Social norm|social norms]]. This discipline is an in-depth look into symptoms, behaviors, causes, course, development, categorization, treatments, strategies, and more.
[[Biological psychopathology]] is the study of the biological [[etiology]] of abnormal cognitions, behaviour and experiences. [[Child psychopathology]] is a specialization applied to children and adolescents.
==History== Early explanations for [[Mental illness|mental illnesses]] were influenced by religious belief and [[superstition]]. Psychological conditions that are now classified as mental disorders were initially attributed to possessions by evil spirits, demons, and the devil. This idea was widely accepted up until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loschen |first=E. L. |date=April 1974 |title=Psychiatry and religion: A variable history |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01532755 |journal=Journal of Religion & Health |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=137–141 |doi=10.1007/bf01532755 |pmid=24408386 |issn=0022-4197|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The Greek physician [[Hippocrates]] was one of the first to reject the idea that mental disorders were the result of possession by demons or the devil, and instead looked to natural causes. He firmly believed the symptoms of mental disorders were due to diseases originating in the brain. Hippocrates suspected that these states of insanity were due to imbalances of fluids in the body. He identified four fluids in particular: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. This later became the basis of the chemical imbalance theory used widely today.
Furthermore, not far from Hippocrates, the philosopher [[Plato]] would come to argue the mind, body, and spirit worked as a unit. Any imbalance brought to these compositions of the individual could bring distress or lack of harmony within the individual. This philosophical idea would remain in perspective until the seventeenth century. It was later challenged by Laing (1960) along with Laing and Esterson (1964) who noted that it was the family environment that led to the formation of adaptive strategies.
In the eighteenth century's [[Romantic Movement]], the idea that healthy parent-child relationships provided sanity became a prominent idea. Philosopher [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] introduced the notion that trauma in childhood could have negative implications later in adulthood.
In the 1600s and 1700s insane asylums started to be opened to house those with mental disorders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/ |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=www.nlm.nih.gov |archive-date=2024-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117000000/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lunatic asylum|Asylums]] were places where restraint techniques and treatments could be tested on patients who were confined. These were early precursors for psychiatric hospitals. [[File:State insane asylum, Reno, Nevada.jpg|thumb|A state insane asylum in Nevada. ]]
In 1875 the German book ''[[Textbook of Forensic Psychopathology]]'' was published, written by [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], which became a standard [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] textbook for [[University|Universities]] across [[Germany]].<ref name=":3">{{Citation |last=Triarhou |first=Lazaros C. |title=Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902) |date=2022 |work=The Brain Masters of Vienna: Psychology and Neuroscience Pioneers around the Secession up to the Anschluss |pages=245–248 |editor-last=Triarhou |editor-first=Lazaros C. |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-13052-6_47 |access-date=2024-08-31 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-13052-6_47 |isbn=978-3-031-13052-6 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2024-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240821201955/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-13052-6_47 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The scientific discipline of psychopathology was founded by [[Karl Jaspers]] in 1913. It was referred to as "static understanding" and its purpose was to graphically recreate the "mental phenomenon" experienced by the client. A few years earlier, in 1899, the German book ''[[Lehrbuch der Psychopathologischen Untersuchungs-Methoden]]'' was published by [[Robert Sommer (psychiatrist)|Robert Sommer]].
===Psychoanalysis=== {{Main|Psychoanalysis}}
[[Sigmund Freud]] proposed a method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Talking therapy would originate from his ideas on the individual's experiences and the natural human efforts to make sense of the world and life.<ref name="AllPsych">{{cite web |last1=Heffner |first1=Christopher |name-list-style=vanc |title=Chapter 9: Section 1: Psychopathology |url=https://allpsych.com/psychology101/psychopathology/ |access-date=18 February 2015 |website=AllPsych.com |date=21 August 2014 |publisher=AllPsych |archive-date=19 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219075529/http://allpsych.com/psychology101/psychopathology/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Evolutionary Perspectives === [[Evolutionary psychiatry]] argues that some psychiatric conditions might have persisted because they carried evolutionarily adaptive functions historically, or because of [[evolutionary mismatch]] with modern environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nesse |first=Randolph M. |date=2023 |title=Evolutionary psychiatry: foundations, progress and challenges |journal=World Psychiatry |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=177–202 |doi=10.1002/wps.21072 |issn=2051-5545 |pmc=10168175 |pmid=37159362}}</ref>
==As the study of psychiatric disorders==
The study of psychopathology is interdisciplinary, with contributions coming from [[clinical psychology]], [[abnormal psychology]], [[social psychology]], and [[developmental psychology]], as well as neuropsychology and other psychology subdisciplines. Other related fields include [[psychiatry]], [[neuroscience]], [[criminology]], [[social work]], [[sociology]], [[epidemiology]], and [[statistics]].<ref name="A TEXT BOOK OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY">{{cite book|last1=Shah|first1=Syed Ahmad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IIY4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|title=A text book of psychopathology|last2=Mushtaq|first2=Shahnawaz|last3=Naseer|first3=Miss Naureen|last4=Ahmad|first4=Aijaz|last5=Sharma|first5=Gargi|last6=Kovur|first6=Harpreet|date=2017|publisher=RED'SHINE Publication. Pvt. Ltd|isbn=9789386483201|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>
Psychopathology can be broadly separated into descriptive and explanatory. Descriptive psychopathology involves categorising, defining and understanding symptoms as reported by people and observed through their behaviour, which are then assessed according to a social norm. Explanatory psychopathology looks to find explanations for certain kinds of symptoms according to theoretical models such as [[psychodynamics]], [[cognitive behavioral therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]] or through understanding how they have been constructed by drawing upon Constructivist Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2016) or Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2013).<ref name="Sims">{{Cite book|last=Oyebode|first=Femi|title=Sims' Symptoms in the Mind: Textbook of Descriptive Psychopathology|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|year=2015|isbn=978-0-7020-5556-0|edition=Fifth|location=Edinburgh; New York|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lnVYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]|oclc=878098854}}</ref>
There are several ways to characterise the presence of psychopathology in an individual as a whole. One strategy is to assess a person along four dimensions: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger, known collectively as the four Ds. Another conceptualisation, the p factor, sees psychopathology as a general, overarching construct that influences psychiatric symptoms.
==Mental disorders== Mental disorders are defined by a set of characteristic features, more than just one symptom. In order to be classified for diagnosis, the symptoms cannot represent an expected response to a common stress or loss that is related to an event. Syndromes are a set of simultaneous symptoms that represent a disorder. Common mental health disorders include [[Depression (mood)|depression]],{{Clarify|date=May 2025}} [[generalized anxiety disorder]] (GAD), [[panic disorder]], [[phobias]], [[social anxiety disorder]], [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD), and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sarrami Foroushani |first=Pooria |date=2013-01-17 |title=Computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for common mental disorders |doi=10.1186/isrctn24529487 |doi-access=free |url=https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN24529487 }}</ref>. “A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning.”<ref name="DSM5Book">{{cite book |last1=American Psychiatric Association |title=Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders |date=2013 |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing |location=Arlington, VA |isbn=978-0-89042-554-1 |page=20 |edition=5th |doi=10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 |url=https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 |access-date=1 December 2025 |ref=Yes |archive-date=4 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104060846/https://psychiatryonline.org/action/cookieAbsent |url-status=live }}</ref> The quote means a mental disorder isn’t just one symptom. It’s a group of serious symptoms that affect how a person thinks, feels, or behaves, and these symptoms must cause real problems in their everyday life. It becomes a disorder when something isn’t working right in the mind or brain, not just normal stress or emotions.
Depression is one of the most common and most debilitating mental disorders worldwide.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Yael |first1=Levin |last2=Gerard |first2=Sanacora |title= Textbook of men's mental health |chapter-url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-20936-005 |chapter=Depression |date=2007 }}</ref> It affects how individuals think, feel, and act. Symptoms vary depending on each individual person and include feeling sad, irritable, hopeless, or [[Anhedonia|losing interest in activities once enjoyed]].
Generalized anxiety disorder is feeling worried or nervous more frequently than what correlates to real-life stressors. It is more common in women than men and includes symptoms such as having trouble controlling worries, feelings of nervousness or restlessness, and difficulty relaxing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Generalized Anxiety Disorder: When Worry Gets Out of Control - National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) |url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/generalized-anxiety-disorder-gad |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=www.nimh.nih.gov |language=en}}</ref>
Across large populations, women show higher diagnosed prevalence of internalizing mental disorders, while men show higher prevalence of externalizing disorders and higher rates of suicide mortality. These differences reflect biological factors, differential exposure to stressors, and gendered patterns of diagnosis and help-seeking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boyd |first1=Anders |last2=Van de Velde |first2=Sarah |last3=Vilagut |first3=Gemma |last4=de Graaf |first4=Ron |last5=O'Neill |first5=Siobhan |last6=Florescu |first6=Silvia |last7=Alonso |first7=Jordi |last8=Kovess-Masfety |first8=Vivane |last9=EU-WMH Investigators |date=2015-03-01 |title=Gender differences in mental disorders and suicidality in Europe: results from a large cross-sectional population-based study |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=173 |pages=245–254 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2014.11.002 |issn=1573-2517 |pmid=25462424}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meng |first1=Xiangfei |last2=D'Arcy |first2=Carl |date=2016-11-15 |title=Gender moderates the relationship between childhood abuse and internalizing and substance use disorders later in life: a cross-sectional analysis |journal=BMC Psychiatry |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=401 |doi=10.1186/s12888-016-1071-7 |doi-access=free|issn=1471-244X |pmc=5111209 |pmid=27846829}}</ref>
==The four Ds== A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality:
# ''[[Deviance (sociology)|Deviance]]'' is variation from statistical norms that result in a conflict with society. This term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviors and emotions are considered deviant when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviant just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, an individual's actions are defined as deviant when their behaviour is deemed unacceptable by the culture they belong to. However, many disorders have a relation between patterns of deviance and therefore need to be evaluated in a differential diagnostic model.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Singhai |first1=Kartik |last2=Suthar |first2=Navratan |last3=Gehlawat |first3=Pratibha |date=May 2020 |title=The 3 Ds of geriatric psychiatry: A case report |journal=Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care |language=en-US |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=2509–2510 |doi=10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_221_20 |doi-access=free |pmid=32754531 |issn=2249-4863|pmc=7380787 }}</ref> # ''[[Distress (medicine)|Distress]]'' has to do with the discomfort that is experienced by the person with the disorder. This term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. They may feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness. Behaviors and feelings that cause distress to individuals or to others around them are considered abnormal if the condition is upsetting to the person experiencing it. Distress is related to dysfunction in that it can be a useful asset in accurately perceiving dysfunction in an individual's life. However, these two are not always related because an individual can be highly dysfunctional while at the same time experiencing minimal [[Stress (biology)|stress]]. The important characteristics of distress are the upsetting events themselves and the way one responds to them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oltmanns |first=T.F. |date=2021-07-14 |title=Abnormal Psychology |edition=9th |publisher=Pearson |isbn=9780137554737}}</ref> # ''[[Abnormality (behavior)|Dysfunction]]'' involves maladaptive behavior that impairs the individual's ability to perform normal daily functions. It includes dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes that are associated with mental functioning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berenbaum |first1=Howard |last2=Oltmanns |first2=Thomas F. |date=February 1992 |title=Emotional experience and expression in schizophrenia and depression. |journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |language=en |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=37–44 |doi=10.1037/0021-843X.101.1.37 |pmid=1537971 |pmc=4370316 |issn=1939-1846}}</ref> This maladaptive behavior has to be significant enough to be considered a diagnosis. It is recommended to look for dysfunction across an individual's life experience because there is a chance the dysfunction may appear in clear observable view and in places where it is less likely to appear.<ref name=":0" /> Such maladaptive behaviours prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behaviour is not always caused by a disorder; it may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike. # ''[[Violence|Duration]]'' is useful for clinicians as a criterion for diagnosis. Most symptoms have a specific duration that they must meet before being diagnosed. However, this can be harmful as not every person's experience is the same.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Telles-Correia |first=Diogo |date=October 2018 |title=Mental disorder: Are we moving away from distress and disability? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jep.12871 |journal=Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice |language=en |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=973–977 |doi=10.1111/jep.12871 |pmid=29327512 |issn=1356-1294|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
===The p factor=== [[Benjamin Lahey]] and colleagues first proposed a general "psychopathology factor" in 2012,<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Lahey BB, Applegate B, Hakes JK, Zald DH, Hariri AR, Rathouz PJ|date=November 2012|title=Is there a general factor of prevalent psychopathology during adulthood?|journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology|volume=121|issue=4|pages=971–7|doi=10.1037/a0028355|pmc=4134439|pmid=22845652}}</ref> or simply "p factor". This construct shares its conceptual similarity with the [[G factor (psychometrics)|g factor of general intelligence]]. Instead of conceptualising psychopathology as consisting of several discrete categories of mental disorders, the p factor is dimensional and influences whether psychiatric symptoms in general are present or absent. The symptoms that are present then combine to form several distinct diagnoses. The p factor is modelled in the [[Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology]]. Although researchers initially conceived a three-factor explanation for psychopathology generally, a subsequent study provided more evidence for a single factor that is sequentially [[Comorbidity|comorbid]], [[Chronic condition|recurrent/chronic]], and exists on a continuum of severity and chronicity.<ref name="Caspi2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Caspi A, Houts RM, Belsky DW, Goldman-Mellor SJ, Harrington H, Israel S, Meier MH, Ramrakha S, Shalev I, Poulton R, Moffitt TE | display-authors = 6 | title = The p Factor: One General Psychopathology Factor in the Structure of Psychiatric Disorders? | journal = Clinical Psychological Science | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 119–137 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 25360393 | pmc = 4209412 | doi = 10.1177/2167702613497473}}</ref>
Higher scores on the p factor dimension have been found to be correlated with higher levels of functional impairment, greater incidence of problems in developmental history, and more diminished early-life brain function. In addition, those with higher levels of the p factor are more likely to have inherited a [[genetic predisposition]] to mental illness. The existence of the p factor may explain why it has been "... challenging to find causes, consequences, biomarkers, and treatments with specificity to individual mental disorders."<ref name=Caspi2014 />
A 2020 review of the p factor found that many studies support its validity and that it is generally stable throughout one's life. A high p factor is associated with many adverse effects, including poor academic performance, impulsivity, criminality, suicidality, reduced foetal growth, lower [[Executive functions|executive functioning]], and a greater number of psychiatric diagnoses. A partial genetic basis for the p factor has also been supported.<ref name="clinpsy-071119-115848">{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Gregory T.|last2=Atkinson|first2=Emily A.|last3=Davis|first3=Heather A.|last4=Riley|first4=Elizabeth N.|last5=Oltmanns|first5=Joshua R.|date=2020-05-07|title=The General Factor of Psychopathology|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-071119-115848|journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=75–98|doi=10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-071119-115848|pmid=32040926 |s2cid=211078278 |issn=1548-5943|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Alternatively, the p factor has also been interpreted{{By whom|date=May 2025}} as an index of general impairment rather than being a specific index that causes psychopathology.<ref name="clinpsy-071119-115848" />
==As mental symptoms== The term psychopathology may also be used to denote behaviours or experiences which are indicative of mental illness, even if they do not constitute a formal diagnosis. For example, the presence of [[hallucination]]s may be considered as a psychopathological sign, even if there are not enough symptoms present to fulfil the criteria for one of the disorders listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]] or [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems|ICD]].
In a more general sense, any behaviour or experience which causes impairment, distress or [[disability]], particularly if it is thought to arise from a functional breakdown in either the cognitive or neurocognitive systems in the brain, may be classified as psychopathology. It remains unclear how strong the distinction between maladaptive traits and mental disorders actually is,<ref name="NeuroticismMA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeronimus BF, Kotov R, Riese H, Ormel J | title = Neuroticism's prospective association with mental disorders halves after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history, but the adjusted association hardly decays with time: a meta-analysis on 59 longitudinal/prospective studies with 443 313 participants | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 46 | issue = 14 | pages = 2883–2906 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27523506 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291716001653 | s2cid = 23548727 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/895885 | archive-date = 2019-07-24 | access-date = 2019-06-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190724213253/https://zenodo.org/record/895885 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="Ormel2014">{{cite journal|vauthors = Ormel J, Laceulle OM, Jeronimus BF |year=2014|title= Why Personality and Psychopathology Are Correlated: A Developmental Perspective Is a First Step but More Is Needed|journal= European Journal of Personality|volume=28|issue=4|pages=396–98|doi=10.1002/per.1971|s2cid=210187913}}</ref> e.g. [[neuroticism]] is often described as the personal level of minor psychiatric symptoms.<ref name="Ormel2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ormel J, Jeronimus BF, Kotov R, Riese H, Bos EH, Hankin B, Rosmalen JG, Oldehinkel AJ | title = Neuroticism and common mental disorders: meaning and utility of a complex relationship | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 686–697 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23702592 | pmc = 4382368 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.04.003}}</ref>
== Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders == Main article: [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] [[File:DSM-5 & DSM-IV-TR.jpg|thumb|The DSM IV and 5]] The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM) is a guideline for the diagnosis and understanding of mental disorders. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) sponsors the editing, writing, reviewing and publishing of this book. It is a reference book on mental health and brain-related conditions and disorders. It serves as reference for a range of professionals in medicine and mental health in the United States particularly. These professionals include psychologists, counsellors, physicians, social workers, psychiatric nurses and nurse practitioners, marriage and family therapists, and more. The current DSM is the fifth, most recent edition of this book. It was released in May 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DSM-5: What It Is & What It Diagnoses |url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/24291-diagnostic-and-statistical-manual-dsm-5 |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=Cleveland Clinic |language=en |archive-date=2023-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230021825/https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/24291-diagnostic-and-statistical-manual-dsm-5 |url-status=live }}</ref> Each edition makes significant changes to the classification of disorders.
== Research Domain Criteria == Main article: [[Research Domain Criteria]]
The RDoC framework is a set of research principles for investigating mental disorders. It is meant to create a new approach to mental illness that leads to better diagnosis, prevention, intervention, and cures. It is not necessarily meant to serve as a diagnostic guide or replace the DSM, however, it is meant to examine various degrees of dysfunction. It was developed by the US National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH).<ref>{{Cite web |title=About RDoC - National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) |url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/research-funded-by-nimh/rdoc/about-rdoc |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=www.nimh.nih.gov |language=en}}</ref> It aims to address heterogeneity by providing a more symptom based framework for understanding mental disorders. It relied on dimensions that span the range from normal to abnormal and allows investigators to work with a larger database. It uses six major functional domains to examine neurobehavioral functioning. Different aspects of each domain are represented by constructs which are studied along the full range of functioning. Together all of the domains form a matrix that could represent research ideas. It is a heuristic, and acknowledges that research topics will change and grow as science emerges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) - National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) |url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/research-funded-by-nimh/rdoc |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=www.nimh.nih.gov |language=en |archive-date=2026-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260311162156/https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/research-funded-by-nimh/rdoc |url-status=live }}</ref>
== See also == {{Portal|Psychology}} {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Adverse Childhood Experiences movement]] * [[Biological psychiatry]] * [[Cerebral atrophy]] * [[Evidence-based medicine]] * [[Evolutionary psychiatry]] * [[Glossary of psychiatry]] * [[Neurodegeneration]] * [[Neuroimmunology]] * [[Neuroinflammation]] * [[Stress in early childhood]] * [[Traumatic brain injury]] {{Div col end}}
== References == {{Reflist}}
== Further reading == {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=psychopathology}} * Atkinson, L. ''et al.'' (2004). Attachment Issues in Psychopathology and Intervention. Lawrence Erlbaum. * Berrios, G.E.(1996) ''The History of Mental Symptoms: Descriptive Psychopathology since the 19th century.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-43736-9}} * Freud, S. (1916) The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. MacMillan. * Keating, D. P. ''et al.'' (1991). Constructivist Perspectives on Developmental Psychopathology and Atypical Development. Lawrence Erlbaum. * Maddux, J. E. ''et al.'' (2005). Psychopathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding. Lawrence Erlbaum. * McMaster University. (2011). Psychological disorders. In Discover psychology (pp. 154–155, 157–158, 162–164) [Introduction]. Toronto: Nelson Education. * Sims, A. (2002) ''Symptoms in the Mind: An Introduction to Descriptive Psychopathology (3rd ed).'' Elsevier. {{ISBN|0-7020-2627-1}} * Widiger, T. A. ''et al.'' (2000). ''Adult Psychopathology: Issues and Controversies'' Annual Review of Psychology.
{{Mental and behavioral disorders}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Psychopathology| ]] [[Category:Abnormal psychology]] [[Category:Pathology]]