{{Short description|Exploitative type of social influence}} {{Other uses|Manipulation (disambiguation){{!}}Manipulation}} In psychology, '''manipulation''' is defined as an action designed to influence or control another person in an underhanded or subtle manner which facilitates one's personal aims.<ref name="Springer"/> Methods someone may use to manipulate another person may include seduction, suggestion, coercion, and blackmail.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1986.40.2.189 | doi=10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1986.40.2.189 | title=The Manipulative Patient | date=1986 | last1=Hamilton | first1=J. Devance | last2=Decker | first2=Norman | last3=Rumbaut | first3=Ruben D. | journal=American Journal of Psychotherapy | volume=40 | issue=2 | pages=189–200 | pmid=3728747|quote=We define manipulation as deliberately influencing or controlling the behavior of others to one's own advantage by using charm, persuasion, seduction, deceit, guilt induction, or coercion.| url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="APA">{{cite APA Dictionary |title=Manipulation |shortlink=manipulation |access-date=10 October 2021 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Lynam |first1=Donald R. |last2=Vachon |first2=David D. |date=2012 |title=Antisocial personality disorder in DSM-5: Missteps and missed opportunities. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/per0000006 |journal=Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=483–495 |doi=10.1037/per0000006 |pmid=23106185 |issn=1949-2723|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Manipulation is generally considered a dishonest form of social influence as it is used at the expense of others.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s11245-023-09940-3 | title=On Artificial Intelligence and Manipulation | date=2023 | last1=Ienca | first1=Marcello | journal=Topoi | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=833–842|quote="In this tradition, manipulation is considered ethically wrong because it involves influencing someone's behavior or beliefs in a non-transparent way that (i) undermines their autonomy, freedom, or dignity, (ii) promotes the personal gain of the manipulator at the expense of the manipulated, and (iii) may result in direct or indirect harm for the manipulated."| doi-access=free }}</ref> Humans are inherently capable of manipulative and deceptive behavior, with the main differences being that of specific personality characteristics or disorders.<ref> *"That human beings should universally possess a talent for deceiving one another shouldn’t surprise us. Researchers speculate that lying as a behavior arose not long after the emergence of language." -----{{cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/lying-hoax-false-fibs-science | title=Why We Lie: The Science Behind Our Deceptive Ways | website=National Geographic Society | date=18 May 2017 }} *Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2013). ''The H factor of personality: Why some people are manipulative, self-entitled, materialistic, and exploitive—and why it matters for everyone.'' * Ekman, P. (2009). Telling lies: Clues to deceit in the marketplace, politics, and marriage (revised edition). WW Norton & Company. * DePaulo, B. M., Kirkendol, S. E., Tang, J., & O'Brien, T. P. (1988). The motivational impairment effect in the communication of deception: Replications and extensions. Journal of nonverbal Behavior, 12, 177-202. * Bursten, B. (1972). The manipulative personality. Archives of general psychiatry, 26(4), 318-321.</ref><ref>{{citation|url=https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.12.1.53|quote=First, in addition to evolved strategies for individual and cooperative resource acquisition, humans, like many other species, have evolved an array of exploitation strategies that are designed to expropriate the resources of others through force, deception, intimidation, and coercion, most of which have remained entirely unstudied by scientists. |doi=10.1037/1089-2699.12.1.53 |title=Adaptations for exploitation |date=2008 |last1=Buss |first1=David M. |last2=Duntley |first2=Joshua D. |journal=Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice |volume=12 |pages=53–62 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Coons |first1=Christian |last2=Weber |first2=Michael |title=Manipulation: Theory and Practice |date=July 2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-933822-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pl2yAwAAQBAJ&dq=manipulation%20behavior&pg=PA17|quote=Human beings are social creatures. This means that people are dependent on other people for nearly everything they need in life. That entails, in turn, that they regularly need to get others to do things they need or want them to do—or to refrain from doing things they need them not to do or don’t want them to do.People get others to do what they want in a variety of ways. Some of these are morally unproblematic, at least most of the time. We can get other people to do things, for instance, because these others have a legal obligation to do them. Or they may have (and respond to) a non-coercible moral obligation, or just do it for us out of moral decency......Other ways that people get others to do things according to their needs or wants are morally problematic.}}</ref><ref name="Butkovic"/>
==Etymology== By 1730, the word ''manipulation'' was used to refer to a method of digging ore. The term derives from the French manipulation, which in turn comes from manipule, meaning "handful", a unit of measure used by pharmacists, later having a sense by 1828 of handling or managing people for one's own purposes.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/manipulation | title=Manipulation - Etymology, Origin & Meaning }}</ref> The word ''manipulate'' originated in 1827 as a back-formation from manipulation, initially meaning "to handle skillfully by hand." By 1864, its usage had expanded to include the figurative sense of "to manage or influence, especially for one's own advantage."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/manipulate | title=Manipulate - Etymology, Origin & Meaning }}</ref> The word is used in various different senses, but today it is most often used in psychological contexts.<ref>"IN THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES we sometimes use the term "manipulation" to describe certain behavior. Everyone seems to know what is meant by manipulation, yet the term is omitted in the psychiatric dictionary. The verb, manipulate, and the noun, manipulation, have come to have psychiatric connotations which are worthy of a more detailed study."
*Clair, H. R. S. (1966). Manipulation. Comprehensive psychiatry, 7(4), 248-258.</ref>
==Differentiation== Manipulation differs from general influence and persuasion.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/292086?journalCode=et | doi=10.1086/292086 | title=Manipulation | date=1978 | last1=Rudinow | first1=Joel | journal=Ethics | volume=88 | issue=4 | pages=338–347 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1i55AgAAQBAJ&dq=interpersonal-manipulation-nature-moral-limits-mark-seabright-dennis-moberg&pg=PT249 | title=Managerial Ethics: Moral Management of People and Processes | isbn=978-1-135-68713-7 | last1=Schminke | first1=Marshall | date=August 1998 | publisher=Psychology Press }}</ref> Manipulation, unlike persuasion, typically involves exploiting the vulnerabilities of an individual.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0957926506060250 | doi=10.1177/0957926506060250 | title=Discourse and manipulation | date=2006 | last1=Van Dijk | first1=Teun A. | journal=Discourse & Society | volume=17 | issue=3 | pages=359–383 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Non-manipulative influence is generally perceived to be harmless and it is not seen as unduly coercive to the individual's right of acceptance or rejection of influence.<ref name="Nichols_2020">{{cite web | vauthors = Nichols S |title=The Ethics of Manipulation |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/board.html |access-date=22 March 2020 |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> Persuasion is the ability to move others to a desired action, usually within the context of a specific goal. Persuasion often attempts to influence a person's beliefs, religion, motivations, or behavior. Influence and persuasion are neither viewed as positive nor negative, unlike manipulation which is viewed as negative.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Dijk | first1=Teun Adrianus van | last2=Van Dijk | first2=Teun A. | title=Discourse and Communication: New Approaches to the Analysis of Mass Media Discourse and Communication | date=1985 | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | isbn=978-3-11-010319-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u8NaszqH1d0C&dq=manipulation%20psychology&pg=PA126 }}</ref><ref name="Duncan">{{cite web | vauthors = Duncan RD |title=Influence Versus Manipulation: Understand The Difference |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rodgerdeanduncan/2018/12/21/influence-vs-manipulation-understand-the-difference/?sh=303899ad470c |access-date=21 December 2018 |work=Forbes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sinha |first=Ruchi |date=2022-01-26 |title=Are You Being Influenced or Manipulated? |url=https://hbr.org/2022/01/are-you-being-influenced-or-manipulated |access-date=2024-05-03 |work=Harvard Business Review |issn=0017-8012}}</ref>
==Elements of manipulation==
While the motivations for manipulation are mostly self-serving, certain styles of social influence can be intended to be to the benefit of others.<ref name="Ngoc_2020" /> Manipulation can be defined as the use of strategies to further personal driven goals at the expense of others and is usually considered antisocial behavior.<ref name="Ngoc_2020" /> Pro-social behavior is a voluntary act intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals and is an important part of empathy.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Rodriguez LM, Mesurado B, Moreno JE | chapter = Ethical Position, Empathy and Prosocial Behaviour Model: Its Contribution to Prevention and Psychotherapeutic Approaches of Antisocial Disorders |date=2018-11-29 | title = Psychiatry and Neuroscience Update |pages=273–286 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-95359-5 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-95360-1_22 |s2cid=150110593 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eisenberg N, Miller PA | title = The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 101 | issue = 1 | pages = 91–119 | date = January 1987 | pmid = 3562705 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91 | bibcode = 1987PsycB.101...91E }}</ref>
Manipulative behavior is fundamentally deliberate and intentional, with the manipulator knowing full well the consequences of their actions, and what they want out of the person being manipulated.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jmp/17.2.173 | doi=10.1093/jmp/17.2.173 | title=An Analysis of Interpersonal Manipulation | date=1992 | last1=Kligman | first1=M. | last2=Culver | first2=C. M. | journal=Journal of Medicine and Philosophy | volume=17 | issue=2 | pages=173–197 | pmid=1588243 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Susser |first1=Daniel |last2=Roessler |first2=Beate |last3=Nissenbaum |first3=Helen |title=Technology, autonomy, and manipulation |journal=Internet Policy Review |date=2019 |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.14763/2019.2.1410 |url=https://doi.org/10.14763/2019.2.1410|quote=In our view, manipulation is hidden influence. Or more fully, manipulating someone means intentionally and covertly influencing their decision-making, by targeting and exploiting their decision-making vulnerabilities.}}</ref>
Different measures of manipulativeness focus on different aspects or expressions of manipulation and tend to paint slightly different pictures of its predictors. Features such as low empathy, high narcissism, use of self-serving rationalizations, and an interpersonal style marked by high agency (dominance) and low communion (i.e. cold-heartedness) are consistent across measures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Joshua D. |last2=Gentile |first2=Brittany |last3=Campbell |first3=W. Keith |date=2013-07-01 |title=A Test of the Construct Validity of the Five-Factor Narcissism Inventory |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2012.742903 |journal=Journal of Personality Assessment |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=377–387 |doi=10.1080/00223891.2012.742903 |issn=0022-3891 |pmid=23186210|s2cid=36810335 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grieve |first1=Rachel |last2=Mahar |first2=Doug |date=2010-06-01 |title=The emotional manipulation–psychopathy nexus: Relationships with emotional intelligence, alexithymia and ethical position |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886910000966 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |language=en |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=945–950 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.028 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brunell |first1=Amy B. |last2=Buelow |first2=Melissa T. |date=2018-03-01 |title=Homogenous scales of narcissism: Using the psychological entitlement scale, interpersonal exploitativeness scale, and narcissistic grandiosity scale to study narcissism |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886917306864 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |language=en |volume=123 |pages=182–190 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.029 |issn=0191-8869|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
A study by Buss, et al. explored how individuals use manipulation to shape their environments to fit their personal characteristics. Across two studies, researchers identified six main manipulation tactics: charm, silent treatment, coercion, reason, regression, and debasement. These tactics were consistent across different situations, with charm commonly used to initiate behavior and coercion or silent treatment used to stop it. The use of these tactics was linked to personality traits such as Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Agreeableness, and was consistent across self-reports and observer ratings.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1219 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1219 | title=Tactics of manipulation | date=1987 | last1=Buss | first1=David M. | last2=Gomes | first2=Mary | last3=Higgins | first3=Dolly S. | last4=Lauterbach | first4=Karen | journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume=52 | issue=6 | pages=1219–1229 | pmid=3598864 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Another paper investigated the link between one's personality and social processes, and it concluded that "persons are not passive recipients of environmental presses" and that "persons actively avoid some social situations and selectively enter others", and that people "elicit and manipulate the social behavior of persons who reside in situations that have been selected."<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1214 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1214 | title=Selection, evocation, and manipulation | date=1987 | last1=Buss | first1=David M. | journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume=53 | issue=6 | pages=1214–1221 | pmid=3320336 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Another study by Buss aimed to achieve three primary objectives, to identify the manipulation tactics commonly employed in close interpersonal relationships; to empirically examine the extent to which these tactics are general or specific across different relationship types, including romantic partners, friends, and parents; and to explore the associations between the use of manipulation tactics and the Big Five personality traits. Twelve distinct manipulation tactics were identified through separate factor analyses of two instruments derived from different data sources. These included six tactics Charm, Reason, Coercion, Silent Treatment, Debasement, Regression, and six additional tactics: Responsibility Invocation, Reciprocity, Monetary Reward, Pleasure Induction, Social Comparison, and Hardball (the latter encompassing threats, deception, and aggression). Personality traits were assessed using three sources of data: self-reports, spouse reports, and evaluations by independent interviewers. The findings revealed consistent associations between personality dimensions and manipulation strategies. Specifically, Surgency was linked to Coercion and Responsibility Invocation; Desurgency to Debasement; Agreeableness to Pleasure Induction; Disagreeableness to Coercion; Conscientiousness to Reason; Emotional Instability to Regression; and Intellect-Openness to Reason.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid=1635051 | date=1992 | last1=Buss | first1=D. M. | title=Manipulation in close relationships: Five personality factors in interactional context | journal=Journal of Personality | volume=60 | issue=2 | pages=477–499 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00981.x }}</ref>
A family study of high-school students and their parents investigated the origin of individual differences in manipulation tactics. The results indicated significant familial aggregation of manipulation tactics, as shown by parent–offspring correlations and midparent–offspring regressions. While manipulation tactics were linked to low Agreeableness and high Neuroticism from the Five-Factor Model, personality traits played a minor role in explaining their selection and use.<ref name="Butkovic">{{cite journal | last1=Butkovic | first1=Ana | last2=Bratko | first2=Denis | title=Family study of manipulation tactics | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | date=2007 | volume=43 | issue=4 | pages=791–801 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2007.02.004 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886907000499 }}</ref>
Manipulative behavior occurs in a variety of outlets, such as on the internet. Researchers and pundits have expressed concern for the ability of technology to manipulate the opinions and actions of people.<ref name="Springer">{{cite journal | last1=Ienca | first1=Marcello | title=On Artificial Intelligence and Manipulation | journal=Topoi | date=2023 | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=833–842 | doi=10.1007/s11245-023-09940-3 | url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-023-09940-3 }}</ref> Scholars have discussed the potential modern technologies have to affect the autonomy of an individual.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Klenk | first1=Michael | last2=Hancock | first2=Jeff | title=Autonomy and Online Manipulation | journal=Internet Policy Review | date=2019 | volume=1 | pages=1–11 | url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KLEAAO-3 }}</ref> The concept has spawned an extensive literature within the field of psychology, and other disciplines interested in human behavior.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lau | first1=Stephan | title=The good, the bad, and the tradecraft: HUMINT and the ethics of psychological manipulation | journal=Intelligence and National Security | date=2023 | volume=38 | issue=4 | pages=592–610 | doi=10.1080/02684527.2022.2129159 | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02684527.2022.2129159 }}</ref> Cambridge Analytica was under scrutiny for collecting personal data belonging to millions of Facebook users for political advertising without informed consent.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Cambridge Analytica whistleblower explains how the firm used Facebook data to sway elections|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/cambridge-analytica-whistleblower-christopher-wylie-facebook-data-2019-10|last=Chan|first=Rosalie|website=Business Insider|access-date=2020-05-07|archive-date=January 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129123154/https://www.businessinsider.com/cambridge-analytica-whistleblower-christopher-wylie-facebook-data-2019-10|url-status=live}}</ref>
===In popular psychology===
Harriet B. Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims, with some of them including positive reinforcement, which includes praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing or forced laugh or smile.<ref name="Braiker_2004">{{Cite book | vauthors = Braiker HB |title=Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-144672-3}}</ref> According to psychology author George K. Simon, successful psychological manipulation primarily involves the manipulator:<ref name="Simon_1996">{{Cite book | vauthors = Simon GK |title=In Sheep's Clothing: Understanding and Dealing with Manipulative People |year=1996 |publisher=Parkhurst Brothers, Incorporated, Publishers |isbn=978-1-935166-30-6}} (reference for the entire section)</ref> Simon states that manipulative individuals may use a variety of deceptive techniques to exert control or avoid accountability. Methods include lying by commissioh,<ref name="APAnews">{{Cite news |date=2016 |title=True Lies: People Who Lie Via Telling Truth Viewed Harshly, Study Finds |url=https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/12/true-lies|publisher=American Psychological Association |location=Washington}}</ref> lying by omission, pretending to be in denial, rationalization, selective inattention/selective attention, and diversion.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drgeorgesimon.com/denial-manipulation-tactic-4/ | title=Denial - Manipulation Tactic 4 | date=24 September 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drgeorgesimon.com/rationalizing-manipulation-tactic-2/ | title=Rationalizing - Manipulation Tactic 2 | date=17 September 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.drgeorgesimon.com/obstinate-denial-and-mental-filtering/ | title=Obstinate Denial and Mental Filtering | date=18 August 2022 }}</ref><ref name="Diversion">{{cite web | url=https://www.drgeorgesimon.com/confronting-evasion-and-diversion-tactics/| title=Confronting Evasion and Diversion Tactics | date=30 March 2018 }}</ref> Martin Kantor advises in his 2006 book ''The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: How Antisocial Personality Disorder Affects All of Us'' that vulnerability to psychopathic manipulators can be due to being too dependent on others, having a lack of maturity, being naïve, impressionable, trusting, impulsive, altruistic, or greedy.<ref name="Kantor_2006">{{Cite book | vauthors = Kantor M |title=The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: How Antisocial Personality Disorder Affects All of Us |year=2006 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-275-98798-5}}</ref>
==Assessment tools== === MACH-IV === Manipulativeness is a primary feature found in the Machiavellianism construct.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones DN, Paulhus DL | title = Duplicity among the dark triad: Three faces of deceit | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 113 | issue = 2 | pages = 329–342 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28253006 | doi = 10.1037/pspp0000139 | s2cid = 30684586 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abell L, Qualter P, Brewer G, Barlow A, Stylianou M, Henzi P, Barrett L | title = Why Machiavellianism Matters in Childhood: The Relationship Between Children's Machiavellian Traits and Their Peer Interactions in a Natural Setting | journal = Europe's Journal of Psychology | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 484–493 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 27247672 | pmc = 4873058 | doi = 10.5964/ejop.v11i3.957 }}</ref> The MACH-IV, conceptualized by Richard Christie and Florence Geis, is a popular and widely used psychological measure of manipulative and deceptive behavior.<ref>Christie, R., & Geis, F. L. (2013). Studies in machiavellianism. Academic Press.</ref>
=== Emotional manipulation scale === The emotional manipulation scale is a ten-item questionnaire developed in 2006 through factor analysis, primarily to measure one's tendency to use emotions to their advantage in controlling others.<ref name="Austin_2007">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Austin EJ, Farrelly D, Black C, Moore H |date=July 2007 |title=Emotional intelligence, Machiavellianism and emotional manipulation: Does EI have a dark side? |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=179–189 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.11.019 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref> At the time of publication, emotional intelligence assessments did not specifically examine manipulative behavior and were instead predominantly focused on Big Five personality trait assessment.<ref name="Austin_2007" />
=== Managing the emotions of others scale === The "Managing the Emotions of Others Scale" (MEOS) was developed in 2013 through factor analysis to measure the ability to change emotions of others.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Austin EJ, O'Donnell MM |date=October 2013 |title=Development and preliminary validation of a scale to assess managing the emotions of others |journal= Personality and Individual Differences |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=834–839 |doi= 10.1016/j.paid.2013.07.005 |issn=0191-8869|url=https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/cea54d2e-9550-4226-b246-094288693428 |hdl=20.500.11820/cea54d2e-9550-4226-b246-094288693428 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The survey questions measure six categories: mood (or emotional state) enhancement, mood worsening, concealing emotions, capacity for inauthenticity, poor emotion skills, and using diversion to enhance mood. The enhancement, worsening and diversion categories have been used to identify the ability and willingness of manipulative behavior.<ref name="Ngoc_2020" /> The MEOS has also been used for assessing emotional intelligence, and has been compared to the HEXACO model of personality structure, for which the capacity for inauthenticity category in the MEOS was found to correspond to low honesty-humility scores on the HEXACO.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Austin EJ, Vahle N |date=May 2016 |title=Associations of the Managing the Emotions of Others Scale (MEOS) with HEXACO personality and with trait emotional intelligence at the factor and facet level |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=94 |pages=348–353 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2016.01.047 |issn=0191-8869}}</ref>
=== The SD3 and the Dirty Dozen === The dark triad ''Dirty Dozen'' and the Short Dark Triad (SD3 or simply D3) also measures a callous, manipulative, self oriented style.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105 | doi=10.1177/1073191113514105 | title=Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3) | date=2014 | last1=Jones | first1=Daniel N. | last2=Paulhus | first2=Delroy L. | journal=Assessment | volume=21 | issue=1 | pages=28–41 | pmid=24322012 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019265 | doi=10.1037/a0019265 | title=The dirty dozen: A concise measure of the dark triad | date=2010 | last1=Jonason | first1=Peter K. | last2=Webster | first2=Gregory D. | journal=Psychological Assessment | volume=22 | issue=2 | pages=420–432 | pmid=20528068 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Other measures === There are several measures that assess interpersonally manipulative characteristics. Measures of psychopathy and narcissism have their own subscales that address manipulation.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6603_3 | doi=10.1207/s15327752jpa6603_3 | title=Development and Preliminary Validation of a Self-Report Measure of Psychopathic Personality Traits in Noncriminal Population | date=1996 | last1=Lilienfeld | first1=Scott O. | last2=Andrews | first2=Brian P. | journal=Journal of Personality Assessment | volume=66 | issue=3 | pages=488–524 | pmid=8667144 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Levenson, M.; Kiehl, K.; Fitzpatrick, C. (1995). "Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 151-158.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1979.45.2.590 | doi=10.2466/pr0.1979.45.2.590 | title=A Narcissistic Personality Inventory | date=1979 | last1=Raskin | first1=Robert N. | last2=Hall | first2=Calvin S. | journal=Psychological Reports | volume=45 | issue=2 | page=590 | pmid=538183 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12251 | doi=10.1111/jopy.12251 | title=Psychopathy and Machiavellianism: A Distinction Without a Difference? | date=2017 | last1=Miller | first1=Joshua D. | last2=Hyatt | first2=Courtland S. | last3=Maples-Keller | first3=Jessica L. | last4=Carter | first4=Nathan T. | last5=Lynam | first5=Donald R. | journal=Journal of Personality | volume=85 | issue=4 | pages=439–453 | pmid=26971566 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other examples include the Honesty-Humility subscale on the HEXACO model of personality, the Agreeableness factor in the Big Five personality test, and on certain factors of the MMPI.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 | doi-access=free | title=The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature | date=2019 | last1=Kaufman | first1=Scott Barry | last2=Yaden | first2=David Bryce | last3=Hyde | first3=Elizabeth | last4=Tsukayama | first4=Eli | journal=Frontiers in Psychology | volume=10 | article-number=467 | pmid=30914993 | pmc=6423069 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00351.x | doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00351.x | title=Honesty-Humility, the Big Five, and the Five-Factor Model | date=2005 | last1=Ashton | first1=Michael C. | last2=Lee | first2=Kibeom | journal=Journal of Personality | volume=73 | issue=5 | pages=1321–1354 | pmid=16138875 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=utg5jCZRAqYC&dq=Ben-Porath%2C%20Yossef%20(2012).%20%22Transitioning%20to%20the%20MMPI-2-RF%3A%20The%20Restructured%20Clinical%20(RC)%20Scales%22.%20Interpreting%20the%20MMPI-2-RF.%20Minneapolis%3A%20U%20of%20Minnesota%20Press.%20pp.%2039%E2%80%9396.&pg=PA71 | title=Interpreting the MMPI-2-RF | isbn=978-1-4529-3290-3 | last1=Ben-Porath | first1=Yossef S. | publisher=U of Minnesota Press }}</ref>
==In mental disorders==
=== Personality disorders === Manipulative behavior is cited as one factor contributing to the reluctance of some psychiatric professionals to work with individuals diagnosed with personality disorders (PDs). Many times this behavior can elicit strong negative emotional reactions, potentially hindering effective care and treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2850.2003.00603.x | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2850.2003.00603.x | title=Manipulation: Searching for an understanding | date=2003 | last1=Bowers | first1=L. | journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing | volume=10 | issue=3 | pages=329–334 | pmid=12755918 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Manipulative tendencies may derive from cluster B personality disorders such as narcissistic personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder. Manipulative behavior has also been related with one's level of emotional intelligence.<ref name="Ngoc_2020">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Ngoc NN, Tuan NP, Takahashi Y |date=October 2020 |title=A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Manipulation |journal=SAGE Open |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=215824402097161 |article-number=2158244020971615 |doi=10.1177/2158244020971615 |s2cid=228806921 |issn=2158-2440|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Kernberg75">{{cite book | vauthors = Kernberg O |url=https://archive.org/details/borderlinecondit00kern |title=Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism |publisher=Jason Aronson |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-87668-205-0 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> Discussion of manipulation may vary depending on which behavior is specifically included, and whether one is referring to the general population or in clinical contexts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Potter NN | title = What is manipulative behavior, anyway? | journal = Journal of Personality Disorders | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 139–156 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16643118 | doi = 10.1521/pedi.2006.20.2.139 }}</ref>
Under the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders, personality disorder is diagnosed dimensionally based on severity levels, with trait qualifiers providing additional specification in regards to how the pathology manifests itself. One of these is ''Dissociality'', of which the aspect ''lack of empathy'' is characterized by deceitful, manipulative and exploitative behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bach |first1=Bo |last2=First |first2=Michael B. |date=2018-10-29 |title=Application of the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders |journal=BMC Psychiatry |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=351 |doi=10.1186/s12888-018-1908-3 |doi-access=free |issn=1471-244X |pmc=6206910 |pmid=30373564}}</ref>
==== Antisocial personality disorder ==== Antisocial personality disorder features deceit and manipulation of others as an explicit criterion. This includes behaviors like lying and superficial displays of charisma to frequent use of aliases and disguises, and criminal fraudulence.<ref name=":0" /> The related syndrome of psychopathy also features pathological lying and manipulation for personal gain, as well as superficial charm, as cardinal features.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
The ''Alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders'' (AMPD) in Section III of DSM-5 requires the presence of manipulative behavior for a diagnosis of ASPD, with two symptoms (deceitfulness and manipulativeness) reflecting such tendencies out of the seven listed, with six being required for diagnosis (the others are impulsivity, irresponsibility, risk-taking, callousness and hostility).<ref name=":0" /> The related syndrome of psychopathy also features pathological lying and manipulation for personal gain, as well as superficial charm, as cardinal features.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Zf_T2pdIaEC&pg=PA218 | title=The Psychopathic Mind: Origins, Dynamics, and Treatment | isbn=978-0-87668-311-8 | last1=Reid Meloy | first1=J. | date=1988 | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref>
Paul Hofer interpreted manipulation to be a psychological defense in regards to those who are affected by their antisocial personality.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X8903300202 | doi=10.1177/0306624X8903300202 | title=The Role of Manipulation in the Antisocial Personality | date=1989 | last1=Hofer | first1=Paul | journal=International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology | volume=33 | issue=2 | pages=91–101 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Paul Babiak views manipulation to be a core feature in how those with high psychopathic traits behave in the workplace.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJn4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA353 | title=The Clinical and Forensic Assessment of Psychopathy: A Practitioner's Guide | isbn=978-1-317-65440-7 | last1=Gacono | first1=Carl B. | date=19 November 2015 | publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eZMpDwAAQBAJ&dq=paul%20babiak&pg=PA1 | title=Snakes in Suits, Revised Edition: Understanding and Surviving the Psychopaths in Your Office | isbn=978-0-06-269949-7 | last1=Babiak | first1=Paul | last2=Hare | first2=Robert D. | date=13 August 2019 | publisher=HarperCollins }}</ref>
==== Borderline personality disorder ==== Borderline personality disorder is unique in the grouping as "borderline" manipulation is characterized as unintentional and dysfunctional manipulation.<ref name="Aguirre 2016 133–143">{{Cite book|title=Stigma and Prejudice| vauthors = Aguirre B |date=2016|publisher=Humana Press, Cham|isbn=9783319275789|series=Current Clinical Psychiatry|pages=133–143|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-27580-2_8|chapter = Borderline Personality Disorder: From Stigma to Compassionate Care}}</ref> Marsha M. Linehan has stated that people with borderline personality disorder often exhibit behaviors which are not truly manipulative, but are erroneously interpreted as such.<ref name="marsha2222">{{cite web |url=http://www.toddlertime.com/mh/terms/manipulation.htm |title=On Manipulation with the Borderline Personality |author=Staff writer(s) |website=ToddlerTime Network |access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> According to Linehan, these behaviors often appear as unthinking manifestations of intense pain, and are often not deliberate as to be considered truly manipulative. In the DSM-5, manipulation was removed as a defining characteristic of borderline personality disorder.<ref name="Aguirre 2016 133–143" />
==== Narcissistic personality disorder ==== Narcissistic personality disorder is characterized by a belief of superiority, exhibitionism, self-centeredness and a lack of empathy. Individuals with NPD can be charming but also show exploitive behaviors in the interpersonal domain. They are motivated by success, beauty, and may have feelings of entitlement.<ref name="Wetzel 374–389">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Wetzel E, Leckelt M, Gerlach TM, Back MD |date=July 2016 |title=Distinguishing Subgroups of Narcissists with Latent Class Analysis |journal=European Journal of Personality |language=en |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=374–389 |doi=10.1002/per.2062 |issn=0890-2070 |s2cid=151869472}}</ref> Those with this disorder often engage in assertive self enhancement and antagonistic self-protection.<ref name="Wetzel 374–389" />
=== Other disorders === Conduct disorder is the appearance of antisocial behavior occurring in children and adolescents.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/conduct-disorder | title=Conduct Disorder }}</ref> Individuals with this disorder are characterized by a lack of empathy, a low sense of guilt, and shallow emotionality. Aggression and violence are two factors that characterize individuals with this disorder. In order for a child to be diagnosed with this disorder, the behavior must be consistent for at least 12 months.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pisano S, Muratori P, Gorga C, Levantini V, Iuliano R, Catone G, Coppola G, Milone A, Masi G | display-authors = 6 | title = Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits | journal = Italian Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 43 | issue = 1 | article-number = 84 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28931400 | pmc = 5607565 | doi = 10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Factitious disorder is a mental illness in which individuals purposely fake having symptoms of some condition, physically or psychologically. Fabricating illnesses allows individuals to feel a thrill<ref>{{Cite web |title=Factitious disorder - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/factitious-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20356028 |access-date=2023-08-28 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}</ref> and receive free aid in hospital admissions and treatment. Feelings of persistence, abuse in early childhood, and excessive thoughts were common for these individuals who connected to Borderline Personality Disorder.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Carnahan |first1=Kevin T. |title=Factitious Disorder |date=2022 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557547/ |work=StatPearls |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32491479 |access-date=2022-10-30 |last2=Jha |first2=Anupam}}</ref>
== See also == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{annotated link|Brainwashing}} * {{annotated link|Culture of fear}} * {{annotated link|Scam|aka=Confidence trick}} * {{annotated link|Crowd manipulation}} * {{annotated link|Dark triad}} * {{annotated link|Deception}} * {{annotated link|Emotional blackmail}} * {{annotated link|Fearmongering}} * {{annotated link|Gaslighting}} * {{annotated link|Gaslight (1944 film)|''Gaslight'' (1944 film)}} * {{annotated link|Half-truth}} * {{annotated link|Internet manipulation}} * {{annotated link|List of confidence tricks}} * {{annotated link|Lie}} * {{annotated link|Media manipulation}} * {{annotated link|Psychological warfare}} {{div col end}}
== References == {{Reflist}}
== Further reading == {{wikiquote}} '''Books''' * {{Cite book|title=The Confidence Game: Why We Fall for It...Every Time |last=Konnikova |first=Maria |year=2016 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0525427414 }} * {{Cite book|last=Ford |first=Charles V. |orig-year=1999 |title=Lies! Lies!! Lies!!!: The Psychology of Deceit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_FSc5C2bFYUC |publisher=American Psychiatric |year=1999 |isbn=978-0880489973}} * {{cite book |doi=10.1016/C2017-0-01262-4 |title=The Dark Triad of Personality |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-12-814291-2 |first1=Minna |last1=Lyons|publisher=Elsevier }}
'''Academic papers''' {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bursten B | title = The manipulative personality. | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | date = April 1972 | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 318–321 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.1972.01750220028005 | pmid = 5013516 }} * {{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1219 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1219 | title=Tactics of manipulation | date=1987 | last1=Buss | first1=David M. | last2=Gomes | first2=Mary | last3=Higgins | first3=Dolly S. | last4=Lauterbach | first4=Karen | journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume=52 | issue=6 | pages=1219–1229 | pmid=3598864 | url-access=subscription }} * {{cite journal | url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/292086?journalCode=et | doi=10.1086/292086 | title=Manipulation | date=1978 | last1=Rudinow | first1=Joel | journal=Ethics | volume=88 | issue=4 | pages=338–347 | url-access=subscription }}
{{refend}}
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Category:Psychological manipulation Category:Social influence Category:Human behavior Category:Anti-social behaviour Category:Psychological concepts