Project-706

{{Short description|Code name for Pakistan's nuclear bomb program}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}} {{Use British English|date=September 2010}} {{Infobox military unit | unit_name = Project 706 | image = Pakistan Nuclear Test.jpg | image_size = 290px | caption = After nine years of effort Project-706 was vindicated in Pakistan's first [[nuclear test]], [[Chagai-I]], 28 May 1998. | dates = 1974–1983 | country = Pakistan | allegiance = {{Flag|Pakistan|name=Pakistan}} | branch = [[Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers]] | type = | role = | size = | command_structure = | garrison = | garrison_label = | nickname = Kahuta Project | patron = | motto = | colors = Green and White {{color box|green}}{{color box|white}} | colors_label = Colours Code | march = | mascot = | equipment = | equipment_label = | battles = [[Cold War]] [[Operation Opera]] [[Operation Smiling Buddha]] [[Soviet–Afghan War]] | anniversaries = | decorations = | battle_honours = | disbanded = 11 March 1983 | commander1 = | commander1_label = | commander2 = | commander2_label = | commander3 = | commander3_label = | notable_commanders = {{flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan.svg}} [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the President of Pakistan.svg}} {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chief of the Army Staff (Pakistan).svg}} [[General|Gen.]] [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq|Zia-ul-Haq]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg}} [[General|Gen.]] [[Zahid Ali Akbar Khan]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg}} [[General|Gen.]] [[Javed Nasir]] | identification_symbol = [[File:Flag of the Pakistani Army.svg|150px]] | identification_symbol_label = Insignia | identification_symbol_2 = | identification_symbol_2_label = | identification_symbol_3 = | identification_symbol_3_label = | identification_symbol_4 = | identification_symbol_4_label = }}

'''Project-706''', also known as '''Project-786''' was the codename of a research and development program to develop [[Pakistan]]'s first [[nuclear weapons]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Feroz |title=Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2012 |page=429 |isbn=9780804784801 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGgrNAsKZjEC |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116113907/https://books.google.com/books?id=yGgrNAsKZjEC |url-status=live }}</ref> The program was initiated by [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] in 1974 in response to the Indian nuclear tests conducted in May 1974. During the course of this program, Pakistani nuclear scientists and engineers developed the requisite nuclear infrastructure and gained expertise in the extraction, refining, processing and handling of [[fissile material]] with the ultimate goal of designing a nuclear device. These objectives were achieved by the early 1980s with the first successful cold test of a Pakistani nuclear device in 1983.<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/as.2001.41.6.943 |title=Pakistan's Nuclear Testing |publisher=jstor.org |date=December 2001 |doi=10.1525/as.2001.41.6.943 |jstor=10.1525/as.2001.41.6.943 |access-date=27 March 2022 |last1=Rizvi |first1=Hasan-Askari |journal=Asian Survey |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=943–955 |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327081928/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/as.2001.41.6.943 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The two institutions responsible for the execution of the program were the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] and the [[Kahuta Research Laboratories]], led by [[Munir Ahmed Khan]] and [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]] respectively. In 1976 an organization called Special Development Works (SDW) was created within the [[Pakistan Army]], directly under the [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of the Army Staff (Pakistan)]] (COAS). This organization worked closely with PAEC and KRL to secretly prepare the nuclear test sites in Baluchistan and other required civil infrastructure.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book |last=Khan |first=Feroz |title=Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2012 |page=118 |isbn=9780804784801 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yGgrNAsKZjEC |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116113907/https://books.google.com/books?id=yGgrNAsKZjEC |url-status=live }}</ref>

It was a major scientific effort of Pakistan.<ref name="nuclearactive.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.nuclearactive.org/docs/LES021904a.html |title=Roots of Pakistan Atomic Scandal Traced to Europe |publisher=Nuclearactive.org |date=19 February 2004 |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-date=27 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727133243/http://www.nuclearactive.org/docs/LES021904a.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Time">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957761-7,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519084415/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957761-7,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 May 2011 |title=Who Has the Bomb |magazine=TIME |date=3 June 1985 |access-date=2 September 2010}}</ref> Project-706 refers specifically to the period from 1974 to 1983 when it was under the control of former [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], and later on under the military administration of General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]]. The program's roots lay in scientists' fears since 1967 that India was also developing nuclear weapons of its own.

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine has called Project-706 Pakistan's equivalent of the United States [[Manhattan Project]].<ref name="Time" /> The project initially cost US$450 million (raised by both [[Libya]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]) and was approved by Bhutto in 1972.<ref name="nti.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/pakistan/nuclear/chronology_1977.html |title=Research Library: Country Profiles: Pakistan |publisher=NTI |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709104713/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1977.html |archive-date=9 July 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Project-706 led to the creation of multiple production and research sites that operated in extreme secrecy and [[Nuclear ambiguity|ambiguity]]. Apart from research and development the project was also charged with gathering intelligence on [[India and weapons of mass destruction|Indian nuclear efforts]]. The Project was disbanded when the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) carried out the first [[Nuclear weapons testing#Types of nuclear weapons tests|cold test]] of a miniature [[nuclear device]] on 11 March 1983. Scientists and military officers who participated in the Project were given leadership positions in their respective services, and conferred with [[Civil decorations of Pakistan|high civil decorations]] by the [[Government of Pakistan]].

==Origins== [[File:Chaghi Monument-2.JPG|Chaghi Monument Islamabad Pakistan|thumb|right|250px]]

===Proposals=== The history of Pakistani interest into nuclear science goes back to late 1948 when a large number of scientists, mathematicians, chemists, and physicists moved to Pakistan from India on the request of [[Prime minister of Pakistan|Prime minister]] [[Liaqat Ali Khan]]. The research in nuclear technology was encouraged by [[Mark Oliphant]] who, in 1948, wrote a letter to [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] to engage research in the peaceful use of nuclear technology.<ref name="Nazaria-i-Pakistan">{{cite news |url=http://nazariapak.info/famous-pakistanis/Scientists.html#DrRafi| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113154236/http://www.nazariapak.info/famous-pakistanis/Scientists.html#DrRafi |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-01-13 |work=Nazaria-i-Pakistan |title=Dr. Rafi Mohammad Chaudhary [1903–1988]}}</ref> The only Muslim physicist available in [[South Asia]] was [[Rafi Muhammad Chaudhry]], who could prove useful for Pakistan's nuclear development.<ref name="Nazaria-i-Pakistan"/> A letter was directed to Chaudhry, who migrated to Pakistan in 1948 and established High-Tension Laboratory in 1952.<ref name="Nazaria-i-Pakistan"/> On 8 December 1953, US [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower]] launched the [[Atoms for Peace]] program, where Pakistan was one of the first countries to sign the treaty. On 8 December 1953, the [[Media in Pakistan|Pakistani media]] welcomed the proposed peaceful use of atomic energy, but [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Pakistan)|Foreign minister]] [[Muhammad Zafrulla Khan|Sir Zaf-rulla Khan]] stated that Pakistan did not have a policy towards the atom bomb.<ref>''Atoms for Peace: Eisenhower UN Speech," The Eisenhower Institute, 8 December 1953, www.eisenhowerinstitute.org, (July 2005); Ashok Kapur, "1953–59: The Origins and Early History of Pakistani Nuclear Activities," Pakistan's Nuclear Development, (New York: Croom Helm, 1987), p. 34''</ref> In 1956, [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] (PAEC) was founded and its first chairman was [[Nazir Ahmed (physicist)|Nazir Ahmad]], and [[Ministry of Science and Technology#Science Advisor|Science Advisor]] to the Prime minister, [[Salimuzzaman Siddiqui]] served agency's first [[Chief technical officer|Technical (member)]]. In 1958, the PAEC drafted a proposal to the military government of Field Marshal Ayub Khan for the acquisition of either the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[NRX]] heavy water reactor or the [[Chicago Pile 5|CP-5]] reactor, at the [[Argonne National Laboratory]]. However, Ayub Khan's military government vetoed the proposal.<ref>Ashok Kapur, "1953–59: The Origins and Early History of Pakistani Nuclear Activities," ''Pakistan's Nuclear Development'', (New York: Croom Helm, 1987), pp. 38–39, 42</ref>

In March 1958, Nazir Ahmad made another proposal to the chairman of the [[Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation]] (PIDC) for setting up a [[Multan Heavy Water Production Facility|heavy water nuclear plant]] with a production capacity of 50 kg of heavy water per day at Multan in conjunction with a planned fertilizer factory. However, the PIDC did not act on the PAEC's proposal. [[Field Marshal]] [[Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)|Ayub Khan]] rejected the proposal and instead transferred Nazir Ahmad immediately to the [[Federal Bureau of Statistics]]. In March 1959, the PAEC entered an agreement with [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]], in which the United States agreed to provide a 5 MW pool-type reactor. In 1960, a bureaucrat named [[Ishrat Hussain Usmani]] succeeded Ahmad as chairman of the PAEC. Usmani played a pivotal role in the construction and development of [[Karachi Nuclear Power Plant]] by setting up [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]] exploration committees throughout the country. Many nuclear research institutes were also established, and work was begun to set up surveying the suitable sites for nuclear power plants.

In 1965, Science Advisor to the Government [[Abdus Salam]] traveled to [[United States]] to sign an agreement with the government of United States to provide a [[Pakistan Atomic Research Reactor|research reactor]] in Rawalpindi. In United States, Salam also held meeting with [[Edward Durell Stone]], where he signed another contract.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Professor Riazuddin |author-link=Riazuddin (physicist) |title=Contributions of Professor Abdus Salam as member of PAEC |journal=The Nucleus |volume=42 |issue=1–2 |pages=31–34 |date=23 August 2005 |url=http://www.thenucleuspak.org.pk/nucleus/pdf%20Special%20Issue%20Nucleus%2042%281-4%29/Contributions%20of%20Professor%20Abdus%20Salam%20%28ms603%29.pdf |issn=0029-5698 |access-date=7 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627133716/http://www.thenucleuspak.org.pk/nucleus/pdf%20Special%20Issue%20Nucleus%2042%281-4%29/Contributions%20of%20Professor%20Abdus%20Salam%20%28ms603%29.pdf |archive-date=27 June 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> It was under Abdus Salam's leadership that Stone designed and then led construction of a [[PINSTECH|nuclear research institute]] in Nilore.

The same year, the PAEC entered another agreement with [[Canadian General Electric|General Electric of Canada]] to build a 137 [[Megawatt|MW]] [[Karachi Nuclear Power Plant|Nuclear power plant]] at Karachi. In 1967, Abdus Salam urged Field Marshal Ayub Khan to acquire a nuclear fuel reprocessing facility from the United States, but Ayub Khan and his [[Finance Minister of Pakistan|Finance minister]], [[Muhammad Shoaib (politician)|Muhammad Shoaib]], had denied Salam's request.<ref>Shahid-ur-Rehman, "Z.A. Bhutto, A Man in Hurry for the Bomb," ''Long Road To Chagai'', p. 21</ref><ref>Munir Ahmad Khan, "Salam Passes into History", ''The News'' (Islamabad), 24 November 1996.</ref>

After the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965 India-Pakistan War]], Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Foreign minister at that time, began to lobby for a nuclear weapons option.<ref>Ashok Kapur, "''Dr. Usmani Takes Over'', 1960–71," Pakistan's Nuclear Development pp. 77–87.</ref> 'If India builds the bomb, we will eat grass or leaves, even go hungry, but we will get one of our own. We have no other choice'.<ref>Sublettle, Carey (2 January 2002 (original date: 15 October 1965)). "Historical Background: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto". Nuclear weapons archives. Federation of American Scientists (FAS). Retrieved 25 June 2011.</ref> 'In October 1965, Bhutto visited [[Vienna]] to attend the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] meeting. While there, he met with [[Munir Ahmad Khan]], and other Pakistani scientists working at IAEA. Pakistani IAEA scientists briefed Bhutto on the [[India and weapons of mass destruction|rapid development of Indian nuclear programme]]. According to Munir Ahmad Khan, the [[CIRUS reactor|nuclear facility]] at [[Trombay]] consisted of a plutonium production reactor, a reprocessing plant, and other facilities associated to weapon production.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} Bhutto quickly arranged a meeting with Ayub Khan. After this meeting, Ayub Khan remained unconvinced, and rejected the proposal made by Munir Ahmad Khan. Khan notified Bhutto immediately and told him about what had happened.

After learning what happened, Bhutto famously replied, "Don't worry. Our turn will come".<ref>[[Farhatullah Babar]], "Bhutto’s footprints on nuclear Pakistan", ''The News'', (Islamabad) 4 April 2006.</ref> In 1967, a team of Pakistani scientists, under [[Rafi Muhammad Chaudhry]], produced the first batch of [[radioisotopes]] at the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology.<ref>"Pakistan Makes Achievements in Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy," Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 27 October 1979; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 27 October 1979, http://web.lexis-nexis.com {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109161948/http://web.lexis-nexis.com/ |date=9 January 2009 }}.</ref> The research in nuclear technology at PINSTECH began to pick up speed, and Abdus Salam began to supervise Pakistani research institutes.<ref>"Pakistan Produces Radio-Isotopes," Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 20 September 1978; in Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe, 20 September 1978</ref>

In 1968, research on theoretical physics had begun at the newly created Institute of Physics (IP). The IP was established in the small department of physics at the Quaid-e-Azam University (as of today, the IP and the department of physics has been expanded). Pakistani theoretical physicists, such as [[Faheem Hussain]], Peter Rotolli, John Mumtaz, Fayyazuddin, Ishfaq Ahmad, and Masud Ahmad, had begun research on theoretical and quantum physics.<ref>[http://blogs.sse.lums.edu.pk/faheem/Remembering_Faheem/Tributes/Entries/2009/10/17_Fayyazuddin.html Fayyazuddin, Faheem Hussain, a friend] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304122922/http://blogs.sse.lums.edu.pk/faheem/Remembering_Faheem/Tributes/Entries/2009/10/17_Fayyazuddin.html |date=4 March 2012}}</ref> Faheem Hussain became the first physicist at IP to published research analysis on [[string theory]]. Later on, the Relativity Group under Fayyazuddin carried out work on the [[Bethe-Bloch formula|Bethe-Bloch theory]].<ref>Abdus Salam as I know, Fayyazuddin</ref> In 1969, Raziuddin Siddiqui established Einstein's Physics Group (EPG) and carried out experiments on [[general relativity]] and [[quantum mechanics]].

==The Indo-Pakistani 1971 War== {{Main|1970 Pakistani general election|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Bangladesh liberation war}} In March 1970, the [[1970 Pakistani general election|general elections]] were held in Pakistan under the Military government of General Yahya Khan. The electoral results triggered the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in [[East Pakistan]]. Meanwhile, the political situation in West Pakistan was further deteriorating, and tension momentarily grew between the East and West Pakistan. A [[military action]] in East Pakistan called [[Operation Searchlight]] opened a series of bloody counter-insurgency operations led by the defected Bengali dissidents of Pakistan Armed Forces. Later, India intervened in the conflict as covert operations were successfully led by the Indian intelligence agencies.

This was followed by [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], a war in the western front. Pakistan, now fighting on both fronts, lost the war after only 13 days. The war with India and East-Pakistan had caused the collapse of the [[military dictatorship]] of Yahya Khan, and dissolution of United Pakistan.

During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], Pakistan had lost a significant amount of territory as well as geopolitical and economic influence in [[South Asia|South-Asia]]. The size of the Military of Pakistan and the civil population dramatically decreased. Pakistan lost half its [[Pakistan Navy|Navy]], a quarter of its [[Pakistan Air Force|Air Force]] and a third of its [[Pakistan Army|Army]] as well as losing millions of citizens to newly created Bangladesh. {{unreliable sources|section|date=November 2011}} Under pressure by the public and media, Military Government's Combatant Headquarters, the GHQ, gave in to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. As Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came into political power, governmental nuclear organizations came under control of Bhutto. In early January 1972, the year after the war, the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] learned that India was close to developing an [[atomic bomb]]. Bhutto called Munir Ahmad Khan from Vienna and immediately removed [[Ishrat Hussain Usmani]] as the chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Abdus Salam, Science Advisor, managed a meeting of senior scientists and officials of PAEC.<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Multan Conference January 1972: The Birth of Nuclear Weapons Programme | journal=Pakistan Military Consortium | volume=1 | issue=1–2 | pages=12–18 | date=November 2006 | url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3AOZFTUPnzBiEJ%3Awww.pakdef.info%2Fereporter%2Fpakdefereportervol1no1.pdf+Nuclear+pakdef+pdf&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESieytaoc5d0ZMNaZGigsHyiMo17j4BEBpUU-1okQ5Ri77lRJcRUqofaURTdifYPjzKobJTrdf9ZuTQv-4YafN7XZCPeQ_G7N0DvnZ3b4YzhKEX9Nclii5tMErLUiDSM4YzzDryG&sig=AHIEtbTGuqcEBbws1m56OIsaBU7jlpAoyQ | access-date=7 February 2011 | archive-date=16 February 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216231525/https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3AOZFTUPnzBiEJ%3Awww.pakdef.info%2Fereporter%2Fpakdefereportervol1no1.pdf+Nuclear+pakdef+pdf&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESieytaoc5d0ZMNaZGigsHyiMo17j4BEBpUU-1okQ5Ri77lRJcRUqofaURTdifYPjzKobJTrdf9ZuTQv-4YafN7XZCPeQ_G7N0DvnZ3b4YzhKEX9Nclii5tMErLUiDSM4YzzDryG&sig=AHIEtbTGuqcEBbws1m56OIsaBU7jlpAoyQ | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Organization==

In December 1972, [[List of Nobel laureates in Physics|Nobel laureate]] [[Abdus Salam]] began to initiate the work on nuclear weapons. Abdus Salam called two of his students, [[Riazuddin (physicist)|Riazuddin]] and [[Masud Ahmad]] working at the [[International Centre for Theoretical Physics]] (ICTP) to report to Munir Ahmad Khan.<ref name="Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan 1999 pp. 38">"Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan,'' Long Road to Chaghi''(Islamabad: Print Wise Publications, 1999), pp. 38–39.</ref> Theoretical physicists at Institute of Physics (IP) of [[Quaid-e-Azam University]] began to report back to Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Theoretical physicists at IP formed the "[[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology#Research divisions|Theoretical Physics Group]] (TPG)", which was mandated to develop the design of Pakistan's nuclear weapons.<ref name="Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan 1999 pp. 38"/> Abdus Salam played an integral role in TPG, and had done the groundbreaking work for the "Theoretical Physics Group", which was initially headed by Salam until 1974.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rehman|first=Shahid|title=Professor Abdus Salam and Pakistan's Nuclear Program|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNMgAQAAIAAJ&q=Dr+Salam|year=1999|publisher=Shahid-ur-Rehman |isbn=9789698500009|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=16 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116113907/https://books.google.com/books?id=sNMgAQAAIAAJ&q=Dr+Salam|url-status=live}}</ref> The TPG took the research in [[Fast neutron calculations]]—the key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation. The TPG began to report directly to Abdus Salam and research was undertaken under his supervision.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rehman|first=Shahid|title=The Theoretical Physics Group, A Cue from Manhattan Project?|pages=38–40|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNMgAQAAIAAJ&q=Dr+Salam|year=1999|publisher=Shahid-ur-Rehman |isbn=9789698500009|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-date=16 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116113907/https://books.google.com/books?id=sNMgAQAAIAAJ&q=Dr+Salam|url-status=live}}</ref> The TPG examined the problems of [[neutron diffraction]], the theory of [[Relativity of simultaneity|Simultaneity]], [[hydrodynamics]], and what kind of and how much fissile material and reflectors would be used.<ref>{{cite web |title="A Tale of Two Scientists," Long Road To Chagai |url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918040826/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html |archive-date=18 September 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 1973, Bhutto appointed [[Raziuddin Siddiqui]] as Technical member of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, and made him responsible for the preparation of its charter. Raziuddin Siddiqui, a theoretical physicist, established the [[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology#Research divisions|Mathematical Physics Group]] (MPG) that took charge to carry out research in calculations on [[Monte Carlo integration|MC Integrals]], [[Cross section (physics)|cross section theory]], [[Critical mass|critical mass theory]], and [[mathematics]] involved in general theory of [[Nuclear fission|fission reactions]].<ref>Long Road to Chagai, ''A Story of Mathematician'', p.61, Shahidus Rehman</ref>

Educated at the [[Argonne National Laboratory]],<ref>Munir Khan Passes Away," ''Business Recorder'', 23 April 1999</ref> Munir Ahmad Khan and Abdus Salam called a meeting to initiate a work on an atomic weapon in March 1974 at the Pinstech Institute. The meeting was convened by Abdus Salam and Riazuddin of the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG), Asghar Qadir and Munir Ahmad Rashid of Mathematical Physics Group (MPG), Ishfaq Ahmad and Samar Mubarakmand of Nuclear Physics Group (NPG), and Hafeez Qureshi and Zaman Sheikh of Wah Group Scientists (WGS). During the meeting, the word "[[Atomic bomb|bomb]]" was never used, instead the academic scientists preferred to use scientific research rationale.<ref>The Wah Group Scientist: Designers and Manufactures of the early nuclear device</ref><ref>Shahidur Rehman,1990, pp 39–40</ref> The Plutonium and Uranium exploration committees, under Ishfaq Ahmad and Ahsan Mubarak, made discoveries of natural raw plutonium ores and [[Natural uranium]] deposits in the different areas of country.<ref>{{cite news |last=Saeed |first=Nadeem |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4954730.stm |title=South Asia | Villagers' fears of nuclear waste |publisher=BBC News |date=28 April 2006 |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-date=3 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103225404/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4954730.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Nuclear Physics Group, formed in 1967, began to work to under [[Ishfaq Ahmad]]. The NPG analysis the problems on the converting 238[[Uranium-238|U]] into 239[[plutonium-239|Pu]]. In the 1980s the NPG successfully produced the 10 kg of uranium. The NPG also manufactured and reprocessed the [[Isotopes of plutonium|Plutonium isotopes]] at the New Labs, PARR-Reactor.<ref>Rehman, Shaheed-Ur- (1999). ''Pakistan's Finest Hour'', pp. 69–70</ref>  In March 1974, a meeting led by Abdus Salam and Munir Ahmad Khan constituted a small directorate, code name Wah Group Scientists (WGS). Its members contained [[Hafeez Qureshi]], director-general of [[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology#Research divisions|Radiation Isotope Application Division]] (RIAD), and Zaman Sheikh, a [[chemical engineer]] from [[Defence Science and Technology Organization|DESTO]]. The Wah Group Scientists began research on [[Automatic calculation of particle interaction or decay|high precision]] mechanical and chemical components, physics calculation, high explosives and triggering mechanism.<ref>Shahidur Rehman, Long road to chagai, p. 3–4</ref> The same month of March, Abdus Salam and Munir Ahmad Khan set up a plant to manufacture fissile explosive lenses. In April 1974, Abdus Salam formed another group, Laser Physics Group (LPG), headed by [[Shaukat Hameed Khan]].<ref>Cosmic Anger by Gordon Fraser, ''Electroweak Experiments in Pakistan'', p. 205</ref> The Laser Physics Group was charged to carry out research and discover a process to separate [[natural uranium|NU]] into [[enriched uranium|EU]] and [[depleted uranium|DU]]. The LPG used advanced laser technologies, and examined the problems in molecular isotopic of separation of 235[[Uranium-235|U]]—whether to use infrared or Ultra violet lasers—and [[Electromagnetic radiation]] and [[atomic spectroscopy]]— what would be its [[wavelength]] and how atoms separated and ionized.<ref>''PAEC's contribution to Uranium enrichment''.</ref>

In early 1974, under the advice of Abdus Salam, PAEC formed another group, "[[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology#Research divisions|Fast Neutron Physics Group]]", under [[Samar Mubarakmand]]. The Fast Neutron Physics Group (FNPG) took research in and examined the problems in the science of neutron, a [[subatomic particle]]. The Fast Neutron Physics Group calculated the [[Neutron temperature#Neutron energy distribution ranges|numerical ranges of neutrons]]—how much [[Power (physics)|power]] would be produced by the neutrons—and the [[Neutron economy|efficiency of neutrons]]—determined the number of neutrons would be produced—in a device.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} The Fast Neutron Physics Group discovered the treatment process for the [[Fast neutrons|Fast]], [[Thermal neutron|thermal]] and [[slow neutron]]s, and examined the behaviour of [[Neutron flux]]es, and [[Neutron source]]s in particle accelerator installed at PINSTECH. The Fast Neutron Physics Group used the [[R-process]] to determine the neutrons' behaviour in the fissionable device.

End of 1974, Pakistan's [[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]] passed a bill with a majority, declaring [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadis]] to be non-Muslims after which Abdus Salam, a senior scientist and Ahmadi, left Pakistan for Great Britain in protest. After the departure of Salam, Munir Ahmad Khan continued the organizations. The [[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology#Research divisions|Nuclear Engineering Division]], under Bashiruddin Mahmood set up a 238[[Uranium-238|U]] production facility and the construction began under Munir Ahmad Khan's direction.

===Abdul Qadeer Khan=== On 22 May 1974, three years after the events in 1971, India carried out its first nuclear test, code named [[Smiling Buddha]], near Pakistan's Eastern Border of [[Sindh]]. The nuclear test came as a surprise and caused a great alarm at the [[Government of Pakistan]]. On 19 May 1974, in a news conference, Bhutto stressed that India's nuclear program was designed 'to intimidate Pakistan and establish India's hegemony in the subcontinent'.

[[Abdul Qadeer Khan]], a German-trained [[metallurgical engineer]] and [[Nuclear weapons delivery|nuclear weapon technologist]], had spent years at [[URENCO]] in Belgium and the Netherlands.<ref name="theatlantic.com">{{cite web |last=Langewiesche |first=William |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200511/aq-khan/3 |title=The Wrath of Khan |work=The Atlantic |date=4 February 2004 |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-date=12 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512004017/https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200511/aq-khan/3 |url-status=live }}</ref> While at URENCO, Khan was considered a senior translator at the facility and as such had gained access to the most confidential sites and information.<ref name="theatlantic.com"/>

After the India's [[nuclear test]], Khan wrote a letter to Bhutto in which he explained that he had gained expertise in centrifuge-based uranium enrichment technologies at URENCO in Belgium.<ref>Shahid-ur-Rehman, "Dr. A.Q. Khan: Nothing Succeeds Like Success," ''Long Road To Chagai''</ref> Bhutto directed the letter to Munir Ahmad Khan to arrange a meeting with A.Q. Khan. In October 1974, Munir A. Khan sent Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood to The Netherlands to interview Qadeer Khan. In December 1974, Khan returned to Pakistan to meet Prime Minister Ali Bhutto and PAEC Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan, where he tried to convince Bhutto to adopt his uranium route rather than the plutonium approach. Bhutto did not agree to halt the Plutonium route but decided on the spot to place Khan in charge of the uranium program, which would become a parallel nuclear program.<ref name="theatlantic.com" />

Khan initially worked under Bashiruddin Mahmood. But on 19 April 1976, Khan wrote to Munir Ahmad Khan expressing that he was not satisfied and that he wanted to work independently. The letter was forwarded to Prime minister's secretariat. A.Q. Khan, with support from Prime Minister Bhutto, formed the [[Engineering Research Laboratories]], which later became known as the [[Kahuta Research Laboratories]] (KRL). Just as PAEC, the KRL was under direct control of Prime Minister Bhutto and A.Q. Khan reported directly to the Prime Minister. A.Q. Khan disliked the idea of PAEC getting involved in ERL project, but favoured the [[Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers]] to lead the program. The work on ERL was initiated by Bhutto, and the project was assigned to Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers.

As per recommendation of A.Q. Khan, the [[Engineer-in-Chief (Pakistan Army)|Engineer-in-Chief]] of [[Corps of Engineers, Pakistan Army|Corps of Engineers]] selected Brigadier [[Zahid Ali Akbar Khan]], who was renowned for the construction of the GHQ in Rawalpindi, the headquarters of Pakistan Army's Combatant Command, as the head of the project.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite news |title=South Asian Media Net > OPINION |publisher=Southasianmedia.net }}</ref> Brigadier Zahid Ali Akbar led the accelerated construction of the facility, and began to co-administrator the program, alongside Bhutto himself. Impressed by his work at Kahuta, Bhutto gave him additional and secretive assignments for both PAEC and KRL. An office was set up in Prime minister's Secretariat for Brigadier Akbar as he kept Bhutto informed about the construction of the ERL.

Throughout the years, A.Q. Khan had established an administrative proliferation network through Dubai to smuggle URENCO nuclear technology to the Kahuta Research Laboratories. He established [[Pakistan]]'s [[Zippe-type centrifuge|gas-centrifuge program]] which was also loosely based on the URENCO's Zippe-type centrifuge.<ref name="bomb">{{cite book |title=America and the Islamic Bomb: The Deadly Compromise |last=Armstrong|first=David |author2=Joseph John Trento |author3=National Security News Service | publisher=Steerforth Press, 2007 |isbn= 978-1-58642-137-3|page=165|year=2008}}</ref><ref name="cbsnews">{{cite news | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=3483035n&tag=mncol;lst;3 | work=CBS News | title=Eye To Eye: An Islamic Bomb | access-date=8 October 2010 | archive-date=10 November 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110160556/http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=3483035n | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="globalsecurity1">{{cite web |author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/pakistan/khan.htm |title=A.Q. Khan |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=11 March 2011 |archive-date=22 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422074606/http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/pakistan/khan.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="expressindia1">{{cite web |author=Agencies |url=http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Lankan-Muslims-in-Dubai-supplied-Nmaterials-to-Pak-A-Q-Khan/514870/ |title=Lankan Muslims in Dubai supplied N-materials to Pak: A Q Khan |publisher=Express India |date=9 September 2009 |access-date=11 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113203148/http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Lankan-Muslims-in-Dubai-supplied-Nmaterials-to-Pak-A-Q-Khan/514870/ |archive-date=13 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news | url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3481499.stm | work=BBC News | title=On the trail of the black market bombs | date=12 February 2004 | access-date=8 October 2010 | archive-date=9 November 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109101458/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3481499.stm | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Zahid Ali Akbar Khan=== By September 1976 a one hundred acre site near [[Kahuta]] was personally selected, as Abdul Qadeer Khan claimed in his columns.<ref name="southasianmedia.net">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100611224145/http://southasianmedia.net/index_opinion.cfm?category=Science&country=PAKISTAN#A Article title]}} history of Kahuta</ref> Prime Bhutto asked [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Army Staff]] General [[Tikka Khan]] that Brigadier Akbar Khan be promoted to [[two-star general|two-star]] [[major-general]], as it was felt that the title "''general''" would sway with the academic scientists working on the confidential projects. As a two-star general, Zahid Ali Akbar Khan led the constructions of both the [[Metallurgical Laboratory]] in Wah Canntonment (ML) and the uranium enrichment plant in Kahuta.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="southasianmedia.net"/> Originally known as Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL), the facility was renamed Khan Research Laboratories (KRL) in May 1981 by the Military President and Chief of Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq in the honor of Abdul Qadeer Khan.

There are inconsistencies in the above account, which suggests that Brigadier Zahid Ali Akbar Khan was promoted to the rank of two star general by Gen Tikka on the orders of Bhutto to sway the scientists. This account contradicts Dr A.Q. Khan's account which suggests that Zahid Ali Akbar was neither promoted nor deputed by Gen Tikka. According to A.Q., Zahid was deputed to KRL as a Brigadier in the days of Gen Zia (after Gen Tikka retired from the Army) and the promotion to two star general came sometime after that event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-9-261613-Unsung-heroes.|title=The News International: Latest News Breaking, Pakistan News|website=www.thenews.com.pk|access-date=23 May 2015|archive-date=16 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116113837/https://www.thenews.com.pk/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Administrative committees=== Considering the secrecy of the projects and to maintain leadership over the programmes, Bhutto decided to form a committee that would be responsible for coordination and order in the projects that the academic scientists were working on.<ref name="Hassan OUP ">{{Citation |last=Hassan |first=Mubashir |author-link=Mubashir Hassan |title=The Mirage of Power |place=Oxford University, United Kingdom |publisher=Dr. Professor [[Mubashir Hassan]], professor of Civil Engineering at the [[University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore|University of Engineering and Technology]] and the Oxford University Press |orig-year=2000 |date=May 2000 |chapter=§Pakistan's Nuclear Development Under Bhutto. |pages=50–90 |isbn=978-0-19-579300-0}}</ref> In 1974, Bhutto appointed the civil engineer [[Mubashir Hassan]] as the head of the committee.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> Mubashir, with Munir Ahmad Khan, devised a policy that prevented the nuclear proliferation at first.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> Before the arrival of Abdul Qadeer Khan, Mubashir had been encouraging academic scientists to develop classified technologies ingeniously.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> Hassan supervised the construction of the nuclear research laboratories, facilities and testing laboratories throughout the country.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> With little influence of military, Hassan was a proponent of establishing nuclear facilities.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> Scientists were directly reporting to Dr. Hassan and other civilian officers, while the final reports were submitted to Hassan, who would brief Bhutto over the progress.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> After his arrival, Khan started to work with Hassan and Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood, but was dissatisfied with constant involvement of Hassan, who continued to look critically at Khan's suspected activities in Europe and elsewhere.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> In 1975, Abdul Qadeer Khan met with Bhutto in private and requested a military department to supervise his work rather than Hassan.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> Throughout the 1975 until 1977, the military had little influence in the programme and were only involved in a small scale programme with Khan.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> However, the civil committee was disbanded by General Zia-ul-Haq as he fired Hassan and imprisoned him in the Central Jail of Ralwalpindi with Bhutto in 1977.<ref name="Hassan OUP "/> The same year, the military took control of the programme and, for the first time, became involved in every aspect of the programme. 26 September 1979, after the removal of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Major-General [[Zahid Ali Akbar Khan]] assumed the command of Project-706.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jang.com.pk/jang/jul2009-daily/29-07-2009/col1.htm |title=Text in Urdu |publisher=Jang.com.pk |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231053409/http://www.jang.com.pk/jang/jul2009-daily/29-07-2009/col1.htm |archive-date=31 December 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> A military engineer by profession, Khan administratively established military engineer groups in his Corps. He supervised the rapid construction of the Electrical and Vacuum Laboratory (EVL) as well as the development of the town of Kahuta. Throughout the years, Major-General Akbar served as the director-general the Kahuta facility.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jang.com.pk/jang/jul2009-daily/29-07-2009/col1.htm |title=Text Available in Urdu |publisher=Jang.com.pk |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231053409/http://www.jang.com.pk/jang/jul2009-daily/29-07-2009/col1.htm |archive-date=31 December 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> By the 1983, Akbar was promoted to [[three-star rank]] of [[lieutenant general]] as the military wanted a suitable administrator who thoroughly understood the scientific needs of the project. The same year, Akbar was also given command of the Pakistani Army Corps of Engineers in order to recruit senior people whose cooperation were required.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

Lieutenant-General Akbar established a military unit to provide logistic support to both PAEC and KRL. Known as "[[Kirana Hills#Nuclear Test Site|Special Works Development]] (SDW)", it was responsible for the rapid construction of facilities, led by Brigadier Muhammad Sarfaraz. In 1977, Prime minister Bhutto established a military committee to maintain military administrative leadership in project. The Military Engineering Committee (MEC) was led by Major-General Zahid Ali Akbar, and had Major-General Anis Ahmad — [[Officer Commanding|OC]] of Central Works Organization, [[Air Vice-Marshal]] (Major-General) [[Michael John O'Brian]]—AOC of [[Sargodha Airbase|Sargodha Air Force Base]], Air Vice-Marshal (Major-General) [[Eric G. Hall|Eric Gordan Hall]]—[[Air Officer Commanding|AOC]] of [[PAF Base Chaklala|Chaklala Air Force Base]], Brigadier Muhammad Sarfaraz—[[Commanding Officer|CO]] of Special Works Development, and Colonel Zulfikar Ali Khan—CO of [[Frontier Works Organisation|17th ''FWO'' Regiment]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Kausar |first=Niazi |author-link=Maulana Kausar Niazi |title=Last Days of Premier Bhutto |place=Sindh |publisher=Kausar Nazi and Sani Panwhar |orig-year=1994 |year=1994 |volume=1 |edition=1 |chapter=Chapter 9: The plutonium reprocessing plant: The inside story |chapter-url=http://bhutto.org/Acrobat/Last%20Dayf%20of%20Premier%20Bhutto.pdf |page=60 |access-date=11 March 2011 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018084903/http://www.bhutto.org/Acrobat/Last%20Dayf%20of%20Premier%20Bhutto.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Meanwhile, A.Q. Khan had established a proliferation network through Dubai to smuggle URENCO nuclear technology to Kahuta Research Laboratories, including sensitive vacuum and technical equipments necessary for the enrichment technology. He subsequently established [[Pakistan]]'s [[Zippe-type centrifuge|gas-centrifuge program]] based on the URENCO's Zippe-type centrifuge.<ref name="bomb"/><ref name="cbsnews"/><ref name="globalsecurity1"/><ref name="expressindia1" /><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk" />

Qadeer Khan had brought with him knowledge of gas centrifuge technologies that he had learned through his position at the classified URENCO uranium enrichment plant in the Netherlands. After General Akbar, Khan himself was put in charge of building, equipping and operating the Kahuta facility.<ref name="historycommons.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=zulfikar_ali_bhutto_1 |title=Zulfikar Ali Bhutto |publisher=Historycommons.org |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615184345/http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=zulfikar_ali_bhutto_1 |archive-date=15 June 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Khan took over the centrifuge part of the Uranium Enrichment Program from Chairman of PAEC [[Munir Ahmad Khan]], while all other uranium related steps to making uranium gas for enrichment remained under [[Munir Ahmad Khan]]'s responsibility. Bhutto also continued to retain Chairman of PAEC Mr. [[Munir Ahmad Khan]] as the head of Plutonium production, nuclear fuel cycle, uranium exploration, processing and conversion, nuclear weapons development and reactor programs.<ref name="historycommons.org"/>

===Foreign Intelligence=== {{Main|CIA activities in Pakistan|Operation Kahuta|Munir Ahmad Khan#Saviour of Nuclear Program}} The locations of nuclear sites were more secure than the Prime Minister Secretariat, as the [[Government of Pakistan]] was aware of the United States, [[Soviet Union]], and other foreign intelligence agencies had a strong interest. According to Brigadier [[Brigadier Imtiaz|Imtiaz Ahmad]], United States had ground intelligence and the ISI had apparently arrested a number of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and American spies in 1976. Brigadier Imtiaz also claimed in an interview with [[News International]] that he had conducted the military operation "Rising Sun" in 1979 that successfully thwarted a [[CIA]] plot to target Pakistani nuclear scientists and engineers who were closely associated with Pakistan's nuclear programme.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=24241 |title=Security Verification |publisher=thenews.com.pk |access-date=2 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201012027/http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=24241 |archive-date=1 February 2010}}</ref> The operation concluded with the arrest and life imprisonment of a supposed Pakistani CIA agent, Rafiq Safi Munshi, who it was alleged had been working as a nuclear engineer at [[KANUPP]], and as such had tried to wire classified atomic documents to the American consulate in [[Karachi]]. This however, was untrue, as Mr Munshi was employed by KESC at the time and was engaged in the movement against Zia. It was his pro-democracy politics that lead to his imprisonment.<ref name="dawn.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/850868|title=Only bean-spilling spooks can tell why|date=1 September 2009|website=dawn.com|access-date=7 June 2017|archive-date=8 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108035434/https://www.dawn.com/news/850868|url-status=live}}</ref> The operation ended with a declaration of a few undercover CIA agents and U.S. diplomats as [[personae non-gratae]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=24241 |title=CIA Plot to Sabotage the Nuclear Program of Pakistan |publisher=Thenews.com.pk |access-date=2 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201012027/http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=24241 |archive-date=1 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=22396 |title=Security Verification |publisher=thenews.com.pk |access-date=2 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131215449/http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=22396 |archive-date=31 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="dawn.com" />

On 26 June 1979, [[Inter-Services Intelligence|Pakistan's ISI]] arrested the French Ambassador to Pakistan, Pol LeGourrierec, and his First Secretary, Jean Forlot, close to [[Kahuta Research Laboratories]] nuclear complex. Both were intercepted and their cameras and other sensitive equipment were confiscated. According to Pakistan, documents that were intercepted later suggested that the two were recruited by the CIA.<ref>"Profiles of Intelligence" ''Brigadier Syed A. I. Tirmazi (1985). Profiles of Intelligence. Combined Printers. Library of Congress Catalogue No. 95-930455''.</ref>

After the successful outcomes of [[Operation Opera]], Israel supposedly planned an attack on the suspected nuclear facility in the early 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India's covert operation to blow a Pakistani nuclear plant that never happened - The secret story of Kahuta attack |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nation-world/indias-covert-operation-to-blow-a-pakistani-nuclear-plant-that-never-happened/bad-press/slideshow/56757690.cms |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=The Economic Times}}</ref> The [[Military Intelligence (Pakistan)|Military Intelligence]] ([[Military Intelligence of Pakistan|MI]]) and [[Air Intelligence (Pakistan)|Air Intelligence]] ([[Air Intelligence (Pakistan)|AI]]) of Pakistan learned of the Israeli attempted operation when Israeli Air Force's fighter jets flew close to Pakistan's northern border. The [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]] responded immediately. The PAF's [[aggressor squadron]]'s jets belonging to [[List of Pakistan Air Force Squadrons|No. 11 Squadron ''Arrows'']] [[Interceptor aircraft|intercepted]] the IAF jets and gained a [[missile lock]] on one of the Israeli jets. The Israeli jets pulled back subsequently.<ref>India Thwarts Israeli Destruction of Pakistan's "Islamic Bomb", McNair Paper Number 41, Radical Responses to Radical Regimes: Evaluating Preemptive Counter-Proliferation, May 1995</ref> Soon after the incident, Munir Ahmad Khan met with [[Raja Ramanna]] of India. A high-level Pakistani mission was sent to Vienna, where both countries signed an agreement promising not to attack or assist a foreign power to attack each other's facilities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}

===Uranium route=== {{See also|Kahuta Research Laboratories|Abdul Qadeer Khan#Proliferation of URENCO technology}} [[File:Gas-ultra centrifuges from Libya.jpg|thumb|170px|Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan's [[Uranium hexafluoride|UF6]] gas centrifuges]] Natural uranium consists of only 99.3% 238[[Uranium-238|U]] and only 0.7% 235[[Uranium-235|U]], but only the latter is fissile. The rarer but chemically identical 235[[Uranium-235|U]] must be [[isotope separation|physically separated]] from the more plentiful isotope. This process of uranium enrichment into weapon-grade is extremely difficult and sensitive, and requires advanced technology.

Before Khan's arrival, a Coordination Board was set up to manage and supervise the Projects' uranium-route.<ref name="Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan 1999">Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan, ''Long Road to Chaghi'' (Islamabad: Print Wise Publications, 1999)</ref> Sultan Bashiruddin Mehmood of the Nuclear Engineering Division, was made the project director. Khan took over the project from Mahmood as he wanted to work alone. This Board was composed of [[A G N Kazi]], [[Ghulam Ishaq Khan]], [[Agha Shahi]], and Munir Ahmad Khan. The [[Pakistan Armed Forces|Pakistan Defence Forces]] also had established their own boards to support the engineering research activities throughout the country. However, the ERL continued to remain under the overall supervision of PAEC until 1977 after which it was separated and made independent, but throughout the subsequent years and the 1980s, Munir Ahmad Khan continued to serve as a member and later as head of the [[Uranium enrichment]] project's Coordination Board.<ref name="Shahid-ur-Rahman Khan 1999"/> The PAEC sat its own uranium enrichment program to develop an advanced version for uranium fuel. The PAEC had worked on the most challenging method of isotope separation [[Molecular laser isotope separation|molecular laser isotopes]], [[gaseous diffusion|gaseous]] and [[Molecular diffusion|thermal diffusion]].<ref>Remembering Unsung Heroes: Munir Ahmad Khan – The Uranium Route to the Bomb: ''PAEC's role in Uranium Enrichment''</ref> All of these methods were developed and supervised under [[Shaukat Hameed Khan]] of the Laser Physics Group (LPG) and Sultan Bashiruddin Mehmood of the Nuclear Engineering Division (NED). At PAEC, the Laser Physics Group, under the direction of Shaukat Hameed Khan, developed the [[Molecular laser isotope separation|MLIS]] process for the isotopes separation. Meanwhile, the PAEC continued its support to Engineering Research Laboratories. The PAEC produced 6[[Uranium hexafluoride|UF]] and provided its feedstock to KRL while the PAEC had used 6[[Uranium hexafluoride|UF]] in both of their developed Gas and Thermal diffusion methods in their enrichment laboratories.<ref>The Uranium Route to the Bomb: PAEC's role in Uranium Enrichment, Remembering Unsung Heroes: Munir Ahmad Khan, pp3</ref> In 1978, the PAEC had eliminated the MLIS method as secondary process due to its difficulty and complexity. A.Q. Khan's gas centrifuges also became a reason that PAEC was not supported to continue its work on MLIS method as secondary process. {{citation needed|date=November 2011}} However, the PAEC did not completely abandon the work on MLIS method; instead it was continued for the research purposes only under Shaukat Hameed Khan. In 1982, the MLIS method was used to separate plutonium isotopes at the Neutron Activation Analysis Laboratory of the PINSTECH. For this, Shaukat Hameed Khan was conferred with a civil award by the president. [[File:Zippe-type gas centrifuge.svg|thumb|left|100px|Dr. A.Q. Khan's designed the centrifuges loosely based on Zippe-type gas centrifuges.]] Initially, the KRL scientists suffered many setbacks and were unable to develop the machine. While visiting at the ''Physics Hall'' of Qau, Alam met with [[Tasneem M. Shah|Tasnim Shah]], a professor of mathematics at Qau.<ref>{{Citation |title=Dr. G D Alam Interview with Daily Asas and |newspaper=Daily Asas |page=1 |year=1998}}</ref> Alam introduced Shah with KRL scientists where they examined the problems. It was followed by forming Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Division. The CFD Division analyzed the problems of the [[separative work unit|SWU]]—measuring the amount of work done by the centrifuge, and [[Centrifugal acceleration]]—how many [[Rounds per minute|rpm]] would a machine covered, and [[Rotational dynamics]]—what would be its appropriate [[rotational speed]]. Tasneem Shah gained fame when he independently analysed the issue, and assisted the KRL scientists to develop a powerful version of the centrifuges.<ref>Rehman, Shahidur, ''Long Road to Chagai'', pp 57–58 and 72</ref>

As the problems were being resolved, Khan began the enrichment operations. By the start of 1983, the KRL had developed around 1,500–2,900 [[gas centrifuge]]s loosely based on Urenco Group technology.<ref name="nti.org" /> It was thanks to Abdul Qadeer Khan's effort that on 4 June 1978, scientists working in the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL) succeed in enriching uranium by [[electromagnetic isotope separation]] of 238[[Uranium-238|U]] and 235[[Uranium-235|U]] [[isotopes]] at the then-[[Pakistan Air Force]] controlled-[[Chaklala Airbase|Chaklala Air Force Base Centrifuge Laboratory]] (CACL). Ghulam Dastagir Alam, who co-headed the isotope separation project, informed Abdul Qadeer Khan. Khan immediately went to GHQ to informed [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq|General Zia-Ul-Haq]].

By the end of 1983, [[Engineering Research Laboratories|ERL]]/[[Kahuta Research Laboratories|KRL]] under [[Abdul Qadeer Khan|Qadeer Khan]], claimed to carry out the first [[nuclear cold test|cold test]] of a single [[nuclear device]] but this is debated as the [[Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission]] had also carried out a first cold test of a working nuclear device on 11 March 1983. Although, PAEC did not use weapon grade plutonium or uranium in their test, KRL's cold test was different in this regard.

===Plutonium route=== {{See also|Pakistan Atomic Research Reactor#PARR-III Reactor (New-Labs)}} Despite the research and development effort put to develop an atomic device, the Plutonium route was never a part of Project-706 as PAEC had separated the Plutonium route from that project. The climax and the main focus of Project-706 was to build the Kahuta facility as well as the atomic bomb by using the [[Zippe centrifuge|centrifugal technology]] that was developed by the Qadeer Khan from his experience at [[Urenco Group|URENCO GROUP]]. On many different occasions, Khan had objected the Munir Ahmad Khan's work, and unsuccessfully tried to remove Munir Khan from the research and development as A.Q. Khan wanted the government to focus on his method only.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} After the dismissal of the [[Hyderabad tribunal|Bhutto Government]], [[Lieutenant-General]] Zahid Ali Akbar became in charge of the Project, supervising both PAEC and KRL research developmental work. General Zahid Ali Akbar led the accelerated construction of a [[Pakistan Atomic Research Reactor#PARR-III Reactor (New-Labs)|plutonium reactor]] in Rawalpindi which was designed by Hafeez Qureshi. In 1981, the reactor went critical under Iqbal Hussain Qureshi.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} The reactor was put on test in the early 1980s and was processed at ~50% efficiency; the reactor produced the first batch of weapon-grade plutonium.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}

In 1976, A.Q. Khan was unable to convince Bhutto to halt the Plutonium route.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/toc/2005/11/|title=November 2005 Issue|website=The Atlantic|access-date=11 March 2017|archive-date=31 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531052144/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/toc/2005/11/|url-status=live}}</ref> Against the wishes of Khan, the work on plutonium separation process and conversion of uranium into plutonium was taking place under Munir Ahmad Khan.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} Meanwhile, a team of nuclear chemists of [[Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology#Research divisions|Nuclear Chemistry Division]] (NCD), under Iqbal Hussain Qureshi, considered the problem of how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known. Nuclear chemists were able to find a separation process, and balanced the first equation for the nuclear weapon at PAEC. The PAEC had worked on the difficult and most challenging plutonium separation process which was developed by both Ishfaq Ahmad and Iqbal Hussain Qureshi. At New Labs, the PAEC produced the reactor-grade plutonium isotopes, and reprocessed them into weapon-grade.<ref>Munir Ahmad Khan, "How Pakistan Made Nuclear Fuel", pp. 5–9</ref> The breakthrough with plutonium experiment was at the PINSTECH Laboratory by Iqbal Hussain Qureshi of NCD and Ishfaq Ahmad of Nuclear Physics Group (NPG). The scientists realized that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of 239[[plutonium-239|Pu]] as a by-product. The experiments also showed theoretically feasible grounds that [[Plutonium|element 94]] would be readily ''fissionable'' by both slow and fast neutrons, and had the added advantage of being chemically different from uranium, and could easily be separated from it.<ref>Munir Ahmad Khan, "How Pakistan Made Nuclear Fuel", pp. 9–10</ref> After the discovery, the PAEC used Shaukat Hameed Khan's MLIS method to separate plutonium isotopes at Neutron Facility at PINSTECH. From 1974, Shaukat Hameed Khan had continuously worked on this complex and difficult method and successfully used the method to separate the isotopes of plutonium. For this achievement, Shaukat Hameed Khan was conferred with high-civil award by the [[President of Pakistan|President]]. Unlike A.Q. Khan, the PAEC scientists and engineers under Munir Ahmad Khan developed an indigenous capability to develop the programme. The scientists and engineers brought together the experience which they had gained while working in European and American nuclear firms, and designed reprocessing plants, weapons laboratories, enrichment techniques and production of weapon grade plutonium.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}

In March 1983, only senior scientists and high civil and military officials were invited to witness the cold test of a working nuclear device. In March 1983, the [[Corps of Engineers, Pakistan Army|Corps of Engineers]], under General Akbar, cleared the [[Underground nuclear testing|tunnels]] and a PAEC's diagnostic team headed by Samar Mubarakmand arrived on the nuclear test site with trailers fitted with computers and diagnostic equipment. This was followed by the arrival of the DTD Group and the Wah Group Scientists (WGS) with the [[nuclear device|atomic device]], in sub-assembly form. This was assembled and then placed inside the tunnel. A monitoring system was set up with around 20 cables linking various parts of the device with [[oscillator]]s in diagnostic vans parked near the [[Kirana Hills]].

On 11 March 1983, PAEC, successfully tested the non-weapon grade plutonium device in [[Kirana Hill]]s under the leadership of Munir Ahmad Khan with Ishfaq Ahmad heading the test team.<ref>defencejournal.com</ref><ref name="The Nation 2009">"Pakistan Became a Nuclear State in 1983-Dr. Samar", ''The Nation'', (Islamabad) 2 May 2003 accessed on 6 August 2009</ref> The 10 [[kilogram|kg]] non-weaponized grade 239[[plutonium-239|Pu]], and the natural uranium came from [[PARR-Reactor#PARR-III Reactor (New-Labs)|New-Labs]] at [[PINSTECH]] institute, and the detonation system of the implosion devices was developed at the Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) of PAEC under the leadership of [[Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi|Hafeez Qureshi]].

The successful [[Cold fission|cold fission test]] was witnessed by PAEC chairman Munir Ahmad Khan, [[Khalid Mahmud Arif|General Khalid Mahmud Arif]], [[Air Vice-Marshal]] (Major-General) [[Michael John O'Brian]], and then-[[Chairman of the Senate of Pakistan|Chairman of Senate]], [[Ghulam Ishaq Khan]].<ref name="Tests and HMX">[http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/june/chagai.htmCold Tests and HMX] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The [[nuclear device]] was indigenously developed by the PAEC's research wing, Directorate of Technical Development (DTD), headed by Mr. [[Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi]].<ref name="Tests and HMX" /><ref name="The Nation 2009">"Pakistan Became a Nuclear State in 1983-Dr. Samar", ''The Nation'', (Islamabad) 2 May 2003 accessed on 6 August 2009</ref> Also, it was Qureshi's designed and developed plutonium-based [[nuclear device]], which was developed during the period of the 1980s under the umbrella of Project-706. [[Pakistan]], under the leadership of Samar Mubarakmand, who tested the two nuclear device on 30 May 1998 at the [[Kharan desert]], with the codename [[Chagai-II]].<ref>{{cite web |author=John Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/pakistan/kharan.htm |title=Ras Koh – Pakistan Special Weapons Facilities |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=2 September 2010 |archive-date=1 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501131919/http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/pakistan/kharan.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Libya and Project-706== {{Main|Libya and nuclear technology|Libya–Pakistan relations}} According to ''Time'' magazine, Pakistan received hundreds of millions of dollars for Project-706 from [[Libya]]. In return, Libya sent scientists to study Pakistan's enrichment advances. Nominally, the Libyan payments were made in return for Pakistani military assistance.<ref name="Time magazine">''Time'' magazine</ref>

[[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime minister]] [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] invited [[Libya]] to join Project-706 as Libya was the sole financier of Pakistan's Project-706. Libya also hoped that by following Pakistan's Project-706, Libya could have [[Libya and nuclear technology|its own nuclear weapon program]].{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} Libya responded to the invitation by preparing and sending its small team of [[nuclear scientist]]s to the Pakistan's high-powered nuclear research institutions.

By the time Libya had joined the research, Bhutto was [[hanging|hanged]] after a [[military coup d'état]] by [[Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)|Chief of Army Staff]] [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]]. According to ''Time'' magazine, Zia had opposed Bhutto's idea of Libya joining Project-706. In 1977, after Zia took over the government, Libya's connection with Project-706 was immediately cut, resulting in Libyan scientists leaving Pakistan. According to the ''Time'' article, Zia personally disliked and distrusted [[Colonel Gaddafi]].<ref name="Time magazine" />

==See also== * [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] * [[Manhattan Project]] * [[Chagai-I]] * [[Pakistan and nuclear weapons]] * Other projects ** [[Operation Alsos]] ** [[German nuclear energy project]] ** [[Japanese atomic program]] ** [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] ** [[Tube Alloys]] (British World War II atomic program) * Nuclear weapons ** [[History of nuclear weapons]] ** [[Nuclear arms race]] ** [[Nuclear weapon]] ** [[Nuclear weapon design]] ** [[Isotope separation]] (necessary for uranium enrichment) ** [[List of countries with nuclear weapons]] ** [[The United States and nuclear weapons]] * Other Topics ** [[Pakistan – United States relations]] ** [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]] ** [[Indo-Pakistani relations]] ** [[Pakistan–Russia relations|Pakistan-Soviet Relations]]

==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading== ;Personal References and Accounts * [http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/512-4.pdf Nuclear Activities in South Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506110131/http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/512-4.pdf |date=6 May 2013 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090917152540/http://www.jang.com.pk/jang/aug2009-daily/12-08-2009/col1.htm The Kahuta Project] (Available in [[Urdu]]) * {{citation |last=Rehman|first=Shahidur |title=Long Road to Chagai|location=Islamabad|publisher=Printwise publications|year=1999|isbn=978-969-8500-00-9 |ol=155472M}}

==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090202182920/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/308569 Project 706 : The Muslim Bomb] (BBC Film) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G3ojrkLoo6I Project-706: A history by Dr. Inam-ur-Rahman] (Film only in Urdu)

[[Category:Project-706| ]] [[Category:Code names]] [[Category:Military history of Pakistan]] [[Category:Secret military programs]] [[Category:Nuclear weapons programme of Pakistan]] [[Category:Nuclear history of Pakistan]] [[Category:Government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] [[Category:History of science and technology in Pakistan]] [[Category:Military projects of Pakistan]] [[Category:Defence industry of Pakistan]]