Wood industry

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}} {{short description|Group of economic activities related to the production of wood and forest products}} [[File:L' usine de transformation de bois Kotkamills Oy à Kotka.jpg|thumb|300px|Kotka Mill in [[Finland]]]] The '''wood industry''' or '''timber industry''' (sometimes '''lumber industry''' – when referring mainly to sawed boards) is the [[industry (economics)|industry]] concerned with [[forestry]], [[logging]], [[timber trade]], and the production of primary [[forest product]]s and [[wood product]]s (e.g. furniture) and secondary products like [[wood pulp]] for the [[pulp and paper industry]]. Some of the largest producers are also among the biggest owners of [[forest]]. The wood industry has historically been and continues to be an important sector in many economies.

==Distinction== In the narrow sense of the terms, wood, forest, forestry and timber/lumber industry appear to point to different sectors, in the industrialized, [[multinational company|internationalized]] world, there is a tendency toward huge integrated businesses that cover the complete spectrum from [[silviculture]] and forestry in private [[Old-growth forest|primary]] or [[secondary forest]]s or [[plantation]]s via the logging process up to [[wood processing]] and [[timber trade|trading]] and transport (e.g. [[timber rafting]], [[forest railway]]s, [[logging road]]s).{{Cn|date=May 2021}}

Processing and products differs especially with regard to the distinction between [[softwood]] and [[hardwood]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hardwoodind.com/hardwood-lumber/|title=Hardwood Industries – The Pacific Northwest's Source for Hardwood Lumber|website=Hardwoodind.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.international.gc.ca/controls-controles/softwood-bois_oeuvre/index.aspx?lang=eng|title=Softwood Lumber|first=Foreign Affairs Trade and Development Canada|last=Government of Canada|date=3 November 2008|website=GAC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sustainabledevelopmentinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Bowe-Marketing-Tools-and-Industry-Trends.pdf|title=Industry Trends and Marketing Strategies for the Hardwood Lumber Industry : Great Lakes Forest, Industry Products, and Resources Summit|author=Scott Bowe|date=6 June 2012|website=Sustainabledevelopmentinstitute.org|access-date=14 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.softwoodlumber.org/|title=Softwood Lumber, Binational Softwood Lumber Council|website=Softwoodlumber.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/S1389-9341(01)00063-6 | volume=3 | issue=3–4 | title=Production strategies in the Swedish softwood sawmilling industry | journal=Forest Policy and Economics | pages=189–197| year=2001 | last1=Roos | first1=Anders | last2=Flinkman | first2=Matti | last3=Jäppinen | first3=Armas | last4=Lönner | first4=Göran | last5=Warensjö | first5=Mats | bibcode=2001ForPE...3..189R }}</ref> While softwood primarily goes into the production of wood fuel and pulp and paper, hardwood is used mainly for furniture, [[Wood flooring|floors]], etc.. Both types can be of use for building and (residential) construction purposes (e.g. [[log house]]s, [[log cabin]]s, [[timber framing]]).{{Cn|date=May 2021}}

==Production chain== [[Lumber]] and [[wood]] products, including [[Timber framing|timber for framing]], [[plywood]], and [[woodworking]], are created in the wood industry from the trunks and branches of [[tree]]s through several processes, commencing with the selection of appropriate logging sites and concluding with the milling and treatment processes of the harvested material. In order to determine which logging sites and milling sites are responsibly producing environmental, social and economic benefits, they must be certified under the Forest Stewardship Council Forests For All Forever (FSC) Certification that ensures these qualities.<ref>{{cite web |title=FCS |url=https://us.fsc.org/en-us/certification |website=Forests For All Forever}}</ref>

===Harvesting=== Mature trees are harvested from both plantations and native forests. Trees harvested at a younger age produce smaller logs, and these can be turned into lower-value products. Factors such as location, climate conditions, species, growth rate, and [[silviculture]] can affect the size of a mature tree.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.forestlearning.edu.au/|title=Forestry Sustainability School Activities, Lesson Plans & Resources | Forest Learning|website=www.forestlearning.edu.au}}</ref>

===Timber mills=== The native hardwood saw-milling industry originally consisted of small family-owned mills, but has recently changed to include a small number of larger mills. Mills produce large volumes of material and aim to ensure delivery of a high quality standard of product. Their goal is to do this efficiently and safely, at low cost, with rapid production time and high output.<ref name="auto"/>

===Production and use=== Once the timber has been manipulated in the required fashion, it can be shipped out for usage. There are many different purposes for wood including [[plywood]], veneer, pulp, [[paper]], particleboard, pallets, craft items, toys, instrument-making, furniture production, packing cases, wine barrels, cardboard, firewood, garden mulch, fibre adhesives, packaging and pet litter. Western Australia has a unique substance called ‘[[biochar]]’, which is made from [[jarrah]] and [[pine]] and sometimes from [[crop]] and [[forestry]] residues, along with the former materials. Biochar can be used to manufacture [[silicone]] and as a soil additive.{{Cn|date=October 2025}}

[[Softwoods]], such as the Australian [[eucalyptus]], are highly valued, and are used mainly for [[Wood#Construction|construction]], [[Pulpwood|paper making]], and [[Cladding (construction)|cladding]]. The term 'round wood' describes all the wood removed from forests in log form and used for purposes other than fuel. Wood manufacturing residues, such as sawdust and chippings, are collectively known as "pulp".<ref name="auto"/> The [[United States]] industrial production index hit a 13-year high during the COVID-19 pandemic, according to a report from the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (US)|date=1972-01-01|title=Industrial Production: Manufacturing: Durable Goods: Wood Product (NAICS = 321)|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/IPG321S|access-date=2021-08-25|website=FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Wood production hits 13-year high—but lumber prices are still up 171% since COVID started|url=https://www.yahoo.com/now/wood-production-hits-13-high-153539574.html|access-date=2021-08-25|website=www.yahoo.com|date=31 March 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Transport=== Originally, trees were felled from native forests using axes and hand-held [[Crosscut saw|cross-cut saws]] – a slow process involving significant manual labor. Since sawmills were traditionally located within forests, milled timber had to be transported over long distances via rough terrain or waterways to reach its destination. Logs were later transported via train and tram lines, first by steam-powered log haulers then by [[Steam locomotive|steam-powered locomotives]], and finally diesel and petrol-powered locomotives. Even in the modern era, timber is dried in [[Kiln|kilns]]. When the [[Rail transport in Australia|first steam railway in Australia]] opened in Melbourne in 1854, timber transportation changed dramatically. Trains made the transportation of lumber quicker and more affordable, making it possible for the Australian sawmill industry to move inland.<ref name="auto"/>

Wood is transported by a variety of methods, typically by road vehicle and [[log driving]] over shorter distances. For longer journeys, wood is transported by sea on timber carriers, subject to the [[Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes|IMO TDC Code]].<ref name="WitherbyC2C">{{cite book |date=2022 |title=Carefully to Carry |publisher=[[Witherby Publishing Group]] |page=131-158 |isbn=9781914993121}}</ref>

== Top producers == {{See also|Category:Forest products companies}} The main industrial roundwood producers are all countries with a large forest area and a well established logging industry. In the case of coniferous industrial roundwood, the top producers in 2023 were the United States of America, with a production of 274 million m3 (26% of the total production), followed by the Russian Federation with 142 million m3 (13%) and Canada with 105 million m3 (10%). China led the production of non-coniferous industrial roundwood in 2023, with 141 million m3 (17% of the global production), followed by Brazil (138 million m3, 16%) and Indonesia (74 million m3, 9%).<ref>{{Cite book |last=FAO |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd4313en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2025 |date=2025 |publisher=FAO |isbn=978-92-5-140174-3 |language=English |doi=10.4060/cd4313en}}</ref>

As of 2019, the top [[Forest|timberland]] owners in the US were structured as [[Real estate investment trust|real-estate investment trusts]] and include:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reit.com/what-reit/reit-sectors/timberland-reits|title=Timberland REITs {{!}} Nareit|website=www.reit.com|access-date=2 September 2019}}</ref>

*[[Weyerhaeuser]] Co. *[[Rayonier]] *[[PotlatchDeltic]]

In 2008 the largest lumber and wood producers in the US were<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/21/privates08_Americas-Largest-Private-Companies-Lumber-Wood-Production_4Rank.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104060324/http://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/21/privates08_Americas-Largest-Private-Companies-Lumber-Wood-Production_4Rank.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 January 2010|title=America's Largest Private Companies – Industry is Lumber, Wood Production sorted by Rank |website=Forbes.com}}</ref> *[[Boise Cascade]] *[[North Pacific Group]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/21/privates08_North-Pacific-Group_5365.html|title=America's Largest Private Companies: #425 North Pacific Group|website=Forbes.com}}</ref> *[[Sierra Pacific Industries]]

As these companies are often publicly traded, their ultimate owners are a diversified group of investors. There are also timber-oriented [[Real estate investment trust|real-estate investment trusts]].

According to sawmilldatabase, the world top producers of sawn wood in 2007 were:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sawmilldatabase.com/productiontoplist.php|title=The World's Top Producers – The Sawmill Database|website=Sawmilldatabase.com}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! Company ! Production or Capacity in m3/yr |- |[[West Fraser Timber]] Co Ltd || 8,460,000 |- | [[Canfor]] || 6,900,000 |- |[[Weyerhaeuser]] || 6,449,000 |- |[[Stora Enso]] || 4,646,000 |- |[[Georgia Pacific]] || 4,300,000 |- |[[Resolute Forest Products]] || 3,760,000 |- |[[Interfor Corporation|Interfor]] || 3,550,000 |- |[[Sierra Pacific Industries]] || 3,200,000 |- |[[Hampton Affiliates]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hamptonaffiliates.com/|title=Home – Hampton Lumber|website=Hampton Lumber|access-date=20 January 2016|archive-date=23 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123135322/http://www.hamptonaffiliates.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> || 3,100,000 |- |[[Celulosa Arauco y Constitución|Arauco]] || 2,800,000 |- |[[Tolko Industries]] Ltd || 2,500,000 |- |[[Pfeifer Group]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfeifergroup.com/|title=Pfeifer Group • Holzverarbeitung • Export in 90 Länder|website=Pfeifergroup.com}}</ref> || 2,200,000 |}

== Issues ==

=== Safety ===

==== Noise ==== Workers within the forestry and logging industry sub-sector fall within the agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting (AFFH) industry sector as characterized by the [[North American Industry Classification System]] (NAICS).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/sssd/naics/naicsrch?chart_code=11&search=2012%20NAICS%20Search|title=US Census Bureau Site North American Industry Classification System main page|last=ESMD|first=US Census Bureau Classification Development Branch|website=Census.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=12 August 2018}}</ref> The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has taken a closer look at the AFFH industry's noise exposures and prevalence of hearing loss. While the overall industry sector had a prevalence of hearing loss lower than the overall prevalence of noise-exposed industries (15% v. 19%), workers within forestry and logging exceeded 21%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Masterson|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=Themann|first2=Christa L.|last3=Calvert|first3=Geoffrey M.|date=January 2018|title=Prevalence of hearing loss among noise-exposed workers within the agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting sector, 2003–2012|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|volume=61|issue=1|pages=42–50|doi=10.1002/ajim.22792|issn=1097-0274|pmc=5905332|pmid=29152771}}</ref> Thirty-six percent of workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products, a sub-sector within forestry and logging, experienced hearing loss, the most of any AFFH sub-sector. Workers within forest nurseries and gathering of forest products are tasked with growing trees for [[reforestation]] and gathering products such as [[rhizome]]s and barks. Comparatively, non-noise-exposed workers have only a 7% prevalence of hearing loss.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Masterson|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=Themann|first2=Christa L.|last3=Luckhaupt|first3=Sara E.|last4=Li|first4=Jia|last5=Calvert|first5=Geoffrey M.|date=28 January 2016|title=Hearing difficulty and tinnitus among U.S. workers and non-workers in 2007|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|language=en|volume=59|issue=4|pages=290–300|doi=10.1002/ajim.22565|pmid=26818136|issn=0271-3586|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Worker noise exposures in the forestry and logging industry have been found to be up to 102 dBA.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal|last1=Pyykkö|first1=I.|last2=Koskimies|first2=K.|last3=Starck|first3=J.|last4=Pekkarinen|first4=J.|last5=Färkkilä|first5=M.|last6=Inaba|first6=R.|date=July 1989|title=Risk factors in the genesis of sensorineural hearing loss in Finnish forestry workers|journal=British Journal of Industrial Medicine|volume=46|issue=7|pages=439–446|issn=0007-1072|pmc=1009807|pmid=2765417|doi=10.1136/oem.46.7.439|author-link=Ilmari Pyykkö}}</ref> NIOSH recommends that a worker have an 8-hour time-weighted average of noise exposure of 85 dBA.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nioshtic-2/20000050.html|title=NIOSHTIC-2 Publications Search - 20000050 - Criteria for a recommended standard... occupational noise exposure, revised criteria 1998|website=Cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=12 August 2018}}</ref> Excessive noise puts workers at an increased risk of developing hearing loss. If a worker were to develop a hearing loss as a result of occupational noise exposures, it would be classified as [[occupational hearing loss]]. Noise exposures within the forestry and logging industry can be reduced by enclosing engines and heavy equipment, installing mufflers and silencers, and performing routine maintenance on equipment.<ref name="auto1"/> Noise exposures can also be reduced through the [[hierarchy of hazard controls]] where removal or replacement of noisy equipment serves as the best method of noise reduction.{{Cn|date=May 2021}}

==== Injury ==== {{Globalize section|date=February 2021}} The [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] (BLS) has found that fatalities of forestry and logging workers have increased from 2013 to 2016, up from 81 to 106 per year. In 2016, there were 3.6 cases of injury and illness per 100 workers within this industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag113.htm|title=Industries at a Glance: Forestry and Logging: NAICS 113|website=Bls.gov|access-date=12 August 2018}}</ref>

=== Illegal logging === {{Excerpt|illegal logging}}

== Economy == The existence of a '''wood economy''', or more broadly, a '''forest economy''' (in many countries a [[bamboo economy]] predominates), is a prominent matter in many [[developing countries]] as well as in many other nations with a temperate climate and especially in those with [[Boreal climate|low temperatures]]. These are generally the countries with greater forested areas so conditions allow for development of local [[forestry]] to harvest wood for local uses. The uses of wood in furniture, buildings, bridges, and as a source of energy are widely known. Additionally, wood from trees and [[Shrub|bushes]], can be used in a variety of products, such as [[wood pulp]], [[cellulose]] in paper, [[celluloid]] in early photographic film, [[cellophane]], and [[rayon]] (a substitute for silk).{{Cn|date=May 2021}}

At the end of their normal usage, wood products can be burnt to obtain [[thermal energy]] or can be used as a [[fertilizer]]. The potential environmental damage that a wood economy could occasion include a reduction of [[biodiversity]] due to [[monoculture]] [[forestry]] (the intensive cultivation of very few trees types); and CO2 emissions. However, forests can aid in the reduction of atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] and thus [[Climate change mitigation|limit climate change]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forestadaptation2008.net/home/en/|title=Adaptation of Forests and Forest Management to Changing Climate with Emphasis on Forest Health: a Review of Science, Policies, and Practices. Umeå, Sweden. August 25–28, 2008|publisher=|accessdate=13 May 2017}}</ref> [[File:SLM DIA2022-0193 – Vedsågning för hand i Enhörna, Södertälje, omkring 1905.tif|thumb|The wood industry relied heavily on hard and at times dangerous manual labor for centuries. Two Swedish workers sawing a trunk in 1905.]] [[File: Columbia Log Raft.jpg|thumb|A massive [[Timber rafting|log raft]] headed down the [[Columbia River]] in 1902, containing an entire year's worth of logs from one timber camp.]]

Paper is today the most used wood product.{{Cn|date=May 2021}}

=== History of use of wood === The wood economy was the starting point of the [[civilization]]s worldwide, since eras preceding the [[Paleolithic]]{{Clarify|reason=preceding the Paleolithic?|date=February 2021}} and the [[Neolithic]]. It necessarily preceded [[Bronze Age|ages of metals]] by many millennia, as the melting of metals was possible only through the discovery of techniques to light fire (usually obtained by the scraping of two very dry wooden rods) and the building of many [[simple machine]]s and rudimentary tools, as canes, club handles, [[Bow (weapon)|bows]], [[arrow]]s, [[lance]]s. One of the most ancient handmade articles ever found is a polished wooden spear tip ([[Clacton Spear]]) 250,000 years old (third interglacial period), that was buried under sediments in England, at [[Clacton-on-Sea]].<ref>Tecnologia Dalle Origini al 2000, pag. 18</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Clacton Spear |publisher=[[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] |url=http://piclib.nhm.ac.uk/results.asp?image=001066 |accessdate=16 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028210420/http://piclib.nhm.ac.uk/results.asp?image=001066 |archivedate=28 October 2014 }}</ref>

=== Dimensions and geography === The main source of the lumber used in the world is forests, which can be classified as [[Virgin forest|virgin]], [[Semivirgin forests|semivirgin]] and [[Plantation#Forestry|plantations]]. Much timber is removed for [[firewood]] by local populations in many countries, especially in the [[third world]], but this amount can only be estimated, with wide margins of uncertainty.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

In 1998, the worldwide production of "Roundwood" (officially counted wood not used as firewood), was about {{convert|1500000000|m3|cuyd}}, amounting to around 45% of the wood cultivated in the world. Cut logs and branches destined to become elements for building construction accounted for approximately 55% of the world's industrial [[wood production]]. 25% became [[wood pulp]] (including wood powder and broccoli) mainly destined for the production of paper and [[paperboard]], and approximately 20% became panels in [[plywood]] and valuable wood for furniture and objects of common use (FAO 1998).<ref>[http://www.unece.org/trade/timber/mis/energy/output.htm#2007 FAO 1998] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724193223/http://www.unece.org/trade/timber/mis/energy/output.htm#2007 |date=24 July 2008 }}</ref>

By 2001 the [[rainforest]] areas of Brazil were [[Deforestation in Brazil|reduced by a fifth]] (respect of 1970), to around 4,000,000 km2; the ground cleared was mainly destined for cattle [[pasture]]—Brazil is the world's largest exporter of beef with almost 200,000,000 head of cattle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0625-amazon_beef.html|title=Brazil seizes cattle illegally grazing on Amazon forest lands|publisher=|accessdate=13 May 2017}}</ref> The booming Brazilian [[ethanol economy]] based upon [[sugar cane]] cultivation, is likewise reducing forests area.{{Cn|date=October 2025}} Canadian forest was reduced by almost 30% to 3,101,340 km2 over the same period.<ref name="Canadian Forests - Quick Facts">{{cite web|url=http://www.canadian-forests.com/canadian_forests_quick_facts.htm|title=Canadian Forests – Quick Facts|publisher=|accessdate=13 May 2017}}</ref>

=== Importance in limiting climate change === {{See also|Land use, land-use change, and forestry|Deforestation and climate change}} Regarding the problem of climate change, it is known that burning forests increase CO2 in the atmosphere, while intact virgin forest or plantations act as sinks for CO2, for these reasons wood economy fights [[greenhouse effect]]. The amount of CO2 absorbed depends on the type of trees, lands and the climate of the place where trees naturally grow or are planted. Moreover, by night plants do not [[photosynthesis|photosynthesize]], and produce CO2, eliminated the successive day. Paradoxically in summer [[oxygen]] created by photosynthesis in forests near to cities and urban parks, interacts with urban air pollution (from cars, etc.) and is transformed by solar beams in [[ozone]] (molecule of three oxygen atoms), that while in high atmosphere constitutes a filter against [[ultraviolet]] beams, in the low atmosphere is a pollutant, able to provoke respiratory disturbances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eea.europa.eu/maps/ozone/welcome|title=Air quality levels in Europe — European Environment Agency|date=9 January 2019 |publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yourlunghealth.org/healthy_living/pollution/outdoor/effects|title=YourLungHealth.org – The Effects of Ozone Pollution|publisher=|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404053655/http://www.yourlunghealth.org/healthy_living/pollution/outdoor/effects/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In a [[low-carbon economy]], forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil-based carbon reserves too much. Specialized [[tree farm]]s will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations to maximize output.<ref>[http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/campaigns/briefingsmore/carbonmgt.htm Trees and their role in carbon management for land and business] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190041/http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/campaigns/briefingsmore/carbonmgt.htm |date=27 September 2007 }}, The Woodland Trust.</ref>

==Production by country==

=== In Brazil === Brazil has a long tradition in the harvesting of several types of trees with specific uses. Since the 1960s, imported species of pine tree and eucalyptus have been grown mostly for the [[plywood]] and [[pulp and paper industry|paper pulp industries]]. Currently high-level research is being conducted, to apply the enzymes of [[sugar cane]] fermentation to cellulose in wood, to obtain [[methanol]], but the cost is much higher when compared with ethanol derived from [[maize|corn]] costs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brazzilmag.com/content/view/8280/54|title=Brazzil Mag – Trying to understand Brazil since 1989|publisher=|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=22 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822052938/http://www.brazzilmag.com/content/view/8280/54/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * [[Brazilwood]]: has a dense, orange-red heartwood that takes a high red shine (brasa=ember), and it is the premier wood used for making bows for string instruments from the violin family. These trees soon became the biggest source of red [[dye]], and they were such a large part of the economy and export of that country, that slowly it was known as Brazil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forestryencyclopedia.jot.com/WikiHome/Harvesting%20Wood%20in%20Brazil|title=Harvesting wood in Brazil|publisher=|accessdate=13 May 2017|archive-date=24 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124161514/http://forestryencyclopedia.jot.com/WikiHome/Harvesting%20Wood%20in%20Brazil|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== In Canada and the US === There is a close relation in the forestry economy between these countries; they have many tree genera in common, and Canada is the main producer of wood and wooden items destined to the US, the biggest consumer of wood and its byproducts in the world. The water systems of the [[Great Lakes]], [[Erie Canal]], [[Hudson River]] and [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] to the east coast and the [[Mississippi River]] to the central plains and [[Louisiana]] allows transportation of logs at very low costs. On the [[West Coast of the United States|west coast]], the basin of the [[Columbia River]] has plenty of forests with excellent timber.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

==== Canada ==== The agency Canada Wood Council calculates that in the year 2005 in Canada, the forest sector employed 930,000 workers (1 job in every 17), making around $108 billion of value in goods and services. For many years products derived from trees in Canadian forests had been the most important export items of the country. In 2011, exports around the world totaled some $64.3 billion – the single largest contributor to Canadian trade balance.<ref name="Canadian Forests - Quick Facts" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wood-works.org/|title=Wood-Works – Program of the Canadian Wood Council|publisher=|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=12 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112002653/http://www.wood-works.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=January 2023}}

Canada is the world leader in [[sustainable forest management]] practices. Only {{convert|120000000|ha|km2 sqmi|-1}} (28% of Canadian forests) are currently managed for timber production while an estimated {{convert|32000000|ha|km2 sqmi|-1}} are protected from harvesting by the current legislation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadian-forests.com|title=Canadian Forests Website – Home Page|publisher=}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=This source is a ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=January 2023}}

The Canadian timber industry has led to [[environmental conflict]] with [[First Nations in Canada|Indigenous people]] protecting their land from logging. For example, the [[Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation]] set up the [[Grassy Narrows road blockade]] for twenty years beginning in 2002 to prevent clearcutting of their land.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Turner |first=Logan |date=2023 |title=Grassy Narrows marks 20 years of the blockade protecting its land from logging |work=CBC |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/grassy-narrows-blockade-20-anniversary-1.6699763}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/grassy-narrows-12-year-blockade-against-clear-cutting-wins-award-1.3085692|title=Resistance recognized: Grassy Narrows' blockade wins award|work=CBC News|access-date=2017-11-26|language=en}}</ref>

==== United States ====

{{Further|History of the lumber industry in the United States|Forestry#United_States}} [[File:Oregon BLM Forestry 06 (6871712301).jpg|thumb|Logging in [[Oregon]]]] * [[Cherry]]: a [[hardwood]] prized for its high quality in grain, width, color, and rich warm glow.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greendesigns.com/index.html?about/cherry_wood|title=Classic American Furniture for the Home and Office from Green Design Furniture|publisher=}}</ref> The first trees were carried to the lands surrounding [[Rome]] ([[Latium]]) from [[Armenia]].<ref>A History of the Vegetable Kingdom – Page 334</ref> In the United States, most cherry trees are grown in [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[West Virginia]], California and [[Oregon]].<ref name=NASS>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081002103604/http://www.usda.gov/nass/PUBS/TODAYRPT/cher0608.txt Cherry Production] National Agricultural Statistics Service, USDA, Retrieved on 19 August 2008.</ref> * [[Cedrus|Cedar]]: this genus is a group of [[conifer]]s of the family [[Pinaceae]], originating from high mountain areas from the [[Carpathians]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Turkey]] to the [[Himalayas]]. Their scented wood make them suitable for chests and closet lining. Cedar oil and wood is known to be a natural repellent to moths.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~nodice/new/magazine/cedar/cedar.htm|title=Cedarwood Oils|publisher=}}</ref> Actually are planted in western and southern US, mostly for ornamental purposes, but also for the production of [[pencil]]s (specially [[incense-cedar]]).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} * [[Douglas fir]]: a native tree of the United States [[West Coast of the United States|west coast]] and [[Mountain States]], with records in fast growth and high statures in brief time. The [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|coast Douglas fir]] grows in coastal regions up to altitudes of about 1,800 meters; the [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca|Rocky Mountain Douglas fir]] grows farther inland, at altitudes ranging from 800 m to 3,000 m or higher. The wood is used for construction, for [[homebuilt aircraft]], for paper pulp, and also as [[firewood]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} * [[Hybrid poplar]] is being investigated by [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] in [[Tennessee]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/papers/misc/trees.html|title=Biofuels from Trees: Renewable Energy Research Branches Out|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|title=A National Assessment of Promising Areas for Switchgrass, Hybrid Poplar, or Willow Energy Crop Production|first1=R. L.|last1=Graham|first2=M. E.|last2=Walsh|date=1 February 1999|publisher=[[National Technical Information Service]]|doi=10.2172/5051 |osti = 5051|s2cid=109090412 |url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc691468/ |doi-access=free}}</ref> for [[genetic engineering]] to obtain a tree with a higher content of [[cellulose]] and a lower content in [[lignin]], in such a way that the extraction of [[bioethanol]] (useful as a fuel) could be easier and less expensive. * [[Walnut]]: a prized furniture and carving hardwood because of its colour, hardness, grain and durability. Walnut wood has been the timber of choice for gun makers for centuries. It remains one of the most popular choices for rifle and shotgun stocks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.walnutcouncil.org|title=Walnut Council—Growing Walnut and Other Fine Hardwoods|publisher=}}</ref>

=== Nigeria === {{main|Wood industry in Nigeria}}

Wood obtained from [[Wood industry in Nigeria|Nigeria's wood industry]] undergoes processing in various wood processing sectors, including furniture manufacturing, sawmill operations, plywood mills, pulp and paper facilities, and particleboard mills. As of 2010, workers are typically not given any safety training.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mijinyawa |first1=Yahaya |last2=Bello |first2=S.R |date=2010 |title=Assessment of injuries in small scale sawmill industry of south western Nigeria |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268411517 |journal=[[Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal]] |publisher=[[International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=154–157 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

=== In the Caribbean and Central America === * [[Mahogany]]: has a straight grain, usually free of voids and pockets. The most prized species come from [[Cuba]] and [[Honduras]]. It has a reddish-brown color, which darkens over time, and displays a beautiful reddish sheen when polished. It has excellent workability, is available in big boards, and is very durable. Mahogany is used in the making of many musical instruments, as drums, acoustic and electric guitars' back and side, and luxury [[headphone]]s.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

=== In Europe ===

==== Italy ==== [[Populus|Poplar]]: in Italy is the most important species for tree plantations, is used for several purposes as [[plywood]] manufacture, packing boxes, paper, [[match]]es, etc. It needs good quality grounds with good drainage, but can be used to protect the cultivations if disposed in [[windbreak]] lines. More than 70% of Italian poplar cultivations are located in the [[pianura Padana]]. Constantly the extension of the cultivation is being reduced, from 650 km2 in the 1980s to current 350 km2. The yield of poplars is about 1,500 t/km2 of wood every year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.federlegno.it/tool/home.php?s=0,1,29,37,417,1042,1043|title=Federlegno – Italian federation of wood producers and industry|publisher=|accessdate=13 May 2017}}</ref> The production from poplars is around 45–50% of the total Italian wood production.<ref>Fonte:http://www.federlegno.it/tool/home.php?s=0,1,29,37,417,1042</ref>

==== Portugal ==== * [[Cork oak|Oak]] for [[Cork (material)|cork]]: are trees with a slow growth, but long life, are cultivated in warm hill areas (min. temp. > −5 °C) in all the west area of [[Mediterranean]] shores. Cork is popular as a material for [[bulletin board]]s. Even if the production as [[Stopper (plug)|stopper]]s for wine bottles is diminishing in favor of nylon stoppers, in the sake of energy saving granules of cork can be mixed into concrete. These composites have low thermal conductivity, low density and good energy absorption (earthquake resistant). Some of the property ranges of the composites are density (400–1500 kg/m3), compressive strength (1–26 MPa) and flexural strength (0.5–4.0 MPa).<ref>Karade SR. 2003. An Investigation of Cork Cement Composites. PhD Thesis. BCUC. Brunel University, UK.</ref>

=== In Fennoscandia and Russia === [[File:L' usine de transformation de bois Kotkamills Oy à Kotka.jpg|thumb|A [[sawmill]] with [[Log driving|floating logs]] in [[Kotka]], [[Finland]]]] Source:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tomlin |first=Amanda |date=2022-07-24 |title=What is Fennoscandia, and where is it? |url=https://www.routesnorth.com/scandinavia/what-is-fennoscandia-and-where-is-it/ |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=Routes North |language=en-US}}</ref>

In Sweden, Finland and to an extent Norway, much of the land area is forested, and the pulp and paper industry is one of the most significant industrial sectors. Chemical pulping produces an excess of energy, since the organic matter in [[black liquor]], mostly [[lignin]] and [[hemicellulose]] breakdown products, is burned in the [[recovery boiler]]. Thus, these countries have high proportions of renewable energy use (25% in Finland, for instance). Considerable effort is directed towards increasing the value and usage of forest products by companies and by government projects.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

* [[Scots pine]] and [[Norway spruce]]: These species comprise most of the boreal forest, and together as a softwood mixture they are converted into chemical pulp for paper.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} * [[Birch]] is a genus with many species of trees in [[Scandinavia]] and Russia, excellent for acid soils. These act as [[pioneer species]] in the frozen border between [[taiga]] and [[tundra]], and are very resistant to periods of drought and [[icy condition]]s. The species [[Betula nana]] has been identified as the ideal tree for the acid, nutrient-poor soils of mountain slopes, where these trees can be used to restrain [[landslide]]s, including in southern Europe. [[Dissolving pulp]] is produced from birch. [[Xylitol]] can be produced by the hydrogenation of [[xylose]], which is a byproduct of chemical birch pulping.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

== Outputs == {{Excerpt|Forest product}}

===Combustion=== {{main|Wood fuel}} Combustion of wood is linked to the production of micro-environmental pollutants, as [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2), [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) (an invisible gas able to provoke irreversible saturation of blood's [[hemoglobine]]), as well as [[nanoparticles]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Olivares G, Ström J, Johansson C, Gidhagen L |title=Estimates of black carbon and size-resolved particle number emission factors from residential wood burning based on ambient monitoring and model simulations |journal= Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association|volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=838–48 |date=June 2008 |pmid=18581814 |doi=10.3155/1047-3289.58.6.838 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008JAWMA..58..838O }}</ref>

====Charcoal==== {{main|Charcoal}}

Charcoal is the dark grey residue consisting of impure [[carbon]] obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow [[pyrolysis]], the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of [[oxygen]]. Charcoal can then be used as a fuel with a higher combustion temperature.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

====Wood gasogen==== [[Wood gas generator]] (gasogen): is a bulky and heavy device (but technically simple) that transforms burning wood in a mix of molecular [[hydrogen]] (H2), [[carbon monoxide]] (CO), [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2), molecular [[nitrogen]] (N2) and water vapor (H2O). This gas mixture, known as "[[wood gas]]", "poor gas" or "[[syngas]]" is obtained after the [[combustion]] of dry wood in a [[redox|reductive environment]] (low in [[oxygen]]) with a limited amount of atmospheric air, at temperatures of 900 °C, and can fuel an [[internal combustion engine]].<ref>UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE [https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/dspace/bitstream/1957/1569/1/FPL_1463ocr.pdf Gasogens Report] (Original report dated 1944): now in the possession of the University of Wisconsin</ref> [[File:Gasogenog.jpg|thumb|A car built in the 1940s by [[Ilario Bandini]], with a wood gas generator device.]]

===Construction=== {{main|Lumber}}

Wood is relatively light in weight, because its [[specific weight]] is less than 500 kg/m3, this is an advantage, when compared against 2,000–2,500 kg/m3 for [[reinforced concrete]] or 7,800 kg/m3 for steel.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Wood is strong, because the efficiency of wood for structural purposes has qualities that are similar to steel.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

{| class="wikitable" |- ! Material !! E/f |- | Concrete || style="text-align:right;"| (Rck300, fck 25 [[Pascal (unit)|M-Pascal]]) || style="text-align:right;"| || style="text-align:right;"| 1250 |- | [[Structural steel]]|| style="text-align:right;"| Fe430 (ft = 430 MPa) || style="text-align:right;"| || style="text-align:right;"| 480 |- | [[Glued laminated timber]]|| style="text-align:right;"| (BS 11 ÷ BS 18)|| style="text-align:right;"| || style="text-align:right;"| 470 |- | Aluminium || style="text-align:right;"| (alloy 7020, ft 355 MPa) || style="text-align:right;"| || style="text-align:right;"| 200 |}

====Bridges, levees, microhydro, piers==== Wood is used to build bridges (as the [[Magere Brug|Magere bridge]] in Amsterdam), as well as water and air mills, and [[microhydro]] generators for electricity.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

====Housing==== [[Hardwood]] is used as a material in [[lumber|wooden]] houses, and other structures with a broad range of dimensions. In traditional homes wood is preferred for ceilings, [[door]]s, [[flooring]]s and [[window]]s. Wooden [[Framing (construction)|frame]]s were traditionally used for home ceilings, but they risk collapse during fires.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

The development of [[Efficient energy use|energy efficient]] houses including the "[[passive house]]" has revamped the importance of wood in construction, because wood provides acoustic and thermal [[Building insulation|insulation]], with much better results than concrete.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

=====Earthquake resistant buildings===== In Japan, ancient buildings, of relatively high elevation, like [[pagoda]]s, historically had shown to be able to resist earthquakes of high [[Seismic scale|intensity]], thanks to the traditional building techniques, employing elastic [[Kinematic pair|joint]]s, and to the excellent ability of wooden frames to elastically deform and absorb severe [[peak ground acceleration|acceleration]]s and [[compression (physical)|compressive]] shocks.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

In 2006, Italian scientists from [[Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche|CNR]] patented<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.girodivite.it/Terremoti-dal-Cnr-arriva-il.html|title=Girodivite: Terremoti: dal Cnr arriva il palazzo antisismico|last=Girodivite.it|publisher=}}</ref> a building system that they called "[[SOFIE]]",<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.progettosofie.it/ |title=PROGETTOSOFIE: Edificio Antisismico in Legno |access-date=8 February 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090925071608/http://www.progettosofie.it/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> a seven-storey wooden building, 24 meters high, built by the "Istituto per la valorizzazione del legno e delle specie arboree" (Ivalsa) of [[San Michele all'Adige]]. In 2007 it was tested with the hardest Japanese [[Earthquake engineering|antiseismic]] test for civil structures: the simulation of [[Great Hanshin earthquake|Kobe's earthquake]] (7.2 [[Richter scale]]), with the building placed over an enormous oscillating platform belonging to the NIED-Institute, located in [[Tsukuba]] science park, near the city of [[Miki, Hyogo|Miki]] in Japan. This Italian project, employed very thin and flexible panels in [[glued laminated timber]], and according to CNR researchers could lead to the construction of much more safe houses in seismic areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/SoleOnLine4/Italia/2009/04/cnr-progetto-casa-legno-anti-sisma.shtml?uuid=222999a2-241a-11de-bdf4-e9c9b14e9445&DocRulesView=Libero|title=Dalla ricerca italiana la casa di legno che resiste al terremoto – Il Sole 24 ORE|publisher=}}</ref>

====Shipbuilding==== One of the most enduring materials is the lumber from [[virginia]]n [[Quercus virginiana|southern live oak]] and [[white oak]], specially live oak is 60% stronger than white oak and more resistant to moisture. As an example, the main component in the structure of battle ship {{USS|Constitution}}, the world's oldest commissioned naval vessel afloat (launched in 1797) is white oak.<ref name="Victory">{{cite web |url=http://www.hms-victory.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=572 |title=HMS Victory Service Life |publisher=HMS Victory website |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019165325/http://www.hms-victory.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=572 |archivedate=19 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

'''Woodworking'''

[[Woodworking]] is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making ([[cabinetry]] and furniture), [[wood carving]], [[Woodworking joints|joinery]], carpentry, and [[woodturning]]. Millions of people make a livelihood on woodworking projects.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}}

==See also== * [[Forestry]] * [[Lumber]] * [[Canada–United States softwood lumber dispute]] * [[Forest Stewardship Council]] * [[Low-carbon economy]]

== Sources == {{Free-content attribution | title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2025 | publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | documentURL = https://openknowledge.fao.org/bitstreams/1c056d73-8b8a-40a8-b988-0a0809a14fba/download | license statement URL = https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/8871cfb8-396d-4e24-be8e-4f4a3debe7e2 | license = CC BY 4.0 }}

== Notes and references == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Bibliography == * Davis, Richard C. ''Encyclopedia of American forest and conservation history'' (1983) [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam01davi vol 1 online] see also [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam02davil 2 online], 871pp. See [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/4004699?journalCode=jforehist online review of this book]

* [[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared.]] 2005. ''[[Collapse (book)|Collapse. How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed.]]'' New York: Viking. {{ISBN|0-14-303655-6}}.

== External links ==

* [https://unece.org/forests/green-jobs-forest-sector UNECE green jobs] * [http://www.woodgas.com WOODGAS: Biomass Energy Foundation (BEF) website] *http://www.globalwood.org/

==See also== {{Div col|small=yes}} *[[Deforestation]] *[[Forest Products Association of Canada]] *[[Forest Stewardship Council]] *[[Hardwood]]/[[softwood]] *[[Illegal logging]] *[[Lumber industry on the Ottawa River]] *[[National Hardwood Lumber Association]] *[[Pulp and paper industry in the United States]] {{Div col end}}

[[Category:Timber industry| ]] [[Category:Forestry]] [[Category:Industries (economics)]] [[Category:Agricultural economics]] [[Category:Alternative energy economics]] [[Category:Low-carbon economy]] [[Category:Sustainable technologies]] [[Category:Resource economics]] [[Category:Wood products]]