History of ethanol fuel in Brazil

[[File:Canaviais Piracicaba 05 2009 5809.JPG|right|thumb|Mechanized harvesting of [[sugarcane]] (''Saccharum officinarum''), [[Piracicaba]], [[State of São Paulo|São Paulo]].]]

The '''history of ethanol fuel in Brazil''' dates from the 1970s and relates to [[Brazil]]'s [[sugarcane]]-based [[ethanol fuel]] program, which allowed the country to become the world's second largest producer of [[ethanol]], and the world's largest exporter.<ref name="RFA1E">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/statistics/#E |title=Industry Statistics: Annual World Ethanol Production by Country |publisher=Renewable Fuels Association |access-date=2008-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408091334/http://www.ethanolrfa.org/industry/statistics/#E |archive-date=2008-04-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Several important political and technological developments led Brazil to become the world leader in the [[sustainable biofuel|sustainable use of bioethanol]],<ref name="Wilson">{{cite web|url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/Brazil_SR_e3.pdf |title=Brazil Institute Special Report: The Global Dynamics of Biofuels |editor=Daniel Budny and Paulo Sotero|publisher=Brazil Institute of the Woodrow Wilson Center |date=April 2007 |access-date=2008-05-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528051442/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/Brazil_SR_e3.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 }}</ref><ref name="Apollo">{{Cite book |author1=Inslee, Jay |author2=Bracken Hendricks | title = [[Apollo's Fire (book)|Apollo's Fire]] | year = 2007 | pages=153–155, 160–161 | publisher = Island Press, Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-59726-175-3 | id = . ''See Chapter 6. Homegrown Energy.'' }}</ref><ref name="NYT100406">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/10/world/americas/10brazil.html?pagewanted=1&sq=Bush%20Brazil%20ethanol&st=nyt&scp=5 |title=With Big Boost From Sugar Cane, Brazil Is Satisfying Its Fuel Needs |author=Larry Rother|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=2006-04-10|access-date=2008-04-28}}</ref><ref name="Econon06_08">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11632886 |title=Biofuels in Brazil: Lean, green and not mean |newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=2008-06-26|access-date=2008-11-28}}</ref> and a policy model for other developing countries in the [[tropical zone]] of [[Latin America]], the [[Caribbean]], and [[Africa]].<ref name="HotFlat">{{Cite book|last=[[Thomas L. Friedman]]|title=[[Hot, Flat, and Crowded]]|year=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/hotflatcrowded00frie/page/190 190]|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York|isbn=978-0-374-16685-4}} ''The author considers that ethanol can be a transport solution for Brazil, but one that only can be replicated in other tropical countries, from Africa to the Caribbean.''</ref><ref name=KSG2009>{{cite web|url=http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/19856/certification_strategies_industrial_development_and_a_global_market_for_biofuels.html|title=Certification Strategies, Industrial Development and a Global Market for Biofuels|author1=Hausmann, Ricardo|author2=Rodrigo Wagner|publisher=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs and Sustainability Science Program, [[Center for International Development]], [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]], [[Harvard University]]|date=October 2009|access-date=2010-02-09|archive-date=2010-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100122150738/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/19856/certification_strategies_industrial_development_and_a_global_market_for_biofuels.html|url-status=dead}} Discussion Paper 2009-15. ''The authors found that for some countries in Central Africa and Latin America ethanol can represent a large industry, at least relative to current exports. The list of the relative importance of biofuels (sugarcane ethanol in particular and replicating the Brazilian production system) is headed by Suriname, Guyana, Bolivia, Paraguay, DR of Congo, and Cameroon. See pp. 5–6''</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last = Mitchell, Donald|title=Biofuels in Africa: Opportunities, Prospects, and Challenges|year=2010|pages=xix-xxxii|publisher=[[The World Bank]], Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-0-8213-8516-6}} See Executive Summary and Appendix A: The Brazilian Experience.</ref> Government policies and technological advances also allowed the country to achieve a landmark in ethanol consumption, when ethanol retail sales surpassed 50% market share of the gasoline-powered vehicle fleet in early 2008.<ref name= "ANP07_2008"/><ref name="50consumo"/> This level of ethanol fuel consumption had only been reached in Brazil once before, at the peak of the ''Pró-Álcool'' Program near the end of the 1980s.<ref name= "ANP07_2008"/><ref name="50consumo"/><ref name= "ANP02_2008"/>

==Early experiences== {| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="6" align=center style="background-color: #ccffcc;" | Historical evolution of ethanol blends used in Brazil (1976–2015) |- style="background-color: #ccffcc;" ! Year ! Ethanol blend ! Year ! Ethanol blend ! Year ! Ethanol blend |- |1931|| style="text-align: center;" | E5||1989 || style="text-align: center;" | E18-22-13||2004|| style="text-align: center;" | E20 |- |1976|| style="text-align: center;" | E11||1992 || style="text-align: center;" | E13 || 2005 || style="text-align: center;" | E22 |- |1977|| style="text-align: center;" | E10||1993–98 || style="text-align: center;" | E22 || 2006|| style="text-align: center;" | E20 |- |1978|| style="text-align: center;" | E18-20-23 || 1999 || style="text-align: center;" | E24||2007<ref name="USP"/><ref name="Portaria2007"/>|| style="text-align: center;" | E23-25 |- |1981 || style="text-align: center;" | E20-12-20 || 2000|| style="text-align: center;" | E20 ||2008<ref name="Portaria2007"/>|| style="text-align: center;" | E25 |- |1982 || style="text-align: center;" | E15 || 2001 || style="text-align: center;" | E22 || 2009|| style="text-align: center;" | E25 |- |1984–86 || style="text-align: center;" | E20 ||2002 || style="text-align: center;" | E24-25 || 2010<ref name=Portaria2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.agricultura.gov.br/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/MAPA/LEGISLACAO/PUBLICACOES_DOU/PUBLICACOES_DOU_2010/DOU_JANEIRO_2010/DO1_12-01_0.PDF|title=Portaria No. 7 de 11 de Janeiro de 2010 do Ministério de Estado da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento e Resolução No. 1 do Conselho Interministeriarl do Açúcar e do Álcool|publisher=Diário Oficial da União|date=2010-01-12|access-date=2010-02-10|language=pt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313074441/http://agricultura.gov.br/pls/portal/docs/page/mapa/legislacao/publicacoes_dou/publicacoes_dou_2010/dou_janeiro_2010/do1_12-01_0.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-13}} pp. 3</ref>|| style="text-align: center;" | E20-25 |- |1987–88 || style="text-align: center;" | E22||2003 || style="text-align: center;" | E20-25 ||2011<ref name=E18>{{cite news|url=http://br.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idBRSPE73R0V720110429|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430220906/http://br.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idBRSPE73R0V720110429|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-04-30|title=Dilma assina medida que dá poder à ANP para regular etanol|language=pt|work=Reuters Brasil|date=2011-04-28|access-date=2011-05-03}}</ref> || E18-E25 |- |colspan="4" | ||2015<ref name=E27>{{cite news|url=http://g1.globo.com/economia/noticia/2015/03/mistura-de-etanol-na-gasolina-sobe-hoje.html|title=Mistura de etanol na gasolina sobe hoje|language=pt|trans-title=Ethanol content in gasoline rises today|author=Fábio Amato e Filipe Matoso|work=Globo.com|date=2015-03-16|access-date=2015-03-22}}</ref>|| style="text-align: center;" | E27 |- | colspan="6" |Source: J.A. Puerto Rica (2007), Table 3.8, pp. 81–82<ref name="USP"/> Note: The 2010 reduction from E25 to E20 was temporary and took place between February and April.<ref name=Portaria2010/> The minimum blend floor was reduced to E18 in April 2011.<ref name=E18/> |}

[[Sugarcane]] has been cultivated in Brazil since 1532. Introduced in [[Pernambuco]] that year, sugar was one of the first [[commodities]] exported to Europe by the Portuguese settlers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unica.com.br/content/show.asp?cntCode=8875C0EE-34FA-4649-A2E6-80160F1A4782 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120913214329/http://www.unica.com.br/content/show.asp?cntCode=8875C0EE-34FA-4649-A2E6-80160F1A4782 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-09-13 |title=Setor Sucroenergético - Histórico: Ciclo Econômico da Cana-de-Açúcar |publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]] |access-date=2008-11-09 |language=pt }}</ref> [[Ethyl alcohol]] or ethanol is obtained as a by-product of sugar mills producing sugar, and can be processed to produce [[alcoholic beverage]]s, [[ethanol fuel]] or [[Ethanol|alcohol]] for industrial or [[Antiseptic#Some common antiseptics|antiseptic]] uses. The first use of sugarcane ethanol as fuel in Brazil dates back to the late twenties and early thirties of the 20th century, with the introduction of the automobile in the country. After [[World War I]] some experimenting took place in Brazil's [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast Region]],<ref name="History"/> and as early as 1919, the Governor of Pernambuco mandated all official vehicles to run on ethanol.<ref name="Ehistory"/> The first ethanol fuel production plant went on line in 1927, the Usina Serra Grande Alagoas (USGA), located in the Northeastern state of [[Alagoas]],<ref name="History">{{Cite web| url=http://www.aondevamos.eng.br/boletins/edicao07.htm|title=USGA: Em 1927, o Primeiro Grande Empreendimento Brasileiro em Álcool Combustível|publisher=Onde Vamos Boletim Enfoque |date=June 2000 |access-date=2008-11-09|language=pt |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080319112800/http://www.aondevamos.eng.br/boletins/edicao07.htm |archive-date = March 19, 2008}}</ref> producing fuel with 75% ethanol and 25% [[ethyl ether]]. As other plants began producing ethanol fuel, two years later there were 500 cars running on this fuel in the country's Northeast Region.<ref name="History"/>

A decree was issued on February 20, 1931, mandating the blend of 5% [[hydrated]] ethanol to all imports of gasoline by volume.<ref name="Ehistory">{{cite web|url=http://www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/papers/International.History.Ethanol.Fuel.html |title=Ethanol's first century |author=William Kovarik |publisher=[[Radford University]] |year=2008 |access-date=2008-11-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211155356/http://www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/papers/International.History.Ethanol.Fuel.html |archive-date=2008-12-11 }} This paper was originally presented in the XVI International Synposium on Alcohol Fuels, and augmented or slightly revised with the addition of new information in 2006–2008.</ref> The number of distilleries producing ethanol fuel went from 1 in 1933 to 54 by 1945.<ref name="Ehistory"/> Fuel-grade ethanol production increased from 100,000 [[liter]]s in 1933 to 51.5 million liters in 1937, representing 7% of the country's fuel consumption. Production peaked to 77 million liters during [[World War II]], representing 9.4% of all ethanol production in the country. Due to German submarine attacks threatening oil supplies, the mandatory blend was as high as 50 percent in 1943.<ref name="Ehistory"/> After the end of the war cheap oil caused gasoline to prevail, and ethanol blends were only used sporadically, mostly to take advantage of sugar surpluses,<ref name="Ehistory"/> until the 1970s, when the [[1973 oil crisis|first oil crisis]] resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness on the dangers of oil dependence.<ref name="History"/><ref name="Ehistory"/>

==The Pro-Alcohol era== {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="6" align=center style="background-color: #ffffcc;" | Ethanol-only and Flexible-fuel light vehicles manufactured in Brazil from 1979 to 2011 (Selected years) |- ! style="background: #ffffcc;" |Year !! style="background: #ffffcc;"|Neat Ethanol ([[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E100|E100]]) vehicles Produced!! style="background: #ffffcc;"|[[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E20, E25|E20]]/[[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E100|E100]] Flexible fuel vehicles Produced(1) !! style="background: #ffffcc;"| Total Light Vehicles(1) Produced (including exports)!! style="background: #ffffcc;" |Ethanol vehicles as % Total light vehicles(2) |-align="right" |align="center"|1979 || 4,614 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 1,022,083 || align="center"| 0.5 |-align="right" |align="center"|1980 || 254,001 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 1,048,692 || align="center"| 24.2 |-align="right" |align="center"|1983 || 590,915 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 854,761 || align="center"| 69.1 |-align="right" |align="center"|1986 || 697,731 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 960,570 || align="center"| 72.6 |-align="right" |align="center"|1988 || 569,189 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 978,519 || align="center"| 58.2 |-align="right" |align="center"|1990 || 83,259 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 847,838 || align="center"| 9.8 |-align="right" |align="center"|1993 || 264,651 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 1,324,665 || align="center"| 20.0 |-align="right" |align="center"|1998 || 1,451 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 1,501,060 || align="center"| 0.1 |-align="right" |align="center"|2000 || 10,106 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 1,596.882 || align="center"| 0.6 |-align="right" |align="center"|2002 || 56,594 || style="text-align: center;" | — || 1,700,146 || align="center"| 3.3 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2003 || 34,919 || 49,264 || 1,721,841 || align="center"| 4.9 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2004 || 51,012 || 332,507 || 2,181,131 || align="center"|17.6 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2005 || 51,476 || 857,899 || 2,377,453 || align="center"|38.2 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2006 || 775 || 1,391,636|| 2,471,224 || align="center"|56.3 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2007 || 3 || 1,936,931 || 2,803,919 || align="center"|69.1 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2008 || 0 || 2,243,648|| 3,004,535 || align="center"| 74.7 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2009|| 0 || 2,541,153 || 3,024,755 || align="center"| 84.0 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2010|| 50 || 2,627,111 || 3,408,683 || align="center"| 77.1 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2011|| 51 || 2,848,071 || 3,425,674 || align="center"| 83.1 |-align="right" |align="center" style="background: #ffffcc;"|Total 1979–2011|| style="background: #ffffcc;"|5,658,450|| style="background: #ffffcc;"|14,828,220|| style="background: #ffffcc;"|61,141,083|| style="background: #ffffcc;" align="center"|33.5 |- |colspan="5"|'''Source''': ANFAVEA, 1979–2010,<ref name=ANFAVEA2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.virapagina.com.br/anfavea2011/|title=Anúario da Industria Automobilistica Brasileira 2011: Tabela 2.3 Produção por combustível - 1957/2010|publisher=ANFAVEA - Associação Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veículos Automotores (Brasil)|access-date=2012-01-22|language=pt|archive-date=2013-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531070340/http://www.virapagina.com.br/anfavea2011/|url-status=dead}} pp. 62–63.</ref> and Denatran/ANFAVEA 2011.<ref name=ANFAVEA2011>{{cite web|url=http://www.anfavea.com.br/cartas/Carta308.pdf |title=Licenciamento total de automóveis e comerciais leves por combustível |trans-title=Total automobiles and light-trucks registered by fuel |language=pt |author=Renavam/Denatran |publisher=ANFAVEA |date=January 2012 |access-date=2012-01-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131115223/http://www.anfavea.com.br/cartas/Carta308.pdf |archive-date=2012-01-31 }} ''Carta de ANFAVEA 308'' pp. 4.</ref> Notes: (1) Flex-fuel motorcycles not included. (2) Total light vehicles include autos and light trucks built with diesel, gasoline, neat ethanol, and flexfuel engines. |}

As a response to the [[1973 oil crisis]], the Brazilian government began promoting bioethanol as a fuel. The National Alcohol Program -''Pró-Álcool''- ({{langx|pt|Programa Nacional do Álcool}}), launched in 1975, was a nationwide program financed by the government to phase out automobile fuels derived from [[fossil fuels]], such as [[gasoline]], in favor of ethanol produced from [[sugar cane]].<ref name="Bastos">{{Cite web|url=http://www.energytribune.com/articles.cfm?aid=534 |author=Milton Briquet Bastos |title=Brazil's Ethanol Program – An Insider's View |publisher=Energy Tribune |date=2007-06-20 |access-date=2008-08-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710193215/http://www.energytribune.com/articles.cfm?aid=534 |archive-date=2011-07-10 }}</ref><ref name="Veja1979"/><ref name="SeatleT"/> The decision to produce ethanol from [[sugarcane]] was based on the low cost of sugar at the time, the idle capacity for distillation at the sugar plants, and the country's tradition and experience with this feedstock. Other sources of fermentable carbohydrates were also explored such as [[manioc]] and other feedstocks.<ref name="USP"/> The first phase of the program concentrated in production of [[anhydrous]] ethanol for [[Common ethanol fuel mixtures|blending with gasoline]].<ref name="USP"/> [[File:Primeiro carro alcool.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Dodge]] 1800 was the first prototype engineered with a neat ethanol-only engine. Exhibit at the ''Memorial Aeroespacial Brasileiro'', [[Brazilian General Command for Aerospace Technology (CTA)|CTA]], [[São José dos Campos]].]] [[File:Fiat 147 br.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Brazil]]ian [[Fiat 147]] was the first modern automobile launched to the market capable of running on neat [[hydrous]] [[ethanol fuel]] ([[w:Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E100|E100]]).]]

After testing in government fleets with several prototypes developed by local subsidiaries of [[Fiat]], [[Volkswagen do Brasil|Volkswagen]], [[General Motors do Brasil|GM]], and [[Ford do Brasil|Ford]], and compelled by the [[1979 energy crisis|second oil crisis]], the first 16 gasoline stations began supplying hydrous ethanol in May 1979 for a fleet of 2,000 neat ethanol adapted vehicles,<ref name="UNICAMay09">{{cite web|url=http://www.unica.com.br/clipping/show.asp?cppCode=F2BB0F23-7709-4DBB-9D08-6790853A28EB|title=30 anos de etanol|publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]]|author=[[Jornal do Brasil]]|date=2009-05-24|access-date=2009-05-29|language=pt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20110706154924/http://www.unica.com.br/clipping/show.asp?cppCode=F2BB0F23-7709-4DBB-9D08-6790853A28EB|archive-date=2011-07-06}}</ref><ref name="G1May09">{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Economia_Negocios/0,,MUL1114790-9356,00.html|title=Álcool combustível completa 30 anos nos postos com previsão de crescimento |publisher=[[Rede Globo|Globo.com]]|author=Fernando Scheller |date=2009-05-09|access-date=2009-05-29|language=pt}}</ref> and by July, the [[Fiat 147]] was launched to the market, becoming the first modern commercial neat ethanol-powered car ([[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E100|E100]]) sold in the world.<ref name="Bastos"/><ref name="Veja1979">{{cite web |url=http://veja.abril.com.br/idade/exclusivo/petroleo/130679.html |title=O petróleo da cana |author=[[Revista Veja]] |publisher=[[Editora Abril]] |date=1979-06-13 |access-date=2008-11-29 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006165850/http://veja.abril.com.br/idade/exclusivo/petroleo/130679.html |archive-date=2008-10-06 }}</ref><ref name="UNICAMay09"/><ref name="G1May09"/> Brazilian carmakers modified gasoline engines to support [[hydrous]] ethanol characteristics. Changes included [[compression ratio]], amount of fuel injected, replacement of materials subject to corrosion by ethanol, use of colder [[spark plugs]] suitable for dissipating heat due to higher flame temperatures, and an auxiliary cold-start system that injects gasoline from a small tank to aid cold starting. Six years later, approximately 75% of Brazilian passenger cars were manufactured with ethanol engines.<ref name="Bastos"/><ref name="Lemos">{{Cite web| url=http://www.icis.com/Articles/2007/02/12/4500680/the-brazilian-ethanol-model.html | author=William Lemos |title=The Brazilian ethanol model |publisher=ICIS news | date=2007-02-05 | access-date=2008-08-14 }}</ref>

The Brazilian government also made mandatory the blend of [[ethanol fuel]] with gasoline, fluctuating from 1976 until 1992 between 10% and 22%.<ref name="USP">{{cite web|url=http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/86/86131/tde-07052008-115336/|author=Julieta Andrea Puerto Rico|title=Programa de Biocombustíveis no Brasil e na Colômbia: uma análise da implantação, resultados e perspectivas|publisher=[[Universidade de São Paulo]]|date=2008-05-08|language=pt|access-date=2008-10-05}} Ph.D. Dissertation Thesis, pp. 81–82</ref> Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend, pure gasoline ([[Common ethanol fuel mixtures|E0]]) is no longer sold in the country. A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22% [[anhydrous]] ethanol ([[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E20, E25|E22]]) in the entire country. This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries; since 2003 these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25% ([[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E20, E25|E25]]) and a minimum of 20% ([[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E20, E25|E20]]) by volume.<ref name="USP"/><ref name="Lei8723">{{cite web|url=http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil/leis/L8723.htm |title=Lei Nº 8.723, de 28 de Outubro de 1993. Dispõe sobre a redução de emissão de poluentes por veículos automotores e dá outras providências |publisher=Casa Civil da Presidência da República |access-date=2008-10-05 |language=pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006162053/http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil/leis/L8723.htm |archive-date=2008-10-06 |url-status=dead }} See article 9º and modifications approved by Law Nº 10.696, 2003-07-02</ref> Since then, the government has set the percentage on the ethanol blend according to the results of the [[sugarcane]] harvest and the levels of ethanol production from sugarcane, resulting in blend variations even within the same year.<ref name="USP"/>

Since July 2007, the mandatory blend was 25% of [[anhydrous]] ethanol and 75% gasoline or [[w:Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E25|E25 blend]].<ref name="Portaria2007">{{cite web|url=http://extranet.agricultura.gov.br/sislegis-consulta/consultarLegislacao.do?operacao=visualizar&id=17886|title=Portaria Nº 143, de 27 de Junho de 2007|publisher=Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento|access-date=2008-10-05|language=pt}} This decree fixed the mandatory blend at 25% starting July 1st, 2007</ref> As a result of supply shortages and high ethanol fuel prices, in 2010 the government mandated a temporary 90-day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1, 2010.<ref name=Portaria2010/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://br.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idBRSPE60A0MW20100111|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201042/http://br.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idBRSPE60A0MW20100111|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-07-21|title=Governo reduz mistura de etanol na gasolina para 20%|publisher=Reuters Brasil|date=2010-01-11|access-date=2010-02-10|language=pt}}</ref> As supply shortages took place again between the 2010–2011 harvest seasons, some ethanol was imported from the US, and in April 2011 the government reduced the minimum mandatory blend to 18 percent, leaving the mandatory blend range between E18 and E25.<ref name=E18/><ref name=Shortage2011>{{cite news |url=http://www.istoedinheiro.com.br/entrevistas/55733_A+GASOLINA+VAI+MATAR+A+INDUSTRIA+DO+ETANOL |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503064158/http://www.istoedinheiro.com.br/entrevistas/55733_A+GASOLINA+VAI+MATAR+A+INDUSTRIA+DO+ETANOL |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-05-03 |title=A gasolina vai matar a indústria do etanol |language=pt |work=[[ISTOÉ]] Dinheiro |author=Hugo Cilo |date=2011-04-29 |access-date=2011-05-03 }}</ref>

By mid-March 2015, the government raised the ethanol blend in regular gasoline from 25% to 27%. The blend on premium gasoline was kept at 25% upon request by ANFAVEA, the Brazilian association of automakers, because of concerns about the effects on the higher blend on cars that were built only for E25 as the maximum blend, as opposed to flex-fuel cars.<ref name=E27/> The government approved the higher blend as an economic incentive for ethanol producers, due to an existing overstock of over 1 billion liters (264 million US gallons) of ethanol. The implementation of E27 is expected to allow the consumption of the overstock before the end of 2015.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://g1.globo.com/economia/noticia/2015/03/mistura-de-etanol-na-gasolina-sobe-para-27-partir-de-16-de-marco.html|title=Mistura de etanol na gasolina sobe para 27% a partir de 16 de março|language=pt|trans-title=Ethanol blend will increase to 27% beginning March 16|author=Fábio Amato e Filipe Matoso|work=Globo.com|date=2015-03-04|access-date=2015-03-22}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=October 2020}}

[[File:Neat ethanol car Piracicaba 05 2009 5664.JPG|thumb|left|As of 2009 there are still neat ethanol cars running on Brazilian roads. Shown here a neat ethanol car fueling [[w:Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E100|E100]] at a [[Piracicaba]] gas station, [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]].]] The Brazilian government provided three important initial motivators for the ethanol industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned oil company [[Petrobras]], low-interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms, and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59% of the government-set gasoline price at the pump. These incentives made ethanol production competitive.<ref name="lovins">Lovins. A.B. (2005). [[Winning the Oil Endgame]], p. 105.</ref>

After reaching more than four million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s,<ref name=ANFAVEA2010/> representing 33% of the country's motor vehicle fleet,<ref name="Veja1989"/> ethanol production and sales of neat ethanol cars tumbled due to several factors. First, gasoline prices fell sharply as a result of the [[1980s oil glut]]. The [[inflation]] adjusted [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|real 2004 dollar value]] of oil fell from an average of US$78.2 in 1981 to an average of US$26.8 per barrel in 1986.<ref>[http://cta.ornl.gov/data/tedb26/Spreadsheets/Table10_03.xls Oak Ridge National Lab data]{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Also, by mid-1989, a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages.<ref name="SeatleT">{{cite news|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002339093_brazilfuel17.html |newspaper=The Seattle Times |title=Brazil's ethanol effort helping lead to oil self-sufficiency |author=Marla Dickerson |date=2005-06-17 |access-date=2008-11-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227203948/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002339093_brazilfuel17.html |archive-date=2008-12-27 }}</ref><ref name="Veja1989">{{cite web|url=http://veja.abril.com.br/arquivo_veja/capa_24051989.shtml |title=Um sonho corroído |author=[[Revista Veja]] |publisher=[[Editora Abril]] |date=1989-05-24 |access-date=2008-11-29 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208192704/http://veja.abril.com.br/arquivo_veja/capa_24051989.shtml |archive-date=2009-02-08 }}</ref> At the time ethanol production was tightly regulated by the government, as well as pricing of both gasoline and ethanol fuel, the latter subject to fixed producer prices. As a complement, the government provided subsidies to guarantee a lower ethanol price at the pump as compared to gasoline, as consumers were promised that ethanol prices would never be higher than 65% the price of gasoline. As sugar prices sharply increased in the international market by the end of 1988 and the government did not set the sugar export quotas, production shifted heavily towards sugar production causing an ethanol supply shortage, as the real cost of ethanol was around {{USD|45}} per barrel.<ref name="Lemos"/><ref name="Veja1989"/> As ethanol production stagnated at 12 billion liters<ref name="USP"/> and could not keep pace with the increasing demand required by the now significant ethanol-only fleet, the Brazilian government began importing ethanol from [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] in 1991.<ref name=CEPAL>{{cite web|url=http://www.agrocombustibles.org/conceptos/CepalBiocombustiblesLac2004.pdf |title=Perspectivas de un Programa de Biocombustibles en América Central: Proyecto Uso Sustentable de Hidrocarburos |author=Luiz A. Horta Nogueira |publisher=Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL) |date=2004-03-22 |access-date=2008-05-09 |language=es |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528051443/http://www.agrocombustibles.org/conceptos/CepalBiocombustiblesLac2004.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-28 }}</ref><ref name="IADB">{{cite web | url=http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=945774| title=A Blueprint for Green Energy in the Americas | author=Garten Rothkopf | publisher= [[Inter-American Development Bank]] | year=2007 | access-date=2008-08-22 }} ''See chapters Introduction (pp. 339-444) and Pillar I: Innovation (pp. 445-482)''</ref> Simultaneously, the government began reducing ethanol subsidies, thus marking the beginning of the industry's deregulation and the slow extinction of the ''Pró-Álcool'' Program.<ref name="USP"/><ref name="IADB"/>

In 1990, production of neat ethanol vehicles fell to 10.9% of the total car production as consumers lost confidence in the reliability of ethanol fuel supply, and began selling or converting their cars back to gasoline fuel.<ref name=ANFAVEA2010/><ref name=Veja1989/> By the beginning of 1997 Fiat, Ford, and General Motors had all stopped producing ethanol powered cars, leaving only Volkswagen (who offered the [[Volkswagen Gol|Gol]], [[Volkswagen Santana|Santana]], [[Volkswagen Type 2#T2c|Kombi]] and their derivatives).<ref name=GMo98>{{cite journal | journal = Gazeta Mercantil Online | last = Feltrin | first = Ariverson | title = Manufacturers want alcohol program | publisher = Gazeta Mercantil | location = São Paulo, Brazil | date = 1998-02-18 }}</ref> The manufacturers requested a reinstatement of a stable gasohol program and promised to develop products by 1999.<ref name=GMo98/>

==The Flex-fuel era== [[File:Brazilian 2003 VW Gol 1.6 Total Flex.jpg|right|thumb|The 2003 [[Brazil]]ian [[Volkswagen Gol|VW Gol 1.6 Total Flex]] was the first [[flexible-fuel vehicle|flexible-fuel car]] capable of running on any blend of [[gasoline]] and [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]].]] {{further|Flexible-fuel vehicles in Brazil}} Confidence in ethanol-powered vehicles was restored with the introduction in the Brazilian market of [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s starting in 2003. A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol-gasoline mix, which made the first American [[M85 fuel|M85]] flex fuel vehicles too expensive.<ref name="VejaFlex"/> This was accomplished through the [[oxygen sensor|lambda probe]], used to measure the quality of combustion in conventional engines, is also required to tell the [[engine control unit]] (ECU) which blend of gasoline and alcohol is being burned. This task is accomplished automatically through software developed by Brazilian engineers, called "Software Fuel Sensor" (SFS), fed with data from the standard sensors already built-in the vehicle. The technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]] in 1994, but was further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of [[Magneti Marelli]]. A similar fuel injection technology was developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of [[Delphi (auto parts)|Delphi Automotive Systems]], and it is called "Multifuel."<ref name="VejaFlex">{{cite magazine|url=http://veja.abril.com.br/010206/p_096.html|title=A riqueza é o saber|author=João Gabriel de Lima|magazine=[[Veja (magazine)|Revista Veja]]|date=2006-02-01|access-date=2008-08-19|language=pt|archive-date=2008-09-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905045523/http://veja.abril.com.br/010206/p_096.html|url-status=dead}} Print edition No. 1941</ref> This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time, as fuel flow needs to be decreased and also self-combustion needs to be avoided when gasoline is used because ethanol engines have compression ratio around 12:1, too high for gasoline.

In March 2003, [[Volkswagen]] launched in the Brazilian market the [[Volkswagen Gol|Gol]] 1.6 Total Flex, the first commercial [[flexible fuel vehicle]] capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.autonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060323/REUTERS/60323043/1111 |title=Volkswagen to stop making gas-only cars for Brazil |newspaper=Automotive News |date=2006-03-23 |access-date=2008-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213023830/http://www.autonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20060323%2FREUTERS%2F60323043%2F1111 |archive-date=2009-02-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vwbr.com.br/VWBrasil/Historia/A-nova-Volkswagen.aspx |title=A Nova Volkswagen |publisher=Wolkswagen Brazil |access-date=2008-10-18 |language=pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915184129/http://www.vwbr.com.br/VWBrasil/Historia/A-nova-Volkswagen.aspx |archive-date=2008-09-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parana-online.com.br/canal/automoveis/news/170341/ |title=Volkswagen lança Golf Total Flex 1.6|publisher=ParanaOnline |date=2006-03-30 |access-date=2008-10-18 |language=pt }}</ref> [[Chevrolet]] followed three months later with the [[General Motors Corsa|Corsa]] 1.8 Flexpower, using an engine developed by a joint-venture with [[Fiat]] called PowerTrain.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.parana-online.com.br/canal/automoveis/news/51805/ |title=GM lança Corsa 1.8 com motor "Flexpower" 2004|language=pt|trans-title=GM launches the 2004 Corsa 1.8 with "Flexpower" engine |author=Staff |work= O Estado do Paraná |date=2003-06-28|access-date=2015-11-24}}</ref> That year production of full flex-fuel reached 39,853 automobiles and 9,411 light commercial vehicles. By 2008, popular manufacturers that build flexible fuel vehicles are [[Chevrolet]], [[Fiat]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[Peugeot]], [[Renault]], [[Volkswagen]], [[Honda]], [[Mitsubishi]], [[Toyota]] and [[Citroën]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/02/06/8367959/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203024747/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/02/06/8367959/index.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 3, 2006|title=How to Beat the High Cost of Gasoline. Forever! |magazine= Fortune |date= 2006-01-24|author1=Adam Lashinsky |author2=Nelson D. Schwartz |access-date=2008-05-04}}</ref> [[Nissan]] launched its first flex fuel in the Brazilian market in 2009<ref>{{cite web| url=http://carmagazine.uol.com.br/materia/?id=0976085925|title=Livina, primeiro carro flex da Nissan chega com preços entre R$ 46.690 e R$ 56.690|publisher=Car Magazine Online|language=pt|date=2009-03-18|access-date=2009-03-26}} {{Dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> and [[Kia Motors]] in 2010.<ref name=Kia10>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/10/flex-20101027.html#more|title=Kia introduces new Flex-Fuel Soul Flex at Brazilian Motor Show; boosts output and lowers fuel consumption|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]|date=2010-10-27|access-date=2010-10-28}}</ref> Flexible-fuel vehicles were 22% of the car sales in 2004, 73% in 2005,<ref name="Fortune">{{cite magazine |url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/02/06/8367959/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203024747/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2006/02/06/8367959/index.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 3, 2006|title=How to Beat the High Cost of Gasoline. Forever! |magazine= Fortune |date= 2006-01-24|author1=Adam Lashinsky |author2=Nelson D. Schwartz |access-date=2008-08-13}}</ref> 87.6% in July 2008,<ref name= "July2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/economia,venda-de-carros-flex-cresceu-31-em-julho-diz-anfavea,218597,0.htm|title=Venda de carros flex cresceu 31% em julho, diz Anfavea|author=Agencia Estado| date=2008-08-06|publisher=Estadao.com.br|access-date=2009-09-13|language=pt}}</ref> and reached a record 94% in August 2009.<ref name="UnicaFlex">{{cite web|url=http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=83CC5EC9-8E69-4C11-9F0E-CBDF9B849AE2 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209053326/http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=83CC5EC9-8E69-4C11-9F0E-CBDF9B849AE2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-09 |title=Participação de carros flex nas vendas volta a bater 94% |publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]] |date=2009-09-08 |access-date=2009-09-13 |language=pt }}</ref> The production of flex-fuel cars and light commercial vehicles reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010,<ref name=Veja0310>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.abril.com.br/noticias/economia/brasil-alcanca-marca-10-milhoes-carros-flex-940397.shtml|title=Brasil alcança marca de 10 milhões de carros flex|magazine=[[Veja (magazine)|Veja]]|author=Agência Estado|date=2010-03-04|access-date=2010-03-07|language=pt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716023742/http://www.abril.com.br/noticias/economia/brasil-alcanca-marca-10-milhoes-carros-flex-940397.shtml|archive-date=2011-07-16}}</ref><ref name=GCC0310>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/03/anfavea-20100306.html#more=|title=Automakers in Brazil Hit 10M Flex-Fuel Vehicle Mark; Brazilian Sugarcane Association Urges Global Dissemination|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]|date=2010-03-06|access-date=2010-03-09}}</ref> and 15.3 million units by March 2012.<ref name=MDIC2012>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdic.gov.br/sitio/interna/interna.php?area=2&menu=999|title=Álcool combustível - Uso veicular do álcool combustível |author=MDIC|publisher=Ministério de Desenvolvimento, Indústria e Comércio Exterior (MDIC)|year=2012|access-date=2012-03-22|language=pt}}</ref> As of December 2011, the fleet of flex automobiles and light commercial vehicles had reached 14.8 million vehicles,<ref name=ANFAVEA2010/><ref name=ANFAVEA2011/> representing 21% of Brazil's motor vehicle fleet and 31.8% of all registered light vehicles.<ref name=DENATRAN>{{cite web|url=http://www.denatran.gov.br/frota.htm|publisher=Departamento Nacional de Trânsito|language=pt|title=DENATRAN Frota 2011|access-date=2012-01-22|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120801213508/http://www.denatran.gov.br/frota.htm|archive-date=2012-08-01}} ''Through December 2011 DENATRAN reports a total registered fleet of 70.5 million, including motorcycles, trucks and special equipment, 52.1 million excluding two- and three-wheeler, and 39.8 million automobiles and light commercial vehicles''.</ref>

This rapid adoption of the flex technology was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place, as around 27,000 filling stations countrywide were available by 1997 with at least one ethanol pump, a heritage of the ''Pró-Álcool'' program,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amda.org.br/assets/files/gASOLINA.pdf |author1=Henry Xavier Corseuil |author2=Marcus Sal Molin Marins |title=Contaminação de Águas Subterrâneas por Derramamentos de Gasolina: O problema é grave? |publisher=Amda.org |year=1997 |language=pt |access-date=2008-09-13 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> and by October 2008 have reached 35,000 fueling stations.<ref name="BRgas08">{{cite web|url=http://www.gazeta.com.br/GZM_News.aspx?Parms=2108086,604,1|title=Margem estreita não intimida pequenas|publisher=Gazeta Mercantil|author=Roberta Scrivano|date=2008-10-07|access-date=2008-11-26|language=pt}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[File:Historical trend ethanol and flex veh in Brazil 1979 2008.png|thumb|300px|Historical trend of Brazilian production of light vehicles by type of fuel, neat ethanol (alcohol), [[flexible-fuel vehicle|flex fuel]], and [[gasoline]] vehicles from 1979 to 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.virapagina.com.br/anfavea2018/59/#zoom=z |title=Anuário da Indústria Automobilística Brasileira 2018, ANFAVEA |access-date=2018-12-16 |archive-date=2018-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216062941/http://www.virapagina.com.br/anfavea2018/59/#zoom=z |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowered the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices. The rapid adoption and commercial success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, together with the mandatory blend of alcohol with gasoline as [[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E20, E25|E25 fuel]], have increased ethanol consumption up to the point that during the first two months of 2008 ethanol consumption increased by 56% when compared to the same period in 2007, and achieving a landmark in ethanol consumption in February 2008, when ethanol retail sales surpassed the 50% market share of the gasoline-powered fleet.<ref name="ANP07_2008">{{cite web|url=http://br.invertia.com/noticias/noticia.aspx?idNoticia=200807152306_ABR_77211977 |title=ANP: consumo de álcool combustível é 50% maior em 2007 |author=Agência Brasil |date=2008-07-15 |publisher=Invertia |access-date=2008-08-09 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226014527/http://br.invertia.com/noticias/noticia.aspx?idNoticia=200807152306_ABR_77211977 |archive-date=2008-12-26 }}</ref><ref name="50consumo">{{cite web |url=http://www.cornelionoticias.com.br/noticias/detalhes_noticias.asp?Nrseq=3221 |title=Consumo de álcool supera o de gasolina pela primeira vez em 20 anos |author=UOL Noticias |publisher=Cornélio Notícias |date=2008-04-11 |access-date=2008-10-18 |language=pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201123309/http://www.cornelionoticias.com.br/noticias/detalhes_noticias.asp?Nrseq=3221 |archive-date=2009-02-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This level of ethanol fuel consumption had not been reached since the end of the 80s, at the peak of the ''Pró-Álcool'' Program.<ref name= "ANP07_2008"/><ref name="50consumo"/><ref name="ANP02_2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.agropecuariabrasil.com.br/anp-estima-que-consumo-de-alcool-supere-gasolina/ |title=ANP estima que consumo de álcool supere gasolina |author=Gazeta Mercantil |year=2008 |publisher=Agropecuária Brasil |access-date=2008-08-09 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601174307/http://www.agropecuariabrasil.com.br/anp-estima-que-consumo-de-alcool-supere-gasolina/ |archive-date=2008-06-01 }}</ref> According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009, at the national level 65% of the flex-fuel registered vehicles regularly use ethanol fuel, and all-year-long by 93% of flex car owners in [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower, and prices at the pump are more competitive than gasoline.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://automoveis.dgabc.com.br/default.asp?pt=secao&pg=detalhe&c=11&id=5769540&titulo=Etanol+e+usado+em+65%+da+frota+flexivel |title=Etanol é usado em 65% da frota flexível |publisher=Diario do Grande ABC |date=2009-09-30 |author=Wagner Oliveira |access-date=2009-10-18 |language=pt }}{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Between 1979 and 2011, Brazil substituted around 22 million pure gasoline-powered vehicles with 5.7 million neat ethanol vehicles, 14.8 million flex-fuel vehicles and almost 1.5 million flex motorcycles.<ref name=ANFAVEA2010/><ref name=ANFAVEA2011/><ref name=MotoFlex10/><ref name=MotoFlex11/> The number of neat ethanol vehicles still in use by 2003 was estimated between 2 and 3 million vehicles,<ref name=CEPAL/> and 1.22 million as of December 2011.<ref name=Frota092012>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicadata.com.br/listagem.php?idMn=55|title=Frota brasileira de autoveículos leves (ciclo Otto)|language=pt|trans-title=Brazilian fleet of light vehicles (Otto cycle)|author=[[UNICA, Brazil]]|publisher=UNICA Data|date=October 2012|access-date=2012-10-31}}</ref> There were 80 flex car and light truck models available in the market manufactured by 12 major carmakers by December 2011,<ref name=ModAvailable>{{cite web|url=http://www.diretodausina.com.br/conteudo/cresce-presenca-de-carros-flex-importados-no-mercado-brasileiro|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121231094820/http://www.diretodausina.com.br/conteudo/cresce-presenca-de-carros-flex-importados-no-mercado-brasileiro|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 31, 2012|title=Cresce presença de carros flex importados no mercado brasileiro|language=pt|publisher=Direto da Usina|date=2011-09-15|access-date=2012-01-22}}</ref> and four flex-fuel motorcycle models available.<ref name=MotoAvail>{{cite web|url=http://unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode={63B12AD6-2EFB-4670-87D3-ECE52A603131}|title=Com novo modelo flex, mais de metade da produção da Honda será bicombustível|publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil]]|date=2011-01-12|access-date=2011-03-18|language=pt}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The early technology in flex fuel engines had a [[Fuel economy in automobiles|fuel economy]] with hydrated ethanol (E100) that was 25 to 35% lower than gasoline, but flex engines are now being designed with higher [[compression ratio]]s, taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol, resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency, allowing flex engines in 2008 models to reduce the fuel economy gap to 20 to 25% that of gasoline.<ref name="TRS08">{{cite web|url=http://royalsociety.org/displaypagedoc.asp?id=28632|title=Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges|publisher=The Royal Society|date=January 2008}} Policy Document 01/08, pp. 35–36</ref>

==Latest developments== {{Update section|date=August 2021}}

===Ethanol-powered diesel engine=== Under the auspices of the [[BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport#Brazil|BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST)]] project, the first ethanol-powered ([[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#ED95|E95 or ED95]]) bus began operations in São Paulo city in December 2007 as a one-year trial project.<ref name="SaoBEST">{{cite web|url=http://www.saopaulo.sp.gov.br/sis/lenoticia.php?id=90442|title=Começa a circular em São Paulo ônibus movido a etanol|publisher=Estado de São Paulo|access-date=2008-11-22|language=pt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217024901/http://www.saopaulo.sp.gov.br/sis/lenoticia.php?id=90442|archive-date=2009-02-17}}</ref> The bus is a [[Scania AB|Scania]] model with a modified diesel engine capable of running with 95% hydrous ethanol blended with a 5% ignition improver, with a [[Marcopolo S.A.|Marcopolo]] body.<ref name="SWE">{{cite web|url=http://biopact.com/2008_01_13_archive.html |publisher=Biopact |title=São Paulo joins EU's BEST project with pure ethanol bus trial; over 400 in operation so far |date=2008-01-31 |access-date=2008-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922095015/http://biopact.com/2008_01_13_archive.html |archive-date=2008-09-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Scania adjusted the [[compression ratio]] from 18:1 to 28:1, added larger [[fuel injection]] nozzles, and altered the injection timing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2007/12/so-paolo-puts-e.html |title=Sao Paulo Puts Ethanol Bus into Service in BEST Project|publisher=Green Car Congress |date=2007-12-23|access-date=2008-11-22}}</ref>

During the trial period performance and emissions were monitored by the National Reference Center on Biomass (CENBIO - {{langx|pt|Centro Nacional de Referência em Biomassa}}) at the [[Universidade de São Paulo]], and compared with similar diesel models, with special attention to [[carbon monoxide]] and [[Diesel particulate matter|particulate matter]] emissions.<ref name="SWE"/> Performance is also important as previous tests have shown a reduction in fuel economy of around 60% when E95 is compared to regular diesel.<ref name="SaoBEST"/>

In November 2009, a second ED95 bus began operating in [[São Paulo]] city. The bus was a Swedish Scania with a Brazilian CAIO body. The second bus was scheduled to operate between [[Lapa, São Paulo|Lapa]] and [[Vila Mariana (district of São Paulo)|Vila Mariana]], passing through [[Avenida Paulista]], one of the main business centers of [[São Paulo]] city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cenbio.iee.usp.br/destaques/2009/eventobest.htm |title=São Paulo recebe segundo ônibus movido a etanol |author=Fernando Saker |publisher=Centro Nacional de Referência em Biomassa |date=2009-11-13 |access-date=2011-05-28 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813082156/http://cenbio.iee.usp.br/destaques/2009/eventobest.htm |archive-date=2011-08-13 }}</ref> The two test buses operated regularly for 3 years.<ref name=EthanolBus1/>

In November 2010 the municipal government of [[São Paulo]] city signed an agreement with [[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]], [[Cosan]], [[Scania AB|Scania]] and ''Viação Metropolitana''", the local bus operator, to introduce a fleet of 50 ethanol-powered ED95 buses by May 2011. The city's government objective is to reduce the [[carbon footprint]] of the city's bus fleet of 15,000 diesel-powered buses, with a final goal that the entire bus fleet use only [[renewable fuel]]s by 2018. Scania will manufacture the buses in its plant located in [[São Bernardo do Campo]], São Paulo. These buses use the same technology and fuel as the 700 buses manufactured by Scania and already operating in [[Stockholm]].<ref>{{cite news |date=2010-11-25 |title=São Paulo terá primeira frota de ônibus movida a etanol |url=http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/noticias/0,,OI4811562-EI8139,00-Sao+Paulo+tera+primeira+frota+de+onibus+movida+a+etanol.html |access-date=2010-11-27 |work=[[Reuters]], via [[Terra Networks]] |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://estadao.br.msn.com/economia/artigo.aspx?cp-documentid=26500252|title=Cosan fornecerá etanol para 50 ônibus de SP|work=[[O Estado de S. Paulo]]|author=Eduardo Magossi|language=pt|date=2010-11-25|access-date=2010-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714123557/http://estadao.br.msn.com/economia/artigo.aspx?cp-documentid=26500252|archive-date=2011-07-14|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/11/s%C3%A3o-paulo-putting-50-scania-ethanol-buses-into-service.html#more|title=São Paulo putting 50 Scania ethanol buses into service|publisher=[[Green Car Congress]]|date=2010-11-29|access-date=2010-11-29}}</ref>

The first ethanol-powered buses were delivered in May 2011, and the 50 buses will start regular service in June 2011.<ref name=EthanolBus1>{{cite news|url=http://www.brasileconomico.com.br/noticias/sao-paulo-ganha-frota-de-onibus-a-etanol_102246.html |title=São Paulo ganha frota de ônibus a etanol |author=Martha San Juan França |work=[[Brasil Econômico]] |language=pt |date=2011-05-26 |access-date=2011-05-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723081646/http://www.brasileconomico.com.br/noticias/sao-paulo-ganha-frota-de-onibus-a-etanol_102246.html |archive-date=July 23, 2011 }}</ref> The fleet of 50 ethanol-powered ED95 buses had a cost of [[Brazilian real|R$]] 20 million ({{USD|12.3 million}}) and due to the higher cost of the ED95 fuel, one of the firms participating in the cooperation agreement, Raísen (a [[joint venture]] between [[Royal Dutch Shell]] and [[Cosan]]), will supply the fuel to the municipality at 70% the market price of regular diesel.<ref name=EthanolBus1/><ref name=EthanolBus2>{{cite web|url=http://unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=2D454563-EFEF-44F2-9C4A-6FA552985B89 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205230647/http://unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=2D454563-EFEF-44F2-9C4A-6FA552985B89 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-05 |title=Substituição de diesel por etanol: vantagem que novos ônibus trazem à cidade de São Paulo |work=[[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]] |language=pt |date=2011-05-26 |access-date=2011-05-27 }}</ref>

===Flex-fuel motorcycles=== {|class="wikitable" align="right" |+Ethanol flex-fuel motorcycle manufacturing in Brazil 2009–2011 ! style="background: #ABCDEF;" |Year !! style="background: #ABCDEF;"|Flex motor- cycles produced!! style="background: #ABCDEF;"|Total motor- cycles produced !! style="background:#ABCDEF;"|Flex as % total |-align="right" |align="center"| 2009<ref name=MotoFlex09/>|| 188,494||1,539,473||align="center"|12.2 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2010<ref name=MotoFlex10/>||332,351||1,830,614|| align="center"|18.1 |-align="right" |align="center"| 2011<ref name=MotoFlex11/>|| 956,117||1,687,436||align="center"|56.7 |-align="right" |align="center" style="background: #ABCDEF;" |Total 2009-11|| align="center" style="background: #ABCDEF;"|1,476,962||align="center" style="background:#ABCDEF;"|5,057,523 ||align="center" style="background:#ABCDEF;"|29.2  |} The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible-fuel technology is the development of flex-fuel [[motorcycles]]. In 2007 Magneti Marelli presented the first motorcycle with flex technology. Delphi Automotive Systems also presented in 2007 its own injection technology for motorcycles.<ref name="Motoflex">{{Cite web|url=http://www.webmotors.com.br/wmpublicador/Reportagens_Conteudo.vxlpub?hnid=38490 |title=Magneti Marelli apresenta a moto flexível em combustível |publisher=WebMotors |date=2007-11-07 |access-date=2008-09-07 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611125655/http://www.webmotors.com.br/wmpublicador/Reportagens_Conteudo.vxlpub?hnid=38490 |archive-date=2008-06-11 }}</ref> Besides the flexibility in the choice of fuels, a main objective of the fuel-flex motorcycles is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20 percent, and savings in fuel consumption in the order of 5% to 10% are expected.<ref name="Motoflex"/><ref>{{Cite web| url=http://carros.uol.com.br/ultnot/2008/04/23/ult5498u65.jhtm | author=Aldo Tizzani |title=Moto flex 'imita' carros e deve chegar até dezembro |publisher=UOL Carros | date=2008-04-23 | access-date=2008-09-07 | language=pt }}</ref> [[File:3 Views Honda Flex Titan CG 150 Mix Fuel Injection 06 2009 Itu.jpg|thumb|left|The 2009 [[Honda]] [[CG 150 Titan Mix]] was launched in the [[Brazil]]ian market and became the first [[flexible-fuel vehicle|flex-fuel]] [[motorcycle]] sold in the world.]]

The first [[flex fuel]] motorcycle was launched to the Brazilian market by [[Honda]] in March 2009. Produced by its local subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia, the [[CG 150 Titan Mix]] is sold for around US$2,700. Because the motorcycle does not have a secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do, the fuel tank must have at least 20% of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below {{convert|15|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. The motorcycle's panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about the actual ethanol-gasoline mix in the storage tank.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Carros/0,,MRP1037219-9658,00.html |publisher=G1 Portal de Notícias da Globo |title=Honda lança primeira moto bicombustível do mundo |date=2003-03-11 |access-date=2003-03-11 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224041653/http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Carros/0%2C%2CMRP1037219-9658%2C00.html |archive-date=2012-02-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/dinheiro/ult91u532675.shtml |author=Agencia EFE |publisher=Folha Online |title=Honda lançará moto flex ainda neste mês no Brasil |date=2003-03-11|access-date=2003-03-11|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=%7b5D355E7B-40B1-4CF7-9C75-EDD4F85FFD30%7d|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804191617/http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=%7B5D355E7B-40B1-4CF7-9C75-EDD4F85FFD30%7D|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-08-04|publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]]|title=Honda lança no Brasil primeira moto flex do mundo|date=2003-03-11|access-date=2003-03-11|language=pt}}</ref> During the first eight months after its market launch the CG 150 Titan Mix has sold 139,059 motorcycles, capturing a 10.6% [[market share]], and ranking second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market in 2009.<ref name=Abraciclo>{{cite web|url=http://www.abraciclo.com.br/dsuploads/ven2009.pdf |author=[[ABRACICLO]] |title=Vendas 2009 |date=September 2009 |access-date=2010-01-26 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122171333/http://www.abraciclo.com.br/dsuploads/ven2009.pdf |archive-date=November 22, 2009 }}</ref>

In September 2009, Honda launched a second flexible-fuel motorcycle, the on-off-road [[Honda NXR 150 Bros Mix|NXR 150 Bros Mix]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motodriver.com.br/2009/09/nova-honda-nxr-150-bros-mix-e-a-1-on-off-road-com-tecnologia-bicombustivel-do-brasil/ |title=Nova Honda NXR 150 Bros Mix é a 1ª On-Off Road com tecnologia bicombustível do Brasil |publisher=MotoDriver |date=2009-09-17 |access-date=2010-02-10 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929015513/http://www.motodriver.com.br/2009/09/nova-honda-nxr-150-bros-mix-e-a-1-on-off-road-com-tecnologia-bicombustivel-do-brasil/ |archive-date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> By December 2010 both Honda flexible-fuel motorcycles had reached cumulative production of 515,726 units, representing an 18.1% market share of the Brazilian new motorcycle sales in that year.<ref name=MotoFlex10>{{cite web|url=http://www.abraciclo.com.br/images/stories/dados_setor/motocicletas/producao/2010%20produo-dezcorreto.pdf|title=Produção Motocicletas 2010|publisher=ABRACICLO|access-date=2011-02-15|language=pt}}</ref><ref name=MotoFlex09>{{cite web|url=http://unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=4771CECF-FDB8-43B5-9CF9-E342B99F5C23 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205031059/http://unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=4771CECF-FDB8-43B5-9CF9-E342B99F5C23 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-05 |title=Motos flex foram as mais vendidas em 2009 na categoria 150cc |author=Abraciclo |publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]] |date=2010-01-27 |access-date=2010-02-10 |language=pt }}</ref> As of January 2011 there were four flex-fuel motorcycle models available in the market.<ref name="MotoAvail"/> During 2011 a total of 956,117 flex-fuel motorcycles were produced, raising its market share to 56.7%.<ref name=MotoFlex11/> Since their inception in 2009 almost 1.5 million flexible-fuel motorcycles had been produced in the country through December 2011,<ref name=MotoFlex10/><ref name=MotoFlex11>{{cite web|url=http://www.abraciclo.com.br/images/stories/dados_setor/motocicletas/producao/2011%20produo-dezembro.pdf|title=Produção Motocicletas 2011|trans-title=2011 Motorcycle Production|publisher=ABRACICLO|access-date=2012-01-21|language=pt}}</ref><ref name=MotoFlex09/> and the two million mark was reached in August 2012.<ref name=MotoFlex2mi>{{cite web|url=http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=341B283C-0BE4-4F81-9027-603558AC3CAB |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121231232326/http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=341B283C-0BE4-4F81-9027-603558AC3CAB |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-31 |title=Dois milhões de motos flex produzidas pela Honda comprovam boa aceitação da tecnologia no País |trans-title=Two million flex motorcycles produced by Honda are proof of the technology acceptance in the country |publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil]] |access-date=2012-09-11 |date=2012-09-06 |language=pt }}</ref> {{clear}}

===New generation of flex engines=== [[File:VW Polo Flex Jundiai 10 2009 7684 with Total flex badging.jpg|thumb|right|The Brazilian [[Volkswagen Polo#Facelift|Volkswagen Polo]] E-Flex 2009 was the first [[flex fuel]] model without an auxiliary tank for cold start.]] The Brazilian subsidiaries of Magneti Marelli, Delphi and Bosch have developed and announced the introduction in 2009 of a new flex engine generation that eliminates the need for the secondary gasoline tank by warming the ethanol fuel during starting,<ref name="BioEnergia">{{cite journal|url=http://cenbio.iee.usp.br/download/revista/RBB3.pdf |title=Here comes the 'Flex' vehicles third generation |journal=Revista Brasileira de BioEnergia |publisher=Centro Nacional de Referência em Biomassa (Cenbio) |date=August 2008 |access-date=2008-09-23 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003062358/http://cenbio.iee.usp.br/download/revista/RBB3.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-03 }} Ano 2, No. 3 (every article is presented in both English and Portuguese)</ref> and allowing flex vehicles to do a normal cold start at temperatures as low as {{convert|-5|°C|°F|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Carros/0,,MUL349632-9658,00.html |title=Nova tecnologia dispensa gasolina na partida de carros bicombustíveis |publisher=Globo G1 |date=2008-03-13 |author=Priscila Dal Poggetto |access-date=2008-10-15 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516064444/http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Carros/0%2C%2CMUL349632-9658%2C00.html |archive-date=2008-05-16 }}</ref> the lowest temperature expected anywhere in the Brazilian territory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.automotivebusiness.com.br/noticiasnovembro07.html |title=Partida a Frio Chega com a Linha 2009 |author=Marli Olmos |publisher=Automotive Business |date=2007-11-26 |access-date=2008-10-15 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101181850/http://www.automotivebusiness.com.br/noticiasnovembro07.html |archive-date=2008-11-01 }} Originally published in Revista Valor Econômico.</ref> Another improvement is the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions, between 10% and 15% as compared to flex motors sold in 2008.<ref name="Gazeta">{{cite news|url=http://portal.rpc.com.br/gazetadopovo/economia/conteudo.phtml?tl=1&id=774927&tit= |title=Bosch investe na segunda geração do motor flex |publisher=Gazeta do Povo |author=Agência Estado |date=2008-06-10 |access-date=2008-09-23 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090110180712/http://portal.rpc.com.br/gazetadopovo/economia/conteudo.phtml?tl=1&id=774927&tit= |archive-date=2009-01-10 }}</ref> In March 2009 [[Volkswagen do Brasil]] launched the [[Volkswagen Polo|Polo E-Flex]], the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start. The Flex Start system used by the Polo was developed by Bosch.<ref name="FlexStart1">{{cite news|url=http://quatrorodas.abril.com.br/carros/lancamentos/volkswagen-polo-e-flex-425390.shtml |author=Quatro Rodas |publisher=[[Editora Abril]] |title=Volkswagen Polo E-Flex |date=March 2009 |access-date=2003-03-12 |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307000657/http://quatrorodas.abril.com.br/carros/lancamentos/volkswagen-polo-e-flex-425390.shtml |archive-date=2009-03-07 }}</ref><ref name="FlexStart2">{{cite web|url=http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=0548296D-D8CE-4E25-9973-BF18D30BDFFD |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121206040122/http://www.unica.com.br/noticias/show.asp?nwsCode=0548296D-D8CE-4E25-9973-BF18D30BDFFD |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-06 |publisher=[[UNICA, Brazil|UNICA]] |title=Volks lança sistema que elimina tanquinho de gasolina para partida a frio |date=2009-03-12 |access-date=2003-03-12 |language=pt }}</ref>

==2009–2013 supply shortage== Since 2009, the Brazilian ethanol industry has experienced financial stress due to the [[credit crunch]] caused by the [[2008 financial crisis]]; poor sugarcane harvests due to unfavorable weather; high sugar prices in the world market that made more attractive to produce sugar rather than ethanol; and other domestic factors that resulted in a decline of its annual production despite a growing demand in the local market.<ref name=BW0012012/><ref name=Econom012012/><ref name=EP112011/> Brazilian ethanol fuel production in 2011 was 21.1 million liters (5.6 billion U.S. liquid gallons), down from 26.2 million liters (6.9 billion gallons) in 2010.<ref name=RFAOutlook2012>{{cite web|url=http://ethanolrfa.3cdn.net/d4ad995ffb7ae8fbfe_1vm62ypzd.pdf|title=Accelerating Industry Innovation - 2012 Ethanol Industry Outlook|author=Renewable Fuels Association|publisher=[[Renewable Fuels Association]]|date=2012-03-06|access-date=2012-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514044111/http://ethanolrfa.3cdn.net/d4ad995ffb7ae8fbfe_1vm62ypzd.pdf|archive-date=2012-05-14|url-status=dead}} ''See pp. 3, 8, 10 22 and 23''.</ref> A supply shortage took place for several months during 2010 and 2011, and prices climbed to the point that ethanol fuel was no longer attractive for owners of flex-fuel vehicles; the government reduced the minimum ethanol blend in gasoline to reduce demand and keep ethanol fuel prices from rising further; and for the first time since the 1990s, ethanol fuel was imported from the United States.<ref name=BW0012012>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-03-13/brazil-ethanol-slows |title=Brazil Ethanol Drive Falters on Domestic Supply Shortage |author1=Raymond Colitt |author2=Stephan Nielsen |work=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]] |date=2012-03-13 |access-date=2012-03-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914055627/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-03-13/brazil-ethanol-slows |archive-date=2012-09-14 }}</ref><ref name=Econom012012>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/business/2012/01/07/brazilian-brew|title=Brazilian brew: America opens up to Brazilian ethanol|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=2012-01-07|access-date=2012-03-22}}</ref><ref name=EP112011>{{cite news|url=http://www.ethanolproducer.com/articles/8323/by-train-by-truck-or-by-boat|title=How ethanol moves and where it's going|author=Kris Bevill|work=Ethanol Producer Magazine|date=2011-11-15|access-date=2012-03-22}}</ref>

As a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the [[Ethanol fuel in Brazil#2009–2014 crisis|Brazilian ethanol industry crisis]], combined with government subsidies set to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value, by November 2013 only 23% flex-fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly, down from 66% in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://info.abril.com.br/noticias/tecnologias-verdes/2013/11/etanol-e-usado-hoje-em-apenas-23-dos-carros.shtml|title=Etanol é usado hoje em apenas 23% dos carros|language=pt|trans-title=Today just 23% of flex fuel cars are using ethanol|author=Estadão|publisher=[[Revista Veja]]|date=2013-11-14|access-date=2013-11-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516175953/http://info.abril.com.br/noticias/tecnologias-verdes/2013/11/etanol-e-usado-hoje-em-apenas-23-dos-carros.shtml|archive-date=2016-05-16}}</ref>

==See also== {{Portal|Brazil|Renewable energy|Energy}} * [[Alternative fuel vehicle]] * [[Ethanol fuel]] * [[Ethanol fuel in the United States]] * [[Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States]]

==Further reading== * {{Cite book |title=A Energia da Cana-de-Açúcar –Doze estudos sobre a agroindústria da cana-de-açúcar no Brasil e a sua sustentabilidade |url=http://www.unica.com.br/multimedia/publicacao/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121211063627/http://www.unica.com.br/multimedia/publicacao/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-12-11 |year=2007 |editor-last=Macedo |editor-first=Isaias de Carvalho |edition=Second |publisher=Berlendis & Vertecchia, São Paulo: UNICA – União da Agroindústria Canavieira do Estado de São Paulo |id=CDD-338.173610981 |access-date=2009-03-09 |format=Available in PDF |language=pt}} * {{Cite book |last=Mitchell, Donald |title=Biofuels in Africa: Opportunities, Prospects, and Challenges |url=http://africaknowledgelab.worldbank.org/akl/node/67 |year=2010 |publisher=[[The World Bank]], Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-8213-8516-6 |access-date=2011-02-08 |format=Available in PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811051628/http://africaknowledgelab.worldbank.org/akl/node/67 |archive-date=2011-08-11}} ''See Appendix A: The Brazilian Experience''

==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

[[Category:Ethanol fuel]] [[Category:Energy in Brazil]] [[Category:Biofuel in Brazil]] [[Category:History of agriculture in Brazil]] [[Category:Sugar industry in Brazil]]