{{Short description|none}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}} <!-- Merge tag removed and notes added on talk page - please do not re-apply discussion is finished --> {{History of Ukraine}} [[#Prehistory|Prehistoric]] [[Ukraine]], as a part of the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Pontic steppe]] in [[Eastern Europe]], played an important role in Eurasian cultural events, including the spread of the [[Chalcolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]]s, [[Indo-European migrations]], and the [[domestication of the horse]].<ref>Matossian ''Shaping World History'' p. 43</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://imh.org/history-of-the-horse/legacy-of-the-horse/the-domestication-of-the-horse/what-we-theorize-when-and-where-did-domestication-occur.html/ |title= What We Theorize – When and Where Did Domestication Occur |access-date= 12 December 2010 |work= International Museum of the Horse |archive-date= 14 December 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191214163832/http://imh.org/history-of-the-horse/legacy-of-the-horse/the-domestication-of-the-horse/what-we-theorize-when-and-where-did-domestication-occur.html/ |url-status= dead }}(Citation does not exist anymore)</ref><ref name="cbc.ca">{{cite news |title= Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction |url= http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/episode/2009/03/07/horsey-aeology-binary-black-holes-tracking-red-tides-fish-re-evolution-walk-like-a-man-fact-or-ficti/|work= Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald |publisher= [[CBC Radio]] |date=7 March 2009|access-date=18 September 2010}}(Link does not exist anymore)</ref>
A part of [[Scythia]] in antiquity, Ukraine was largely settled by [[Greuthungi]], [[Getae]], [[Goths]], and [[Huns]] in the [[Migration Period]], while [[Bosporan Kingdom|southern parts of Ukraine]] were previously colonized by [[Greek Crimea|Greeks]] and then [[Roman Crimea|Romans]]. In the [[Early Middle Ages]] it was also a site of [[early Slavs|early Slavic]] expansion. The hinterland entered into written history with the establishment of the medieval state of [[Kievan Rus']], which emerged as a powerful nation but disintegrated during the [[High Middle Ages]], and [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|was destroyed]] by the [[Mongol Empire]] in the 13th century.
During the 14th and 15th centuries, present-day Ukrainian territories came under the rule of four external powers: the [[Golden Horde]], the [[Crimean Khanate]], the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]]. The latter two would then merge into the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] following the [[Union of Krewo]] and [[Union of Lublin]]. Meanwhile, the [[Ottoman Empire]] emerged as a major regional power in and around the [[Black Sea]], through protectorates like the Crimean Khanate, as well as directly-administered territory.
After a 1648 rebellion of the [[Cossacks]] against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, [[Hetman of Zaporizhian Host|Hetman]] [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] agreed to the [[Pereiaslav Agreement|Treaty of Pereyaslav]] in January 1654. The exact nature of the relationship established by this treaty between the [[Cossack Hetmanate]] and Russia remains a matter of scholarly controversy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kroll|first=Piotr|date=2008|title=Od ugody hadziackiej do Cudnowa. Kozaczyzna między Rzecząpospolitą a Moskwą w latach 1658-1660|doi=10.31338/uw.9788323518808|isbn=978-83-235-1880-8}}</ref> The agreement precipitated the [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)|Russo-Polish War of 1654–67]] and the failed [[Treaty of Hadiach]], which would have formed a [[Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth]]. In consequence, by the [[Treaty of Perpetual Peace (1686)|Treaty of Perpetual Peace]], signed in 1686, the eastern portion of Ukraine (east of the [[Dnieper|Dnieper River]]) was to come under Russian rule,<ref>{{cite book |title= A History of Russia |page= 199 |author = Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 1963}}</ref> 146,000 [[ruble]]s were to be paid to Poland as compensation for the loss of [[right-bank Ukraine]],<ref name="dict">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S6aUBuWPqywC&q=Eternal+Peace+Treaty+1686&pg=PA183|title=Historical dictionary of Poland, 966-1945|author1=Jerzy Jan Lerski|author2=Piotr Wróbel|author3=Richard J. Kozicki|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1996|isbn=978-0-313-26007-0|page=183}}</ref> and the parties agreed not to sign a separate treaty with the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="dict"/> The treaty was strongly opposed in Poland and was not ratified by the [[Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish–Lithuanian Sejm]] until 1710.<ref name="dict"/><ref name="Davies1982">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WdO7hoxNThAC&pg=PA406|title=God's Playground, a History of Poland: The origins to 1795|author=Norman Davies|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1982|isbn=978-0-231-05351-8|page=406}}</ref> The legal legitimacy of its ratification has been disputed.<ref>[[Eugeniusz Romer]], O wschodniej granicy Polski z przed 1772 r., w: Księga Pamiątkowa ku czci Oswalda Balzera, t. II, Lwów 1925, s. [355].</ref> According to [[:pl:Jacek Staszewski|Jacek Staszewski]], the treaty was not confirmed by a resolution of the Sejm until its [[Convocation Sejm (1764)|1764 session]].<ref>Jacek Staszewski, August II Mocny, Wrocław 1998, p. 100.</ref>
During the [[Great Northern War]], Hetman [[Ivan Mazepa]] allied with [[Charles XII of Sweden]] in 1708. However, the [[Great Frost of 1709]] greatly weakened the Swedish army. Following the [[Battle of Poltava]] later in 1709, there was a diminishment in Hetmanate power, culminating with the disestablishment of the Cossack Hetmanate in the 1760s and the destruction of the [[Zaporozhian Sich]] in the 1770s. Following the [[Partitions of Poland]] (1772–1795) and the Russian conquest of the Crimean Khanate, the [[Russian Empire]] and [[Austrian Empire|Habsburg Austria]] were in control of all the territories that constitute present-day Ukraine for over a hundred years. [[Ukrainian nationalism]] developed in the 19th century.
A [[Ukraine after the Russian Revolution|chaotic period]] of warfare ensued after the [[Russian Revolution]]s of 1917, as well as [[Polish-Ukrainian War|a simultaneous war]] in the former [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] following the dissolution of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] after [[World War I]]. The [[Ukrainian–Soviet War|Soviet–Ukrainian War]] (1917–1921) followed, in which the [[Bolsheviks|Bolshevik]] [[Red Army]] established control in late 1919.<ref>Riasanovsky (1963), p. 537.</ref> The Ukrainian Bolsheviks, who had defeated the [[Ukrainian People's Army|national government]] in [[Kyiv]], established the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]], which on 30 December 1922 became one of the founding [[republics of the Soviet Union]]. Initial Soviet policy on the [[Ukrainian language]] and [[Ukrainian culture]] made Ukrainian the [[official language]] of administration and schools. Policy in the 1930s turned to [[Russification]]. In 1932 and 1933, millions of people in Ukraine, mostly peasants, starved to death in a devastating [[Soviet famine of 1930–1933|famine]], known as the [[Holodomor]]. It is estimated that 6 to 8 million people died from hunger in the Soviet Union during this period, of whom 4 to 5 million were Ukrainians.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-275913/Ukraine |title= Ukraine – The famine of 1932–33 |access-date= 26 June 2008 |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>
After the Soviet Union and [[Nazi Germany]] [[invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] in September 1939, the Ukrainian SSR's territory [[Soviet annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia|expanded]] westward. [[Axis powers|Axis]] armies [[Reichskommissariat Ukraine|occupied Ukraine]] from 1941 to 1944. During [[World War II]], elements of the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] fought for Ukrainian independence against both Germany and the Soviet Union, while other elements [[Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany|collaborated with the Nazis]], assisting them in carrying out [[the Holocaust in Ukraine]] and their [[Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia|oppression of Poles]]. In 1953, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], ethnic [[Russians|Russian]] former head of the [[Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union)|Communist Party of Ukraine]], succeeded as head of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] and [[Khrushchev Thaw|enabled more political and cultural freedom]], which led to a [[Sixtiers#Ukrainian Sixtiers|Ukrainian revival]]. In 1954 the republic expanded to the south with the [[1954 transfer of Crimea|transfer of Crimea]] from Russia. Nevertheless, political repressions against poets, historians and other intellectuals continued, as in all other parts of the USSR.
Ukraine became independent again when the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union dissolved]] in 1991. This started a period of transition to a [[market economy]], in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year [[recession]].<ref name="Macroindicators NBU">{{cite web|url= http://www.bank.gov.ua/ENGL/Macro/index.htm|title= Macroeconomic Indicators|publisher= [[National Bank of Ukraine]]|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071021232506/http://bank.gov.ua/Engl/Macro/index.htm|archive-date= 21 October 2007}}</ref> Subsequently however, the economy experienced a high increase in [[List of countries by GDP growth 1980–2010|GDP growth]] until it plunged during the [[2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis|Great Recession]].<ref>Inozmi, [http://unian.net/eng/news/news-325554.html "Ukraine – macroeconomic economic situation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222203413/http://www.unian.net/eng/news/news-325554.html |date=22 February 2012 }}. June 2009.</ref>
A prolonged political crisis began on 21 November 2013, when president [[Viktor Yanukovych]] suspended preparations for the implementation of [[European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement|an association agreement]] with the [[European Union]], instead choosing to seek closer ties with [[Russia]]. This decision resulted in the [[Euromaidan]] protests and later, the [[Revolution of Dignity]]. Yanukovych was then impeached by the Ukrainian parliament in February 2014. On 20 February, the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] began when Russian forces [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|entered Crimea]]. Soon after, pro-Russian [[2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine|unrest]] enveloped the largely [[Russian language in Ukraine|Russophone]] [[Eastern Ukraine|eastern]] and [[Southern Ukraine|southern]] regions of Ukraine, from where Yanukovych had drawn most of his support. An [[2014 Crimean status referendum|internationally unrecognized referendum]] in the largely ethnic Russian [[Autonomous Republic of Crimea|Ukrainian autonomous region]] of [[Crimea]] was held and Crimea was [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|de facto annexed by Russia]] on 18 March 2014. The [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|War in Donbas]] began in [[Donetsk Oblast|Donetsk]] and [[Luhansk Oblast|Luhansk]] oblasts of Ukraine involving the Russian military. The war continued until 24 February 2022, when Russia launched a major [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion]] of much of the country.
== Prehistory == ===Paleolithic period=== {{See also|Ukrainian stone stelae}} [[File:Slavarchaeology.png|thumb|Archaeological cultures associated with [[proto-Slavs]] and [[early Slavs]]: [[Chernoles culture]] (before 500 BC), [[Zarubintsy culture]] (300 BC to AD 100), [[Przeworsk culture]] (300 BC to AD 400), [[Korchak culture|Prague-Korchak horizon]] (6th to 7th century, Slavic expansion)]]
Settlement in [[Ukraine]] by members of the genus ''[[Homo]]'' has been documented into distant [[Paleolithic]] [[prehistory]]. The discovery of 1.4-million-year-old stone tools in [[Korolevo]], located in western Ukraine, marks one of the earliest securely dated presences of hominins in [[Europe]]. These tools offer crucial insights into the behaviors and adaptive strategies of early members of the genus ''[[Homo]]'', likely ''[[Homo erectus]]'', as they expanded into the continent during the Lower Paleolithic period.<ref name=Garba2024>{{cite journal |last1=Garba |first1=R. |last2=Usyk |first2=V. |last3=Ylä-Mella |first3=L. |last4=Kameník |first4=J. |last5=Stübner |first5=K. |last6=Lachner |first6=J. |last7=Rugel |first7=G. |last8=Veselovský |first8=F. |last9=Gerasimenko |first9=N. |last10=Herries |first10=A. I. R. |last11=Kučera |first11=J. |last12=Knudsen |first12=M. F. |last13=Jansen |first13=J. D. |title=East-to-west human dispersal into Europe 1.4 million years ago |journal=Nature |date=28 March 2024 |volume=627 |issue=8005 |pages=805–810 |pmid=38448591 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07151-3 |bibcode=2024Natur.627..805G }}</ref> The [[Neanderthal]]s are associated with the Molodova archaeological sites (45,000–43,000 BC), which include a [[Pit-house#Mammoth_bone_dwellings|mammoth bone dwelling]].<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8963177/Neanderthals-built-homes-with-mammoth-bones.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111221004746/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/8963177/Neanderthals-built-homes-with-mammoth-bones.html | archive-date = 21 December 2011 | title = Neanderthals built homes with mammoth bones | work = Telegraph.co.uk | first = Richard | last = Gray | date = 18 December 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/molodova.htm |title=Molodova I and V (Ukraine) |access-date=4 December 2011 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203005437/http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/molodova.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The earliest documented evidence of [[modern humans]] are found in [[Gravettian]] settlements dating to 32,000 BC in the Buran-Kaya cave site of the [[Crimean Mountains]].<ref name=orig>{{cite journal | title = The Oldest Anatomically Modern Humans from Far Southeast Europe: Direct Dating, Culture and Behavior | first1 = Sandrine | last1= Prat | first2= Stéphane C. | last2= Péan | first3= Laurent | last3= Crépin | first4 =Dorothée G. |last4= Drucker | first5 =Simon J. | last5= Puaud | first6 =Hélène | last6=Valladas | first7= Martina |last7 =Lázničková-Galetová | first8 =Johannes | last8 =van der Plicht | first9= Alexander | last9= Yanevich | journal = PLOS ONE | display-authors = 8|date = 17 June 2011 | volume = 6 | issue = 6 | article-number = e20834 | publisher = plosone | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0020834 | pmid = 21698105 | pmc = 3117838 | bibcode = 2011PLoSO...620834P | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=bbc>{{cite news | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13846262 | title = Early human fossils unearthed in Ukraine | first = Jennifer | last = Carpenter |date = 20 June 2011 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 21 June 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Yamna-en.svg|thumb|left|Extent of the [[Chalcolithic]] [[Yamna culture|Yamna or "pit grave" culture]], 3rd millennium BC]]
===Neolithic and Bronze Age=== In the late [[Neolithic]] times, the [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture|Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture]] flourished from about 4,500–3,000 BC.<ref name=neolithic>{{cite web|url=http://www.trypillia.com/info/index.shtml|title=Trypillian Civilization 5,508 – 2,750 BC|access-date=16 December 2007|work=The Trypillia-USA-Project|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212222638/http://www.trypillia.com/info/index.shtml|archive-date=12 December 2007}}</ref> The [[Copper Age]] people of the [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture|Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture]] resided in the western part, and the [[Sredny Stog culture|Sredny Stog Culture]] further east, succeeded by the early [[Bronze Age]] [[Yamna culture|Yamna]] ("[[Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan]]") culture of the [[Pontic steppes]], and by the [[Catacomb culture]] in the 3rd millennium BC.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
== Iron Age and classical antiquity == ===Scythian settlement, Greek colonization, and Roman domination=== {{Main|Bosporan Kingdom|Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea|Roman Crimea}} [[File:Склеп Деметры.JPG|thumb|The goddess [[Demeter]] in a [[Ancient Greek art|Greek]] [[fresco]] from [[Panticapaeum]] in the [[Bosporan Kingdom]] (a [[client state]] of [[Roman Empire|Rome]]), 1st century AD, [[Crimea]]]] [[File:Coin of Sauromates II of the Bosporan Kingdom, including depiction of Septimius Severus and Caracalla.jpg|thumb|right|A gold [[stater]] of [[Bosporan Kingdom|Bosporan]] [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus|king]] [[Tiberius Julius Sauromates II]], his bust depicted on the [[obverse]] with the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] legend "[[Basileus|BACΙΛΕΩC CΑΥΡΟΜΑΤΟΥ]]", and on the reverse the heads of [[Roman emperor]]s [[Septimius Severus]] and [[Caracalla]], dated 198 or 199 AD]]
During the [[Iron Age]], these peoples were followed by the [[Dacians]] as well as [[pastoral nomads|nomadic peoples]] like the [[Cimmerians]] (archaeological [[Novocherkassk culture]]), [[Scythians]] and [[Sarmatians]]. The [[Scythia]]n kingdom existed here from 750 to 250 BC.<ref name="EB-Scyth">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066426|title=Scythian|access-date=12 September 2007|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> In the [[Scythian campaign of Darius I|Scythian campaign]] of [[Darius the Great]] in 513 BC, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian]] army subjugated several [[Thracians|Thracian peoples]], and virtually all other regions along the European part of the [[Black Sea]], such as parts of nowadays [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], Ukraine, and [[Russia]], before it returned to [[Asia Minor]].<ref>Joseph Roisman,Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7 pp 135–138, pp 343–345</ref><ref>The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth,ISBN 0-19-860641-9,"page 1515,"The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"</ref> [[Greeks]] [[Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea|colonized Crimea]] and [[Ancient Greek colonization|other coastal areas of Ukraine]] in the 7th or 6th century BC during the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]].<ref name="Hammond1959">{{cite book|author=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond|title=A history of Greece to 322 B.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0FoAAAAMAAJ|access-date=8 August 2013|year=1959|publisher=Clarendon Press|page=109|isbn=978-0-19-814260-7 }}</ref> The [[Hellenization|culturally Greek]] [[Bosporan Kingdom]] thrived until it was invaded and occupied by the [[Goths]] and [[Huns]] in the 4th century AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitchiner |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuQLAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ancient & Classical World, 600 B.C.-A.D. 650 |date=1978 |publisher=Hawkins Publications |isbn=978-0-904173-16-1 |page=69 |language=en}}</ref> From 62 to 68 AD the [[Roman Empire]] briefly annexed the kingdom under Emperor [[Nero]] when he deposed the [[List of kings of the Cimmerian Bosporus|Bosporan king]] [[Tiberius Julius Cotys I]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|title=A dictionary of the Roman Empire|year=1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-19-510233-9|page=116}}</ref> Afterwards the Bosporan Kingdom was made into a [[Roman Crimea|Roman]] [[Amicitia|client state]] with a [[Roman military]] presence during the middle of the 1st century AD.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chersonesos.org/?p=history_ant&l=eng#7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040812152424/http://www.chersonesos.org/?p%3Dhistory_ant%26l%3Deng|archive-date=2004-08-12|title=Ancient period - History - About Chersonesos, Sevastopol|website=www.chersonesos.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Migliorati| first = Guido| title = Cassio Dione e l'impero romano da Nerva ad Anotonino Pio: alla luce dei nuovi documenti| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jbS5KHJ4uqcC&pg=PA6| year = 2003| publisher = Vita e Pensiero| isbn = 88-343-1065-9| page = 6 | language = it }}</ref>
===Arrival of the Goths and Huns=== {{further information|Migration Period}} In the 3rd century AD, the [[Goths]] [[Migration Period|migrated]] into the lands of modern [[Ukraine]] around 250–375 AD, which they called [[Oium]], corresponding to the archaeological [[Chernyakhov culture]].<ref name="history of ukraine27">{{cite book|first=Paul Robert|last=Magocsi|year=1996|title=A History of Ukraine|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|location=[[Toronto]]|isbn=0-8020-0830-5|page=27}}</ref> The [[Ostrogoths]] stayed in the area but came under the sway of the [[Huns]] from the 370s. North of the Ostrogothic kingdom was the [[Kyiv culture]], flourishing from the 2nd–5th centuries, when it was also overrun by the Huns. After they helped defeat the Huns at the [[battle of Nedao]] in 454, the Ostrogoths were allowed by the Romans to settle in [[Pannonia]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Along with other [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] colonies founded in the 6th century BC on the northeastern shore of the [[Black Sea]], the colonies of [[Tyras]], [[Olbia, Ukraine|Olbia]], and [[Tmutarakan|Hermonassa]] continued as [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (Eastern Roman) cities until the 6th century AD.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Gothic influence waned by the end of the 5th century AD, when the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] reaffirmed its control and influence over the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frolova |first=N. |date=1999 |title=The Question of Continuity in the Late Classical Bosporus On the Basis of Numismatic Data |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/acss/5/3/article-p179_12.xml |journal=Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=179–205 |doi=10.1163/157005799X00188 |issn=0929-077X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The [[List of kings of the Huns|Hunnic king]] [[Gordas]] ruled the Bosporan kingdom in the early 6th century AD and maintained good relations with Eastern Roman emperor [[Justinian I]], but the latter invaded and occupied the country once Gordas was killed in a revolt in 527 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawler |first=Jennifer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEWeCQAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire |date=2015 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-0929-4 |page=137 |language=en}}</ref> As late as the 12th century AD the [[Eastern Roman emperors]] claimed dominion over the territory of [[Cimmerian Bosporos]].<ref>Gautier, Paul. "Le dossier d'un haut fonctionnaire byzantin d'Alexis Ier Comnène, Manuel Stra-boromanos". ''Revue des études byzantines'', Paris, Vol.23, 1965. pp. 178, 190</ref>
=== Early Slavs === {{main|Early Slavs}} {{further|Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe}} With the power vacuum created with the end of Hunnic and Gothic rule, [[Early Slavs]], in the aftermath of the Kyiv culture, began to expand over much of the territory that is now [[Ukraine]] during the 5th century, and beyond to the [[Balkans]] from the 6th century.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Although the origins of the [[Early Slavs]] are not known for certain, many theories suggest they may have originated near [[Polesia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barford |first=P. M. |title=The early Slavs: culture and society in early medieval Eastern Europe |date=2001 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=0-8014-3977-9 |page=32|location=Ithaca, NY |oclc=47054689}}</ref>
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the [[Antes (people)|Antes]] Union (a tribal federation) is generally regarded to have been located in the territory of what is now Ukraine. The Antes were the ancestors of [[Ukrainians]]: [[White Croats]], [[Severians]], [[Polans (eastern)|Polans]], [[Drevlyans]], [[Dulebes]], [[Ulichians]], and [[Tiverians]]. Migrations from Ukraine throughout the [[Balkans]] established many [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost to [[Lake Ilmen]], led to the emergence of the [[Ilmen Slavs]], [[Krivichs]], and [[Radimichs]], the groups ancestral to the [[Russians]]. After a [[Pannonian Avars|Pannonian Avar]] raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.<ref name="so">М. Грушевський – "Історія України". Том І, розділ IV, Велике слов'янське розселення: Історія Антів, їх походи, війна з Словянами, боротьба з Аварами, останні звістки, про Антів</ref>
== Middle Ages ==
=== Early Middle Ages === In the 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was the core of the state of the [[Bulgars]] (often referred to as [[Old Great Bulgaria]]) with its capital city of [[Phanagoria]]. At the end of the 7th century, most Bulgar tribes migrated in several directions and the remains of their state were absorbed by the [[Khazars]], a semi-[[nomad|nomadic people]] from [[Central Asia]].<ref name="history of ukraine27"/>
The Khazars founded the [[Khazars|Khazar kingdom]] near the [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]. The kingdom included western [[Kazakhstan]] and parts of [[Crimea]], eastern [[Ukraine]], southern [[Russia]] and [[Azerbaijan]]. The Khazars dominated enough of the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] such that there was a ''[[Pax Khazarica]]'' in terms of trade, which allowed long distance trade to occur in safety, including groups like the [[Radhanite]] Jews who traded as far as China to [[Tabriz]], as well as the trade networks that surrounded [[Volga Bulgaria]]. This attracted other traders such as the [[Vikings]] in the [[Viking Age]] who would found [[Kievan Rus']].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
=== Kievan Rus' === {{Main|Kievan Rus'}} [[File:Nicholas Roerich, Guests from Overseas.jpg|thumb|''Overseas Guests'' by [[Nicholas Roerich]], 1901]] It is uncertain how the state of [[Kievan Rus']] came to be, but the [[Varangian]] nobleman [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleh the Wise]] is generally credited with having established a principality at the city of Kyiv somewhere around the year 880.{{efn|'Regardless of the uncertainties surrounding the origin of Rus', with Helgi/Oleh (reigned 878–912) we have a known historical figure credited with building the foundations of a Kievan state. (...) With Oleh's invasion of Kiev and the assassination of [[Askold and Dir|Askol'd and Dir]] in 882, the consolidation of the East Slavic and Finnic tribes under the authority of the Varangian Rus' had begun.'{{sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=65–66}}}} [[History of Kyiv|Kyiv had already been established]], but its origins are nebulous as well. According to archaeologists and historians such as [[Petro Tolochko]] (2007), Slavic settlement existed from the end of the 5th century in the area that later developed into the city.<ref>Tolochko P. P., Ivakin G. Y., Vermenych Y.V. Kyiv. in ''Encyclopedia of Ukrainian History'' (Енциклопедія історії України). — Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 2007. — vol. 4. — P. 201-218.</ref> Kyiv may have paid tribute to the [[Khazars]] before Oleh conquered it.{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=30}}{{sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=59}} Tolochko and other scholars also theorise that 'Kyiv was not the center of any particular tribe but the intertribal center of a vast realm'; critical analysis of the ''[[Primary Chronicle]]'', ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'' and other sources suggests it may have been a cosmopolitan urban home to Slavic and non-Slavic groups, such as Scandinavian Varangians and Finno-Ugric peoples.{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=31–32, 47}} Slavic peoples that were reportedly native to Ukraine included [[Polans (eastern)|Polans]] (or Polianians), [[Drevlyans]], [[Severians]], [[Ulichs]], [[Tiverians]], [[White Croats]] and [[Dulebes]], but their precise identity and interrelationships are difficult to establish and verify, as the sources are vague, contradictory and at times inaccurate.{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=30–32, 47, 57}}
[[File:Principalities of Kievan Rus' (1054-1132).jpg|thumb|left|Kievan Rus' at its height]]
In the 10th and 11th century, Kyiv became one of the richest commercial centres of [[Europe]], and the Kievan Rus' empire around it steadily expanded.<ref name="Enc Kiëv">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kiëv; Rusland §2. Het Rijk van Kiëv |encyclopedia=Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins |date=2002 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum |language=nl}}</ref> Initially a benefactor of the [[Slavic paganism|worship of Slavic deities]] such as [[Perun]], [[Vladimir the Great|Volodimer I]] converted to [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] in the 980s, tying the realm into a political and ecclesiastical alliance with the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref name="Enc Kiëv"/> The reign of [[Yaroslav the Wise]] ({{reign|1019|1054}}) is generally regarded its zenith; Kievan Rus' was the most prosperous and powerful empire within Christendom.<ref name="Enc Kiëv"/> Kievan Rus' was never a fully centralized state, but rather a loose aggregation of principalities ruled by members of the [[Rurik dynasty]].{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=13}} In the [[Late Middle Ages]], it became known in the rest of Europe as [[Ruthenia]] (the Latin name for Rus'), especially for western principalities of Rus' after the [[Mongol invasion]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
=== Christianisation === {{Main|Christianization of Kievan Rus'}} {{Further|History of Christianity in Ukraine}} [[File:Radzivill Olga in Konstantinopol.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The baptism of [[Olha of Kyiv|Princess Olha]] in [[Constantinople]]. A miniature from the [[Radziwiłł Chronicle]].]] While [[Christianity]] had made headway into the territory of modern [[Ukraine]] before the first ecumenical council, the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] (325) (particularly along the Black Sea coast, with the clearest evidence being the [[Metropolitanate of Gothia|Christianization of the Crimean Goths]]) and, in western Ukraine during the time of the Empire of [[Great Moravia]], the formal governmental acceptance of Christianity in Rus' occurred in 988. The major promoter of the [[Christianization of Kievan Rus']] was the Grand-Duke [[Vladimir the Great]] whose grandmother, [[Princess Olga]], was a Christian. Later the Kyivan ruler, [[Yaroslav I the Wise|Yaroslav I]] promulgated the [[Russkaya Pravda]] (Truth of Rus') which continued through the Lithuanian period of Rus'.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
In 1322, [[Pope John XXII]] established a [[diocese]] in [[Caffa]] (modern day Feodosia), which broke apart the Diocese of [[Khanbaliq]] (modern day Beijing), the only Catholic presence in the Mongol lands. For a few centuries it was the main see over an area from the Balkans to [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khvalkov |first=Evgeny |title=The colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea region: evolution and transformation |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-62306-3 |page=69|location=New York, NY |oclc=994262849}}</ref>
===Disintegration of Kievan Rus' and Mongol invasion===
Conflict among the various principalities of Rus', in spite of the efforts of Grand Prince [[Vladimir Monomakh]], led to decline, beginning in the 12th century. In Rus' propria, the Kyiv region, the nascent Rus' principalities of [[Halych-Volhynia|Halych and Volhynia]] extended their rule. In the north, the name of [[Moscow]] appeared in the historical record in the [[Principality of Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal|Principality of Suzdal]], which gave rise to the nation of Russia. In the north-west, the [[Principality of Polotsk]] increasingly asserted the autonomy of [[Belarus]]. Kyiv was sacked by the [[Principality of Vladimir]] (1169) in the power struggle between princes and later by [[Cumans|Cuman]] and [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] raiders in the 12th and 13th centuries, respectively. Subsequently, all principalities of present-day Ukraine acknowledged dependence upon the Mongols (1239–1240). In 1240, the [[Siege of Kyiv (1240)|Mongols sacked Kyiv]].
===Galicia-Volhynia=== {{Main|Galicia-Volhynia}} [[File:Kingdom of Galicia Volhynia Rus' Ukraine 1245 1349.jpg|thumb|left|The Galician–Volhynian Kingdom in the 13th–14th centuries]]
A [[successor state]] to the [[Kievan Rus']] on part of the territory of today's [[Ukraine]] was the [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia|Principality of Galicia-Volhynia]]. Previously, [[Vladimir the Great]] had established the cities of [[Halych]] and [[Volodymyr-Volynskyi|Volodymyr]] as regional capitals. The region was inhabited by the [[Dulebe]], [[Tiverian]] and [[White Croat]] tribes{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}. Initially both Volhynia and Galicia were separate principalities, ruled by descendants of [[Yaroslav the Wise]] (Galicia by [[Rostislav of Tmutarakan|Rostislavich]] dynasty, and Volhynia initially by [[Igor Yaroslavich|Igorevich]] and eventually by [[Iziaslav II of Kiev|Iziaslavich]] dynasty).{{Sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=123}} During the rule [[Yaroslav Osmomysl]] (1153-1187) Galicia extended to the Black Sea.{{Sfn|Magocsi|2010|p=123}} Rulers of both principalites were trying to extend the rule over another. It was finally achieved by [[Roman the Great]] (1197-1205), who not only united both Galicia and Volhynia, but also extended his rule to Kyiv for a short period of time.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
His death was followed by a period of turmoil that lasted until his son [[Daniel of Galicia|Daniel]] regained the throne in 1238. Daniel managed to rebuild his father's state, including Kyiv. Daniel paid tribute to the Mongol khan, who appointed him baskak, responsible for collecting tribute from the Rus princes. In 1253 he was crowned by a papal delegation "King of Rus{{'"}} ({{langx|la|rex Russiae}}); previously, the rulers of Rus' were termed "[[Grand Duke]]s" or "Princes."{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
=== Late Middle Ages === {{Main|Genoese colonies|Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Crown of the Kingdom of Poland}} From the 13th century, the many parts of the coast of present-day Ukraine were dominated by the [[Republic of Genoa]], which created numerous [[Genoese colonies|colonies]] around the Black Sea, most of them situated in today's [[Odesa Oblast]]. The Genoese colonies were well fortified, and there were garrisons in the fortresses and were used by the Genoese republic mainly for the purpose of dominating trade in the Black Sea. Genoa's dominance in the region would last until the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-05 |title=Генуэзские колонии в Одесской области - Бизнес-портал Измаила |url=http://izm-biz.info/genuezskie-kolonii-v-odesskoj-oblasti/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001115/http://izm-biz.info/genuezskie-kolonii-v-odesskoj-oblasti/ |archive-date=5 February 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=О СОПЕРНИЧЕСТВЕ ВЕНЕЦИИ С ГЕНУЕЮ В XIV-м ВЕКЕ |url=https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Italy/venice/Veneto-genua/pred.phtml |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=www.vostlit.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-26 |title=Эпиграфические памятники Каффы {{!}} Старый музей |url=https://old-museum.org/halls/history_hall_20.htm |access-date=2023-09-19 |language=ru-RU |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928200045/https://old-museum.org/halls/history_hall_20.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
During the 14th century, [[Poland]] and [[Lithuania]] fought wars against the [[Mongols|Mongol]] invaders, and eventually most of Ukraine passed to the rule of Poland and Lithuania. More particularly, [[Red Ruthenia]], and part of [[Volhynia]] and [[Podolia]] became part of Poland. King of Poland adopted the tile of "lord and heir of Ruthenia" ({{langx|la|Russiae dominus et Heres}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Voloshchuk |first=Myroslav |title=The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: History, Memory, Legacy |work=The Principles of Ancient Rzeczpospolita Formation: The Medieval Ruthenian Dimension |editor-last=Chwalba |editor-first=Andrzej |editor-last2=Zamorski |editor-first2=Krzysztof}}</ref>). Lithuania took control of [[Principality of Polotsk|Polotsk]], [[Volhynia]], [[Chernihiv]], and Kyiv following [[Battle of Blue Waters]] (1362/63), and the rulers of Lithuania then adopted the title of ruler of Rus'.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
After the downfall of [[Kyivan Rus']] and [[Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia|Galicia–Volhynia]], their political, cultural and religious life continued under Lithuanian control.<ref name="The Lithuanian-Ukrainian State">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/History.asp#Topic_8|title=History|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref> Ruthenian aristocrats, for example, the [[Olelkovich]], joined the governing class of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] as members of the [[Grand Duke of Lithuania|grand duke]]'s [[privy council]], senior military leaders, and administrators.<ref name="The Lithuanian-Ukrainian State" /> Despite [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] being the native language of the ruling class, the main written languages within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were [[Latin]], [[Old Church Slavonic]], as well as [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]], with East Slavonic Chancery being replaced by [[Polish language|Polish]] in the [[early modern period]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NGKJDAAAQBAJ |title=Authority and Identity: A Sociolinguistic History of Europe before the Modern Age |date=2010-07-21 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-28203-2 |page=184 |language=en}}</ref>
Eventually, Poland took control of the southwestern region. Following [[Polish–Lithuanian Union|the union between Poland and Lithuania]], [[Polish people|Poles]], [[German people|Germans]], [[Lithuanians]] and [[Jew]]s migrated to the region, forcing Ukrainians out of positions of power they shared with Lithuanians, with more Ukrainians being forced into Central Ukraine as a result of Polish migration, [[polonization]], and other forms of oppression against Ukraine and Ukrainians, all of which started to fully take form.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
In 1490, due to increased oppression of Ukrainians at the hands of the Polish, a series of successful rebellions was led by Ukrainian [[Petro Mukha]], joined by other Ukrainians, such as early [[Cossacks]] and [[Hutsuls]], in addition to Moldavians ([[Romanians]]). Known as [[Mukha Rebellion|Mukha's Rebellion]], this series of battles was supported by the Moldavian prince [[Stephen the Great]], and it is one of the earliest known uprisings of Ukrainians against Polish oppression. These rebellions saw the capture of several cities of [[Pokuttya]], and reached as far west as [[Lviv]], but without capturing the latter.<ref name="Mukha's Rebellionn">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CM%5CU%5CMukharebellion.htm|title=Mukha rebellion|website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>
The 15th-century decline of the [[Golden Horde]] enabled the foundation of the [[Crimean Khanate]], which occupied present-day Black Sea shores and southern [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|steppes of Ukraine]]. Until the late 18th century, the Crimean Khanate maintained a massive [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slave trade]] with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Middle East]],<ref>{{cite web |author=Brian Glyn Williams |title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |work=[[The Jamestown Foundation]] |year=2013 |page=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 |author-link=Brian Glyn Williams }}</ref> exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine over the period 1500–1700.<ref>Darjusz Kołodziejczyk, as reported by {{cite journal |author=Mikhail Kizilov |title=Slaves, Money Lenders, and Prisoner Guards:The Jews and the Trade in Slaves and Captivesin the Crimean Khanate |url=https://www.academia.edu/3706285 |journal=The Journal of Jewish Studies|year=2007|volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=189–210 |doi=10.18647/2730/JJS-2007 }}</ref> It remained a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire until 1774, when it was finally dissolved by the [[Russian Empire]] in 1783.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
==Early modern period==
===Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth=== {{See also|History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)}} [[File:Rzeczpospolita2nar.png|thumb|upright|Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. {{legend|hotpink|Kingdom of Poland}}]] After the [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569 and the formation of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] Ukraine fell under the Polish administration, becoming part of the [[Crown of the Kingdom of Poland]]. The period immediately following the creation of the Commonwealth saw a huge revitalisation in colonisation efforts. Many new cities and villages were founded & links between different Ukrainian regions, such as [[Halych Land (ziemia)|Halych Land]] and [[Volyn|Volhynia]] were greatly extended.<ref>[[Natalia Yakovenko|Yakovenko, N.]] ''Ukrainian nobility from the end of 14th century to the mid of 17th century''. Ed.2. {{ill|Krytyka (publisher)|uk|Критика (видавництво)|lt=Krytyka}}. Kyiv 2008. {{ISBN|966-8978-14-5}}.</ref>
New schools spread the ideas of the [[Renaissance]]; Polish peasants arrived in great numbers and quickly became mixed with the local population; during this time, most Ukrainian nobles became [[Polonisation|Polonised]] and converted to [[Catholicism]], and while most [[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian-speaking]] peasants remained within the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], social tension rose. Some of the Polonised nobility would heavily shape Polish culture, for example, [[Stanisław Orzechowski]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
Ruthenian peasants who fled efforts to force them into [[serfdom]] came to be known as [[Cossacks]] and earned a reputation for their fierce martial spirit. Some Cossacks were [[registered Cossacks|enlisted by the Commonwealth as soldiers]] to protect the southeastern borders of Commonwealth from [[Tatars]] or took part in campaigns abroad (like [[Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny]] in the battle of [[Khotyn]] 1621). Cossack units were also active in wars between the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Tsardom of Russia]]. Despite the Cossack's military usefulness, the Commonwealth, [[Golden Liberty|dominated]] by its [[szlachta|nobility]], refused to grant them any significant autonomy, instead attempting to turn most of the Cossack population into [[serfdom|serfs]]. This led to an increasing number of [[Cossack rebellions]] aimed at the Commonwealth.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Size and population of the voidoveships in the 16th century<ref>A. Jabłonowski, Źródła Dziejowe (Warsaw, 1889) xix: 73</ref> |- ! colspan="2" class="unsortable" | Voivodeship!! Square kilometers !! Population (est.) |- | colspan="2" | [[Ruthenian Voivodeship|Galicia]] || 45,000 || 446,000 |- | colspan="2" | [[Volhynian Voivodeship (1569–1795)|Volhynia]] || 42,000 || 294,000 |- | colspan="2" | [[Podolian Voivodeship|Podilia]] || 19,000 || 98,000 |- | colspan="2" | [[Bracław Voivodeship|Bratslav]] || 35,000 || 311,000 |- | colspan="2" | [[Kyiv Voivodeship|Kyiv]] || 117,000 || 234,000 |- | rowspan="2" | [[Belz Voivodeship|Belz]] (two regions) || [[Chełm Land|Kholm]] || 19,000 || 133,000 |- | [[Podlaskie Voivodeship (1513–1795)|Pidliassia]] || 10,000 || 233,000 |}
===Cossack era=== [[File:Carte d'Ukranie by Beauplan, Guillaume Le Vasseur (16..-1673), cartographer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|French map of Ukraine (''"Carte d'Ukranie"''), by Beauplan (1600-1673), cartographer. (South at the top)]] [[File:Ilja Jefimowitsch Repin - Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks - Yorck.jpg|thumbnail|[[Zaporozhian Cossacks]]]] {{See also|History of the Cossacks}} The 1648 Ukrainian [[Cossack]] (''Kozak'') rebellion or [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], which started an era known as the [[the Ruin (Ukrainian history)|Ruin]] (in [[Polish history]] as the [[Deluge (history)|Deluge]]), undermined the foundations and stability of the Commonwealth. The nascent Cossack state, the [[Cossack Hetmanate]],<ref name=Serhy/> usually viewed as precursor of Ukraine,<ref name=Serhy>''Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation'' by [[Serhy Yekelchyk]], [[Oxford University Press]] (2007), {{ISBN|978-0-19-530546-3}}</ref> found itself in a three-sided military and diplomatic rivalry with the [[Ottoman Turks]], who controlled the Tatars to the south, the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania, and the [[Tsardom of Russia]] to the East.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
The [[Zaporozhian Host]], in order to leave the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], sought a treaty of protection with Russia in 1654.<ref name=Serhy/> This agreement was known as the [[Pereiaslav Agreement]].<ref name=Serhy/> Commonwealth authorities then sought compromise with the Ukrainian Cossack state by signing the [[Treaty of Hadiach]] in 1658, but—after [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)|thirteen years of incessant warfare]]—the agreement was later superseded by the 1667 Polish–Russian [[Truce of Andrusovo]], which divided Ukrainian territory between the Commonwealth and Russia. Under Russia, the Cossacks initially retained official autonomy in the [[Cossack Hetmanate|Hetmanate]].<ref name=Serhy/> For a time, they also maintained a semi-independent republic in [[Zaporozhian Sich|Zaporizhzhia]] and a colony on the Russian frontier in [[Sloboda Ukraine]].
In 1686, the [[Metropolitanate of Kyiv]] was [[Annexation of the Metropolitanate of Kyiv by the Moscow Patriarchate|annexed by the Moscow Patriarchate]] through the Synodal Letter of the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] [[Dionysius IV of Constantinople|Dionysius IV]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
===Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary=== {{See also|Partitions of Poland|Little Russia}}
During subsequent decades, Tsarist rule over central Ukraine gradually replaced 'protection'. Sporadic Cossack uprisings were now aimed at the Russian authorities, but eventually petered out by the late 18th century, following the destruction of entire [[Cossack host]]s. After the [[Partitions of Poland]] in 1772, 1793 and 1795, [[Galicia (Central Europe)|the extreme west]] of Ukraine fell [[Austrian partition|under the control]] of the [[Austrians]], with [[Russian partition|the rest]] becoming a part of the Russian Empire. As a result of the [[Russo-Turkish Wars]], the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s control receded from south-central Ukraine, while the rule of [[Hungary]] over the Transcarpathian region continued. Ukrainian writers and intellectuals [[Ukrainian nationalism|were inspired by the nationalistic spirit]] stirring other European peoples existing under other imperial governments and became determined to revive the [[Culture of Ukraine|Ukrainian linguistic and cultural traditions]] and re-establish a Ukrainian nation-state, a movement that became known as [[Ukrainophilia|Ukrainophilism]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
The [[Russophilia|Russophile]] policies of [[Russification of Ukraine|Russification]] and [[Panslavism]] led to an exodus of a number of Ukrainian intellectuals into Western Ukraine. However, many Ukrainians accepted their fate in the [[Russian Empire]] and some were able to achieve great success there.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
The fate of the Ukrainians was far different under the [[Austrian Empire]] where they found themselves in the pawn position of the Russian–Austrian power struggle for Central and Southern Europe. Unlike in Russia, most of the elite that ruled Galicia were of Austrian or Polish descent, with the Ruthenians being almost exclusively kept in peasantry. During the 19th century, [[Ukrainian Russophiles|Russophilia]] was a common occurrence among the Slavic population, but the mass exodus of Ukrainian intellectuals escaping from Russian repression in Eastern Ukraine, as well as the intervention of Austrian authorities, caused the movement to be replaced by [[Ukrainophilia]], which would then cross over into the Russian Empire. With the start of [[World War I]], all those [[Western Ukrainian Russophiles|supporting Russia]] were rounded up by Austrian forces and held in a concentration camp at [[Talerhof]] where many died.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} {{clear}}
==Modern history== {{main|Modern history of Ukraine}} [[File:Taras Shevchenko selfportrait oil 1840-2.jpg|thumbnail|upright|[[Taras Shevchenko]] self-portrait, 1840]]
===17th and 18th-century Ukraine=== Ukrainian culture had great influence on the Russian tsardom after Ukraine's incorporation. At the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, the "Ukrainian school" dominated Russian literature.<ref name=empire>{{cite book |last1=Shkandrij |first1=Myroslav |title=Russia and Ukraine. Literature and the Discourse of Empire from Napoleonic to Postcolonial Times |date=2001 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=9780773569492 |page=4 |jstor=j.ctt7zz3w |access-date=6 June 2024 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zz3w}}</ref> Ukrainian-born clerics such as [[Theophan Prokopovich]] and [[Stefan Yavorsky]], both alumni of the [[Kyiv-Mohyla Academy]], played an important role in the [[church reform of Peter the Great]] and were among the first presidents of the [[Most Holy Synod]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massie |first1=Robert K. |title=Peter the Great: His Life and World |date=2012 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=9780307817235 |pages=791–793}}</ref> At the time when the empire was proclaimed in 1721, the ideologists of the autocracy and empire were often Ukrainians.<ref name=empire/>
[[Ukraine]] emerges as the concept of a nation, and the [[Ukrainians]] as a nationality, with the [[Ukrainian National Revival]] in the mid-18th century, in the wake of the [[Koliivshchyna|peasant revolt]] of 1768/1769 and the eventual [[History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–95)|partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] fell to the [[Austrian Empire]], and the rest of Ukraine to the [[Russian Empire]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
While [[right-bank Ukraine]] belonged to the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] until late 1793, [[left-bank Ukraine]] had been incorporated into [[Tsardom of Russia]] in 1667 (under the [[Treaty of Andrusovo]]). In 1672, [[Podolia]] was occupied by the Turkish [[Ottoman Empire]], while [[Kyiv]] and [[Braclav]] came under the control of [[Hetman]] [[Petro Doroshenko]] until 1681, when they were also captured by the Turks, but in 1699 the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] returned those lands to the Commonwealth.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
Most of Ukraine fell to the Russian Empire under the reign of [[Catherine the Great]]; the [[Crimean Khanate]] was [[Annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire|annexed by Russia]] in 1783, following the [[Emigration of Christians from the Crimea (1778)|Emigration of Christians from Crimea in 1778]], and in 1793 right-bank Ukraine was annexed by Russia in the [[Partitions of Poland|Second Partition of Poland]].<ref>Orest Subtelny; [https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 ''Ukraine: A History'']; University of Toronto Press; 2000. {{ISBN|0-8020-8390-0}}. pp 117-145-146-148</ref>
Ukrainian writers and intellectuals [[Ukrainian nationalism|were inspired by the nationalistic spirit]] stirring other European peoples existing under other imperial governments. Russia, fearing separatism, imposed strict limits on attempts to elevate the [[Ukrainian language]] and culture, even banning its use and study. The [[Russophilia|Russophile]] policies of [[Russification of Ukraine|Russification]] and [[Panslavism]] led to an exodus of a number some Ukrainian intellectuals into Western Ukraine, while others embraced a Pan-Slavic or Russian identity.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
=== 19th century === Ukraine under the reign of [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] (1801–1825) saw Russian presence only involving the imperial army and its bureaucracy, but by the reign of [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (1825–1855), Russia had by then established a centralized administration in Ukraine. After suppressing the [[November Uprising]] of 1830, the tsarist regime instituted Russification policies on the [[Right-bank Ukraine|Right Bank]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=History of Ukraine |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CH%5CI%5CHistoryofUkraine.htm |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=www.encyclopediaofukraine.com}}</ref>
The 2.4 million Ukrainians under the Habsburg Empire lived in eastern Galicia and consisted mainly of the peasantry (95%) with the remainder being priestly families. The Galician nobility were majoritively Poles or Polonized Ukrainians. Development here lagged behind Russian-ruled Ukraine and was one of the poorest regions in Europe.<ref name=":2" /> After the [[Revolutions of 1848|1848 revolutions]], Ukrainians living in the Austrian Empire established the [[Supreme Ruthenian Council]], demanding autonomy, they also opened the first Ukrainian-language newspaper (''Zoria halytska'').
The rise in national consciousness arose in the 19th century, with representation of the intelligentsia declining among the nobles and increasing towards commoners and peasants, they saw a process of nation-building to improve national rights and social justice but was uncovered soon after by the Tsarist authorities.{{cn|date=May 2026}} The 1861 [[Emancipation reform of 1861|emancipation]] of serfs in the Russian Empire greatly impacted Ukrainians as 42% of them were serfs.{{cn|date=May 2026}}
Russia, fearing separatism, imposed strict limits on attempts to elevate the [[Ukrainian language]] and culture, even banning its use and study: in 1863, the [[Valuev Circular]] banned the use of Ukrainian in religious and educational literature, in 1876, the [[Ems Ukaz]] outlawed Ukrainian-language publications outright, as well as the import of texts published abroad in Ukrainian, the use of Ukrainian in theatrical productions and public readings, the use of Ukrainian in schools.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-08-19 |title=Документи про заборону української мови |url=http://ridivira.com/uk/buttia-ukraintsiv/397-dokumenty-pro-zaboronu-ukrainskoi-movy |access-date=2022-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819125540/http://ridivira.com/uk/buttia-ukraintsiv/397-dokumenty-pro-zaboronu-ukrainskoi-movy |archive-date=19 August 2016 }}</ref>.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ukraine under direct imperial Russian rule |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ukraine/Ukraine-under-direct-imperial-Russian-rule#ref404490 |website=britannica.com |access-date=1 April 2024}}</ref> During the late 19th century, heavy taxes, rapid population growth and lack of land impoverished the peasantry. However the [[Ukrainian steppe|steppe regions]] managed to produce 20% of world production of wheat and 80% of the empire's sugar. Later, industrialization arrived with the [[Ivano-Frankivsk railway station|first railway track constructed in 1866]]. Ukraine's economy by now was integrated into the imperial system and it saw much urban development.<ref name=":2" />
===20th century=== [[File:Propaganda UPR.jpg|thumbnail|1917 [[Ukrainian People's Republic]] propaganda poster: [[Shche ne vmerla Ukraina|Our enemies will vanish like dew in the sun; We too shall rule in our country.]]]] [[Image:Map of Ukraine (postcard 1919).jpg|thumbnail|Ukraine in a 1919 postcard.]]{{Further|Soviet–Ukrainian War|Polish–Ukrainian War|Collectivization in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic}} {{Further|Operation Vistula}}
==== Russian Revolution and War of Independence ==== {{Main|Ukraine during World War I|Ukrainian War of Independence|Ukraine after the Russian Revolution}} {{Further|Soviet–Ukrainian War|Polish–Ukrainian War|Collectivization in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic}} [[File:Ukraine-growth.png|thumb|Territorial evolution of the [[Ukrainian SSR]] 1922–1954. Okrug [[Taganrog]] and [[Shakhty]] lost (1924); [[Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–39)|Polish Volhynia]] gained (1939); [[Transnistria]] lost (1940); [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Transcarpatia]] gained (1945); [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|Romanian islands]] gained (1948); [[1954 transfer of Crimea|Crimea gained]] (1954). ]] [[File:Ukraine famine map.png|thumb|right|Depopulation in 1929–1933, including during the [[Holodomor]]]]
Historian Paul Kubicek says: :Between 1917 and 1920, several entities that aspired to be independent Ukrainian states came into existence. This period, however, was extremely chaotic, characterized by revolution, international and civil war, and lack of strong central authority. Many factions competed for power in the area that is today's Ukraine, and not all groups desired a separate Ukrainian state. Ultimately, Ukrainian independence was short-lived, as most Ukrainian lands were incorporated into the Soviet Union and the remainder, in western Ukraine, was divided among Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania.<ref>Paul Kubicek, ''The History of Ukraine'' (2008) p 79</ref> Canadian scholar [[Orest Subtelny]] says: : In 1919 total chaos engulfed Ukraine. Indeed, in the modern history of Europe no country experienced such complete anarchy, bitter civil strife, and total collapse of authority as did Ukraine at this time. Six different armies-– those of the Ukrainians, the Bolsheviks, the Whites, the Entente [French], the Poles and the anarchists – operated on its territory. Kyiv changed hands five times in less than a year. Cities and regions were cut off from each other by the numerous fronts. Communications with the outside world broke down almost completely. The starving cities emptied as people moved into the countryside in their search for food.<ref>{{cite book|author=Orest Subtelny|title=Ukraine: A History|url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=U of Toronto Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/359 359]|isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6}}</ref>
The [[Ukrainian War of Independence]] of 1917 to 1921 produced the [[Makhnovshchina]], [[Ukrainian People's Republic]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]], and [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]], among other short-lived states, which were mostly subsumed in the [[Soviet Union]], although Western Ukraine ended up in [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zhukovsky |first=Arkadii |year=1993 |title=Ukrainian-Soviet War, 1917–21 |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainian6SovietWar1917hD721.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260107233833/https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CU%5CK%5CUkrainian6SovietWar1917hD721.htm |archive-date=7 January 2026 |access-date=18 January 2026 |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Markus |first=Vasyl |last2=Stakhiv |first2=Matvii |year=1993 |title=Western Ukrainian National Republic |url=https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CW%5CE%5CWesternUkrainianNationalRepublic.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251104001527/https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CW%5CE%5CWesternUkrainianNationalRepublic.htm |archive-date=4 November 2025 |access-date=18 January 2026 |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine]]}}</ref>
The [[Soviet famine of 1930–1933|Soviet famine of 1930–33]], now known as the [[Holodomor]], left millions dead in the Soviet Union, the majority of them Ukrainians not only in Ukraine but also in Kuban and former Don Cossack lands.<ref name="britannica">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612921/Ukraine/275912/Industrialization-and-collectivization{{spaced ndash}}"The famine of 1932–33"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505162714/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612921/Ukraine/275912/Industrialization-and-collectivization |date=5 May 2015 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Quote: "The Great Famine (Holodomor) of 1932–33 – a man-made demographic catastrophe unprecedented in peacetime. Of the estimated six to eight million people who died in the Soviet Union, about four to five million were Ukrainians... Its deliberate nature is underscored by the fact that no physical basis for famine existed in Ukraine... Soviet authorities set requisition quotas for Ukraine at an impossibly high level. Brigades of special agents were dispatched to Ukraine to assist in procurement, and homes were routinely searched and foodstuffs confiscated... The rural population was left with insufficient food to feed itself."</ref><ref>Anne Applebaum. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 ''Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine'' (2017)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227202140/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 |date=27 February 2022 }}.</ref>
==== Second World War ==== {{See also|Reichskommissariat Ukraine|The Holocaust in Ukraine}} The Second World War began in September 1939, when Hitler and Stalin invaded Poland, the Soviet Union [[Soviet invasion of Poland|taking most of Eastern Poland]]. [[Nazi Germany]] with [[Axis powers|its allies]] [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] in 1941. Between 4.5 and 6 million Ukrainians fought in the Soviet Army against the Nazis.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Rosenfeld |editor1-first=Alvin H. |title=Resurgent Antisemitism |date=2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00890-9}}</ref> Some Ukrainians initially regarded the [[Wehrmacht]] soldiers as liberators from Soviet rule, while others formed a [[Soviet partisans|partisan movement]]. Some elements of the [[Ukrainian nationalism|Ukrainian nationalist]] underground formed a [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] that fought both Soviet forces and the Nazis. Others collaborated with the Germans. The pro-Polish trend in the Ukrainian national movement, declaring loyalty to the [[Second Polish Republic]] and in return demanding [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomy]] for Ukrainians (e.g. [[Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance]]), became marginalized, mainly due to its rejection by the Polish side, where supporters of [[forced assimilation]] of Ukrainians into Polish culture dominated.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pietrzak |first= Michał |title= O ustroju, prawie i polityce II Rzeczypospolitej. Pisma wybrane |editor-last = Borecki |editor-first = Paweł |chapter = Wprowadzenie |language= PL |publisher= Wolters Kluwer |date = 2018 |page= 9}}</ref> Some 1.5 million Jews were murdered by the Nazis during their occupation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/ukraine-impeachment-inquiry-messy-bloody-history-brought-them-together-ncna1059876|title=Opinion | The messy, bloody history that led Ukraine into the impeachment inquiry|website=NBC News|date=28 September 2019 }}</ref> In Volhynia, Ukrainian fighters committed a [[Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia|massacre]] against up to 100,000 Polish civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres |title=Mariusz Zajączkowski: ''1943 Volhynia massacre'' |access-date=9 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413132510/http://www.volhyniamassacre.eu/spory-o-wolyn/polish-ukrainian-historical-disputes-over-the-volhynian-massacres |archive-date=13 April 2014 }}</ref> Residual small groups of the UPA-partizans acted near the Polish and Soviet border as long as to the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/ukrainian-insurgent-army-myths-and-facts-314313.html|title=Ukrainian Insurgent Army: Myths and facts - Oct. 12, 2012|website=KyivPost|date=12 October 2012 }}</ref> [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]], [[Volhynia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|South Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina]], and [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] that were annexed as a result of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] in 1939 were added to the Ukrainian SSR.
After World War II, some amendments to the Constitution of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of [[international law]] in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the [[United Nations]] (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]]. This was part of a deal with the [[United States]] to ensure a degree of balance in the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]], which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was [[List of members of the United Nations Security Council|an elected member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} The [[Crimean Oblast]] [[1954 transfer of Crimea|was transferred]] from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|RSFSR]] to the Ukrainian SSR in 1954.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18287223 Crimea profile – Overview], BBC News</ref>
=== Independence ===
[[File:RIAN archive 848095 Signing the Agreement to eliminate the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk and [[President of the Russian Federation]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] signed the [[Belavezha Accords]], [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolving the Soviet Union]], 8 December 1991]]{{Main|Declaration of Independence of Ukraine}}
{{Further|Yulia Tymoshenko|Viktor Yushchenko|Viktor Yanukovych|Leonid Kuchma}} [[File:Lesser Coat of Arms of Ukraine.svg|thumb|100px|left|The [[coat of arms of Ukraine]], adopted 19 February 1992, show the ''tryzub'' or "trident", a design proposed in 1917 by [[Mykhailo Hrushevskyi]] for the [[Ukrainian People's Republic]], ultimately based on a symbol stamped on Kievan coins by [[Vladimir the Great]].]] [[File:Flag of Ukraine.svg|thumb|100px|left|The blue-and-yellow [[Flag of Ukraine]] was introduced on 28 January 1992, based on a flag used in the [[Ukrainian War of Independence]] in 1917/18.]] With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine became an independent state, formalised with a [[1991 Ukrainian independence referendum|referendum in December 1991]]. On 21 January 1990, over 300,000 Ukrainians<ref name="subtelny-576">{{cite book|title=Ukraine: A History|author=Subtelny, Orest|publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]|year=2000|isbn=0-8020-8390-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576 576]|author-link=Orest Subtelny|url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/576}}</ref> organized a [[human chain (politics)|human chain]] for Ukrainian independence between [[Kyiv]] and [[Lviv]]. Ukraine officially [[Declaration of Independence of Ukraine|declared itself an independent country on 24 August 1991]], when the communist Supreme Soviet (parliament) of Ukraine proclaimed that Ukraine would no longer follow the laws of USSR and only the laws of the Ukrainian SSR, de facto declaring Ukraine's independence from the Soviet Union. On 1 December, voters approved a [[1991 Ukrainian independence referendum|referendum formalizing independence from the Soviet Union]]. Over 90% of Ukrainian citizens voted for independence, with majorities in every region, including 56% in [[Crimea]]. The Soviet Union formally ceased to exist on 26 December, when the presidents of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia (the founding members of the USSR) met in [[Białowieża Forest]] to [[Belavezha Accords|formally dissolve]] the Union in accordance with the Soviet Constitution. With this, Ukraine's independence was formalized de jure and recognized by the international community.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
Also on 1 December 1991, Ukrainian voters in their [[1991 Ukrainian presidential election|first presidential election]] elected [[Leonid Kravchuk]].<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine" /> During his presidency, the [[Ukrainian economy]] [[Economy of Ukraine#Main economic indicators|shrank by more than 10% per year (in 1994 by more than 20%)]].<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18018002 Ukraine country profile – Overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325182022/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18018002 |date=25 March 2022 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref> The presidency (1994–2005) of the 2nd President of Ukraine, [[Leonid Kuchma]], was surrounded by numerous corruption scandals and the lessening of media freedoms, including the [[Cassette Scandal]].<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine" /><ref>Adrian Karatnycky, "Ukraine's Orange Revolution," ''Foreign Affairs,'' Vol. 84, No. 2 (Mar. – Apr. 2005), pp. 35–52 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034274 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206103903/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20034274 |date=6 December 2018 }}</ref> During Kuchma's presidency, the economy recovered, with [[GDP]] growth at around 10% a year in his last years in office.<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine" />
==== Orange Revolution and Euromaidan ==== {{Main|Orange Revolution|Euromaidan|Revolution of Dignity}}
In 2004, Kuchma announced that he would not run for re-election. Two major candidates emerged in the [[2004 Ukrainian presidential election|2004 presidential election]]. [[Viktor Yanukovych]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-29 |title=Yanukovych is president |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/yanukovych/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref> the incumbent Prime Minister, supported by both Kuchma and by the Russian Federation, wanted closer ties with Russia. The main opposition candidate, [[Viktor Yushchenko]], called for Ukraine to turn its attention westward and aim to eventually join the EU. In the runoff election, Yanukovych officially won by a narrow margin, but Yushchenko and his supporters alleged that vote rigging and intimidation cost him many votes, especially in eastern Ukraine. A political crisis erupted after the opposition started massive street [[Orange Revolution|protests in Kyiv and other cities]] ("Orange Revolution"), and the [[Supreme Court of Ukraine]] ordered the election results null and void. A second runoff found [[Viktor Yushchenko]] the winner. Five days later, Yanukovych resigned from office and his cabinet was dismissed on 5 January 2005.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
During the Yushchenko term, [[Russia–Ukraine relations|relations between Russia and Ukraine]] often appeared strained as Yushchenko looked towards improved [[EU–Ukraine relations|relations with the]] [[European Union]] and less toward Russia.<ref name="BBCprofileYushchenko">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4035789.stm Profile: Viktor Yushchenko] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023150016/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4035789.stm |date=23 October 2017 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref> In 2005, a highly publicized [[Russia-Ukraine gas dispute|dispute over natural gas prices]] with Russia caused shortages in many European countries that were reliant on Ukraine as a transit country.<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine2012"/> A compromise was reached in January 2006.<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine2012">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm Ukraine country profile – Overview 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609073220/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102303.stm |date=9 June 2012 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref>
By the time of the [[2010 Ukrainian presidential election|presidential election of 2010]], Yushchenko and [[Yulia Tymoshenko]] — allies during the Orange Revolution<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-29 |title=The Orange Revolution |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/orange-revolution/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref> — had become bitter enemies.<ref name="BBCprofileUkraine" /> Tymoshenko ran for president against both Yushchenko and Viktor Yanukovych, creating a three-way race. Yushchenko, whose popularity had plummeted,<ref name="BBCprofileYushchenko" /> persisted in running, and many pro-Orange voters stayed home.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100215041206/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1963613,00.html Ukraine's New President: Is the Orange Revolution Over?], [[Time.com]] (11 February 2010)</ref> In the second round of the election, Yanukovych won the run-off ballot with 48% to Tymoshenko's 45%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-29 |title=The Orange Revolution |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/yanukovych/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref>
During his presidency (2010–2014), Yanukovych and his [[Party of Regions]] were accused of trying to create a "controlled democracy" in Ukraine and of trying to destroy the main opposition party [[Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko]], but both have denied these charges.<ref>[http://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/andreas-umland/ukraine-right-wing-politics-is-genie-out-of-bottle Ukraine right-wing politics: is the genie out of the bottle?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014083516/http://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/andreas-umland/ukraine-right-wing-politics-is-genie-out-of-bottle |date=14 October 2017 }}, [[openDemocracy.net]] (3 January 2011)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12171740 Ukraine viewpoint: Novelist Andrey Kurkov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011223832/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12171740 |date=11 October 2018 }}, [[BBC News]] (13 January 2011)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12042561 Ukraine ex-PM Tymoshenko charged with misusing funds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201225215/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12042561 |date=1 December 2017 }}, [[BBC News]] (20 December 2010)<br />[http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2010-09-29/party-regions-monopolises-power-ukraine#_ftn5 The Party of Regions monopolises power in Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110903124818/http://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2010-09-29/party-regions-monopolises-power-ukraine#_ftn5 |date=3 September 2011 }}, [[Centre for Eastern Studies]] (29 September 2010)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12219712 Ukraine launches battle against corruption] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321003502/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12219712 |date=21 March 2017 }}, [[BBC News]] (18 January 2011)<br />[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11549381 Ukrainians' long wait for prosperity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321004648/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11549381 |date=21 March 2017 }}, [[BBC News]] (18 October 2010)<br />[http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/news-points/ukraine-press-censorship-journalists-uncertain-future Ukraine:Journalists Face Uncertain Future] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204055/http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/news-points/ukraine-press-censorship-journalists-uncertain-future |date=5 October 2011 }}, [[Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting]] (27 October 2010)<br />{{cite news |date=25 May 2011 |title=Our Ukraine comes to defense of Tymoshenko, Lutsenko, Didenko, Makarenko in statement |publisher=[[Interfax-Ukraine]] |url=http://www.interfax.com.ua/eng/main/69573/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603124713/http://www.interfax.com.ua/eng/main/69573/ |archive-date=3 June 2012}}</ref> One frequently cited example of Yanukovych's attempts to centralise power was [[Tymoshenko v. Ukraine|the 2011 sentencing of Yulia Tymoshenko]], which has been condemned by Western governments as potentially being politically motivated.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Government Statement of Concern about Arrest of Former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko |url=http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/government-statement-tymoshenko.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025646/http://ukraine.usembassy.gov/government-statement-tymoshenko.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=8 February 2016}} [[Embassy of the United States, Kyiv|US Embassy, Kyiv]], (24 September 2011)<br />https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14459446 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021141928/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14459446 |date=21 October 2018 }} [[BBC News]], (24 September 2011)</ref> [[File:Euromaidan Kyiv 1-12-13 by Gnatoush 009.jpg|thumbnail|2014 [[Euromaidan]] protests in [[Kyiv]]]]
In November 2013, President Yanukovych did not sign the [[Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement]] and instead pursued closer ties with Russia.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25182823 Why is Ukraine in turmoil?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218180637/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25182823 |date=18 December 2013 }}, [[BBC News]] (21 February 2014)</ref><ref name="aljVS291113">{{Cite web |title=Ukraine 'still wants to sign EU deal' | News | al Jazeera |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/11/ukraine-still-wants-sign-eu-deal-20131129111345619208.html}}</ref> This move sparked [[Euromaidan|protests on the streets of Kyiv]] and, ultimately, the [[Revolution of Dignity]]. Protesters set up camps in [[Kyiv]]'s [[Maidan Nezalezhnosti]] (Independence Square),<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26249330 Ukraine crisis: Police storm main Kyiv 'Maidan' protest camp] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201194141/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26249330 |date=1 December 2008 }}, [[BBC News]] (19 February 2014)</ref> and in December 2013 and January 2014 protesters started [[2014 Ukrainian Regional State Administration occupations|taking over various government buildings]], first in Kyiv, and later in [[Western Ukraine]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 Ukraine protests timeline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603193226/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 |date=3 June 2014 }}, [[BBC News]] (21 February 2014)</ref> [[February 2014 Euromaidan riots|Battles between protesters and police]] resulted in about 80 deaths in February 2014.<ref>{{cite news |author=Sandford Daniel |date=19 February 2014 |title=Ukraine crisis: Renewed Kyiv assault on protesters |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26252679 |access-date=19 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=21 February 2014 |title=Ukraine crisis: Yanukovych announces 'peace deal' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26284505 |access-date=21 February 2014}}</ref>
Following the violence, the Ukrainian parliament on 22 February voted to remove Yanukovych from power (on the grounds that his whereabouts were unknown and he thus could not fulfil his duties), and to free Yulia Tymoshenko from prison. On the same day, Yanukovych supporter [[Volodymyr Vasylyovych Rybak|Volodymyr Rybak]] resigned as speaker of the Parliament, and was replaced by Tymoshenko loyalist [[Oleksandr Turchynov]], who was subsequently installed as interim President.<ref>{{cite news |date=23 February 2014 |title=Profile: Olexander Turchynov |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26316268 |access-date=25 February 2014}}</ref> Yanukovych had fled Kyiv, and subsequently gave a press conference in the Russian city of [[Rostov-on-Don]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Taylor, Charles |date=28 February 2014 |title=Profile: Ukraine's ousted President Viktor Yanukovych |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-25182830 |access-date=4 May 2014}}</ref>
==== Western Integration ==== {{Further|Ukraine–European Union relations|Ukraine–NATO relations}} On 1 January 2016, Ukraine joined the [[Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area|DCFTA]] with the EU. Ukrainian citizens were granted [[Visa policy of the Schengen Area|visa-free travel]] to the [[Schengen Area]] for up to 90 days during any 180-day period on 11 June 2017, and the Association Agreement formally came into effect on 1 September 2017.<ref name="2017-assoc">{{Cite web |title=European Commission - EU-Ukraine Association Agreement fully enters into force |url=https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-17-3045_en.htm |website=europa.eu}} (Press release)</ref> Significant achievements in the foreign policy arena include support for anti-Russian sanctions, obtaining a visa-free regime with the countries of the [[European Union]], and better recognition of the need to overcome extremely difficult tasks within the country. However, the old local authorities did not want any changes; they were cleansed of anti-Maidan activists ([[Lustration in Ukraine|lustration]]), but only in part. The fight against corruption was launched, but was limited to sentences of petty officials and electronic declarations, and the newly established [[National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine|NABU]] and [[National Agency on Corruption Prevention|NACP]] were marked by scandals in their work. Judicial reform was combined with the appointment of old, compromised judges. The investigation of crimes against Maidan residents was delayed. In order to counteract the massive global [[Russian-Ukrainian information war|Russian anti-Ukrainian propaganda]] of the "information war", the [[Ministry of Information Policy (Ukraine)|Ministry of Information Policy]] was created, which for 5 years did not show effective work, except for the ban on [[Kaspersky Lab]], [[Dr.Web]], [[1C Company|1С]], [[Mail.ru Group|Mail.ru]], [[Yandex]] and Russian social networks [[VK (service)|VKontakte]] or [[Odnoklassniki]] and propaganda media. In 2017, the president signed the law "On Education", which met with opposition from national minorities, and quarreled with the [[Government of Hungary]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} At the same time, the economic situation continued deterirating, mainly due to the widespread corruption. By 2018 Ukraine became the poorest country of Europe, with the GDP per capita below $3,000.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Starobin |first1=Paul |title=Ukraine's real power broker |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/ukraines-real-power-broker-yermak-zelensky-russia-war-biden-2023-12?r=US&IR=T&fbclid=IwAR1UEZLoZyZ37Lo5RirygbAMp94HRKf49VtRXnOMbkkXAJ1Wc0ecHLN28_I |work=[[Business Insider]] |date=18 December 2023}}</ref>
On May 19, 2018, Poroshenko signed a Decree which put into effect the decision of the National Security and Defense Council on the final termination of Ukraine's participation in the statutory bodies of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Україна остаточно вийшла з СНД |url=https://espreso.tv/news/2018/05/19/ukrayina_ostatochno_vyyshla_z_snd |access-date=2018-05-19 |website=espreso.tv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Президент підписав Указ про остаточне припинення участі України у статутних органах СНД — Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |language=uk |work=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |url=http://www.president.gov.ua/news/prezident-pidpisav-ukaz-pro-ostatochne-pripinennya-uchasti-u-47554 |access-date=2018-05-19}}</ref> As of February 2019, Ukraine minimized its participation in the Commonwealth of Independent States to a critical minimum and effectively completed its withdrawal. The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine did not ratify the accession, i.e. Ukraine has never been a member of the CIS.<ref>{{cite news |title=Україні не потрібно виходити із СНД – вона ніколи не була і не є зараз членом цієї структури |url=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/ukrayina-dosi-v-snd-chy-ni/30969197.html |newspaper=Радіо Свобода|date=26 November 2020 |last1=Лащенко |first1=Олександр }}</ref>
On January 6, 2019, in [[Fener]], a delegation of the [[Orthodox Church of Ukraine]] with the participation of President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko [[Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine|received]] a [[Tomos (Eastern Orthodox Church)|Tomos]] on [[autocephaly]]. The Tomos was presented to the head of the OCU, [[Epiphanius I of Ukraine|Metropolitan Epiphanius]], during a joint liturgy with the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Οικουμενικό Πατριαρχείο |url=https://ec-patr.org/ |access-date=2021-06-14 |language=el}}</ref> The next day, Tomos was brought to Ukraine for a demonstration at [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|St. Sophia Cathedral]]. On January 9, all members of the [[Synod]] of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|Constantinople Orthodox Church]] signed the Tomos during the scheduled meeting of the Synod.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
On February 21, 2019, the [[Constitution of Ukraine]] was amended, with the norms on the strategic course of Ukraine for membership in the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]] being enshrined in the preamble of the Basic Law, three articles and transitional provisions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The law amending the Constitution on the course of accession to the EU and NATO has entered into force {{!}} European integration portal |url=https://eu-ua.org/novyny/zakon-pro-zminy-do-konstytuciyi-shchodo-kursu-na-vstup-v-yes-i-nato-nabuv-chynnosti |access-date=2021-03-23 |website=eu-ua.org |language=uk |archive-date=28 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928024828/https://eu-ua.org/novyny/zakon-pro-zminy-do-konstytuciyi-shchodo-kursu-na-vstup-v-yes-i-nato-nabuv-chynnosti |url-status=dead }}</ref>
On 21 April 2019, [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] was elected president in the second round of the presidential election. Early [[2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] on July 21 allowed the newly formed pro-presidential [[Servant of the People (political party)|Servant of the People party]] to win an absolute majority of seats for the first time in the history of independent Ukraine (248). [[Dmytro Razumkov]], the party's chairman, was elected speaker of parliament. The majority was able to form a government on August 29 on its own, without forming coalitions, and approved [[Oleksiy Honcharuk|Oleksii Honcharuk]] as prime minister.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kitsoft |title=Кабінет Міністрів України — Новим Прем'єр-міністром України став Олексій Гончарук |url=https://www.kmu.gov.ua/news/novim-premyer-ministrom-ukrayini-stav-oleksij-goncharuk |access-date=2020-07-06 |website=www.kmu.gov.ua |language=uk}}</ref> On March 4, 2020, due to a 1.5% drop in GDP (instead of a 4.5% increase at the time of the election), the Verkhovna Rada fired [[Honcharuk Government|Honcharuk's government]] and [[Denys Shmyhal]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-03-04 |title=Гончарука звільнили з посади прем'єра й відставили весь уряд |language=uk |work=BBC News Україна |url=https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/news-51734007 |access-date=2020-07-06}}</ref> became the new Prime Minister.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Денис Шмигаль – новий прем'єр України |url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2020/03/4/7242529/ |access-date=2020-07-06 |website=Українська правда |language=uk}}</ref>
On July 28, 2020, in [[Lublin]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]] and Ukraine created the [[Lublin Triangle]] initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the [[European Union|EU]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine Inaugurate 'Lublin Triangle' |url=https://jamestown.org/program/lithuania-poland-and-ukraine-inaugurate-lublin-triangle/ |website=Jamestown}}</ref>
On May 17, 2021, the [[Association Trio]] was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia|Foreign Ministers of Georgia]], [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration of Moldova|Moldova]] and [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ukraine)|Ukraine]]. Association Trio is tripartite format for the enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the [[European Union]] on issues of common interest related to [[European integration]], enhancing cooperation within the framework of the [[Eastern Partnership]], and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Україна, Грузія та Молдова створили новий формат співпраці для спільного руху в ЄС |url=https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/news/2021/05/17/7123240/ |website=www.eurointegration.com.ua}}</ref>
At the June [[2021 Brussels summit|2021 Brussels Summit]], NATO leaders reiterated the decision taken at the [[2008 Bucharest summit|2008 Bucharest Summit]] that Ukraine would become a member of the Alliance with the Membership Action Plan (MAP) as an integral part of the process and Ukraine's right to determine its own future and foreign policy without outside interference.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Brussels Summit Communiqué issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Brussels 14 June 2021 |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_185000.htm |website=NATO}}</ref>
Ukraine was originally preparing to formally apply for [[Accession of Ukraine to the European Union|EU membership]] in 2024, but instead signed an application for membership in February 2022.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=У 2024 році Україна подасть заявку на вступ до ЄС |url=https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-polytics/2629440-u-2024-roci-ukraina-podast-zaavku-na-vstup-do-es.html |website=www.ukrinform.ua|date=29 January 2019 }}</ref>
==== Russo-Ukrainian War ==== {{Main|Russo-Ukrainian War|Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}} In March 2014, the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation]] occurred. Though official results of a [[2014 Crimean status referendum|referendum]] on Crimean reunification with Russia were reported as showing a large majority in favor of the proposition, the vote was organized under Russian military occupation and was denounced by the European Union and the [[United States]] as illegal.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26606097| title = Crimea referendum: Voters 'back Russia union'| date = 10 March 2014| access-date = 4 May 2014 |work = BBC News}}</ref>
The Crimean crisis was followed by [[2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine|pro-Russian unrest]] in [[east Ukraine]] and [[south Ukraine]].<ref name="Ukraine crisis timeline BBC">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 Ukraine crisis timeline] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603193226/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-26248275 |date=3 June 2014 }}, [[BBC News]]</ref> In April 2014 Ukrainian separatists [[self-proclaimed]] the [[Donetsk People's Republic]] and [[Lugansk People's Republic]] and held [[2014 Donbass status referendums|referendums]] on 11 May 2014; the separatists claimed nearly 90% voted in favor of independence.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2014/05/07/310451535/putin-tells-separatists-to-postpone-may-11-referendum Putin Tells Separatists In Ukraine To Postpone May 11 Referendum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319033458/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2014/05/07/310451535/putin-tells-separatists-to-postpone-may-11-referendum |date=19 March 2015 }}, [[NPR]] (7 May 2014)<br />{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27360146 | title=Ukraine rebels hold referendums in Donetsk and Luhansk | work=BBC News | date=11 May 2014 | access-date=11 May 2014 }}<br />{{cite news|url=https://news.vice.com/video/russian-roulette-dispatch-thirty-eight|title=Russian Roulette (Dispatch Thirty-Eight)|date=13 May 2014|access-date=7 July 2014|newspaper=[[Vice News]]|archive-date=4 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704073504/https://news.vice.com/video/russian-roulette-dispatch-thirty-eight|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Ukraine crisis timeline BBC"/> Later in April 2014, fighting between the [[Ukrainian army]] and [[Territorial defense battalion (Ukraine)|pro-Ukrainian volunteer battalions]] on one side, and forces supporting the Donetsk and Lugansk People's Republics on the other side, escalated into the [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|war in Donbas]].<ref name="Ukraine crisis timeline BBC"/><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30414955 Ukraine underplays role of far right in conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602182154/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30414955 |date=2 June 2018 }}, [[BBC News]] (13 December 2014)</ref> By December 2014, more than 6,400 people had died in this conflict, and according to [[United Nations]] figures it led to over half a million people becoming [[internally displaced]] within Ukraine and two hundred thousand refugees to flee to (mostly) [[Russia]] and other neighboring countries.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30454746 Fergal Keane reports from Mariupol on Ukraine's 'frozen conflict'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723122836/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30454746 |date=23 July 2016 }}, [[BBC News]] (12 December 2014)</ref><ref>[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=49533#.VI4Wv3vX4Yg Half a million displaced in eastern Ukraine as winter looms, warns UN refugee agency] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111091846/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=49533#.VI4Wv3vX4Yg |date=11 November 2016 }}, [[United Nations]] (5 December 2014)</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28656147 Ukraine conflict: Refugee numbers soar as war rages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708145441/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28656147 |date=8 July 2018 }}, [[BBC News]] (5 August 2014)</ref><ref>[http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-death-toll/27047512.html UN Says At Least 6,400 Killed In Ukraine's Conflict Since April 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223061830/http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-death-toll/27047512.html |date=23 December 2015 }}, [[RFE/RL]] (1 June 2015)</ref> During the same period, political (including adoption of [[Lustration in Ukraine|the law on lustration]] and [[Decommunization in Ukraine|the law on decommunization]]) and economic reforms started.<ref name="carnegie"/> On 25 May 2014, [[Petro Poroshenko]] was elected president<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-29 |title=Petro Poroshenko becomes President of Ukraine |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/petro-poroshenko-becomes-president-of-ukraine/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref> in the first round of the presidential election. By the second half of 2015, independent observers noted that reforms in Ukraine had considerably slowed down, [[corruption in Ukraine|corruption]] did not subside, and the [[economy of Ukraine]] was still in a deep crisis.<ref name="carnegie">{{cite web|url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2015/08/19/ukraine-reform-monitor-august-2015/iewe|title=Ukraine Reform Monitor: August 2015|date=August 2015|publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|access-date=22 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-11-06/unreformed-ukraine-is-self-destructing|title=Ukraine Is in Danger of Becoming a Failed State|last=Bershidsky|first=Leonid|date=6 November 2015|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=8 November 2015|archive-date=10 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110025333/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-11-06/unreformed-ukraine-is-self-destructing}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/08/25/money-still-rules-ukraine-poroshenko-corruption/|title=Money Still Rules Ukraine|last=Kuzio|first=Taras|date=25 August 2015|work=[[Foreign Policy]]|access-date=22 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://opendemocracy.net/od-russia/mikhail-minakov-maryna-stavniichuk/ukrainian-constitution-reform-or-crisis|title=Ukraine's constitution: reform or crisis?|last1=Minakov|first1=Mikhail|first2=Maryna|last2=Stavniichuk|date=16 February 2016|publisher=OpenDemocracy|access-date=19 February 2016|archive-date=17 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217091235/https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/mikhail-minakov-maryna-stavniichuk/ukrainian-constitution-reform-or-crisis}}</ref> By December 2015, more than 9,100 people had died (largely civilians) in the war in Donbas,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-29 |title=Separate districts of Donbas and Luhansk regions (ORDLO) |url=https://www.uawarexplained.com/ldnr/?version=sixty-minutes/ |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=UaWarExplained.com |language=en}}</ref> according to United Nations figures.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/10/world/europe/ukraine-conflict-toll.html?_r=0 At Least 9,115 Killed in Ukraine Conflict, U.N. Says] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724003009/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/10/world/europe/ukraine-conflict-toll.html?_r=0 |date=24 July 2016 }}, [[New York Times]] (9 December 2015)<br />[http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-separatists-holiday-cease-fire-violations/27445518.html Kyiv, Separatists Accuse Each Other Of Violating Holiday Cease-Fire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226020428/http://www.rferl.mobi/a/ukraine-separatists-holiday-cease-fire-violations/27445518.html |date=26 December 2015 }}, [[Radio Free Europe]] (24 December 2015)</ref> [[File:Робоча поїздка Президента України на Миколаївщину та Одещину 50.jpg|thumb|President Zelenskyy with members of the Ukrainian army on 18 June 2022]] On February 2, 2021, a presidential decree banned the television broadcasting of the pro-Russian TV channels [[112 Ukraine]], NewsOne and ZIK.<ref>{{Cite web |title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №43/2021 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/432021-36441 |access-date=2021-02-06 |website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |language=uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Зеленський "вимкнув" 112, ZIK і NewsOne з ефіру. Що відомо |language=uk |work=BBC News Україна |url=https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/news-55907449 |access-date=2021-02-06}}</ref> The decision of the National Security and Defense Council and the Presidential Decree of February 19, 2021 imposed sanctions on 8 individuals and 19 legal entities, including Putin's pro-Russian politician and [[Vladimir Putin|Putin's]] godfather [[Viktor Medvedchuk]] and his wife Oksana Marchenko.<ref>{{Cite web |title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №64/2021 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/642021-36753 |access-date=2021-02-20 |website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України |language=uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Зеленський ввів у дію санкції проти Медведчука |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/02/20/7284161/ |access-date=2021-02-20 |website=Українська правда |language=uk}}</ref>
The [[Kerch Strait incident]] occurred on 25 November 2018 when the [[Russia]]n [[Federal Security Service]] (FSB) [[Coast Guard (Russia)|coast guard]] fired upon and captured three [[Ukrainian Navy]] vessels attempting to pass from the [[Black Sea]] into the [[Sea of Azov]] through the [[Kerch Strait]] on their way to the port of [[Mariupol]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-11-26 |title=Tension escalates after Russia seizes Ukraine naval ships |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46338671 |access-date=2021-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Polityuk |first=Andrew Osborn, Pavel |date=2018-11-26 |title=Russia fires on and seizes Ukrainian ships near annexed Crimea |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-russia-idUSKCN1NU0DL |access-date=2021-06-14}}</ref>
[[Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Throughout 2021]], Russian forces built up along the [[Russia–Ukraine border|Russia-Ukraine Border]], in occupied Crimea and Donbas, and in Belarus.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Buildup of Russian forces along Ukraine's border that has some talking of war |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/12/01/1060608432/buildup-of-russian-forces-along-ukraines-border-that-has-some-talking-of-war |access-date=2022-10-04}}</ref> On February 24, 2022, Russian forces [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invaded]] Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ellyatt |first=Holly |title=Russian forces invade Ukraine |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/24/russian-forces-invade-ukraine.html |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=CNBC |date=24 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Russia quickly occupied much of the [[Eastern Ukraine offensive|east]] and [[Southern Ukraine offensive|south]] of the country, but failed to advance past the city of [[Mykolaiv]] towards [[Odesa]], and were forced to retreat from the [[Northern Ukraine offensive|north]] after failing to occupy [[Kyiv offensive (2022)|Kyiv]], [[Chernihiv]], [[Sumy]], and [[Kharkiv]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bigg |first=Matthew Mpoke |date=2022-09-13 |title=Russia invaded Ukraine more than 200 days ago. Here is one key development from every month of the war. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/ukraine-russia-war-timeline.html |access-date=2022-10-04 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> After failing to gain further territories and being driven out of [[Kharkiv Oblast]] by a fast-paced [[2022 Ukrainian Kharkiv counteroffensive|Ukrainian counteroffensive]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ortiz |first=John Bacon and Jorge L. |title=Russians admit defeat in Kharkiv; Zelenskyy visits Izium after troops flee shattered city: Ukraine updates |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2022/09/14/ukraine-russia-war-live-updates/10375099002/ |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> Russia officially annexed the [[Donetsk People's Republic]] and the [[Luhansk People's Republic]], along with most of the [[Kherson Oblast|Kherson]] and [[Zaporizhzhia Oblast]]s on 30 September.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maynes |first=Charles |date=2022-09-30 |title=Putin illegally annexes territories in Ukraine, in spite of global opposition |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/09/30/1126020895/russia-ukraine-putin-annexation |access-date=2022-10-04}}</ref>
On the eve of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country was [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP) per capita|the poorest in Europe]],<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP per capita (Current US$) | Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true}}</ref> a handicap whose cause was attributed to high [[Corruption in Ukraine|corruption]] levels<ref>{{cite web |last=Bullough |first=Oliver |date=6 February 2015 |title=Welcome to Ukraine, the most corrupt nation in Europe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2015/feb/04/welcome-to-the-most-corrupt-nation-in-europe-ukraine |access-date=3 March 2021 |work=[[The Guardian]] |quote="Since 1991, officials, members of parliament and businessmen have created complex and highly lucrative schemes to plunder the state budget. The theft has crippled Ukraine. The economy was as large as Poland's at independence, now it is a third of the size. Ordinary Ukrainians have seen their living standards stagnate, while a handful of oligarchs have become billionaires."}}</ref> and the slow pace of [[economic liberalization]] and [[Reform|institutional reform]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine: Can meaningful reform come out of conflict? |url=https://www.bruegel.org/policy-brief/ukraine-can-meaningful-reform-come-out-conflict |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=Bruegel {{!}} The Brussels-based economic think tank |date=25 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pikulicka-Wilczewska |first=Agnieszka |date=2017-07-19 |title=Why the reforms in Ukraine are so slow? |url=https://neweasterneurope.eu/2017/07/19/why-the-reforms-in-ukraine-are-so-slow/ |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=New Eastern Europe - A bimonthly news magazine dedicated to Central and Eastern European affairs |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The slow-reform trap |url=https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/slow-reform-trap |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=Bruegel {{!}} The Brussels-based economic think tank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 8, 2000 |title=Ukraine Country Assistance Evaluation |url=https://www.oecd.org/countries/ukraine/35290615.pdf |website=www.oecd.org}}</ref> Russia's invasion of the country damaged Ukraine's economy and future prospects of improvement to such an extent, that the GDP of the country was projected to shrink by as much as 35% in its first year alone after the invasion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gramer |first=Amy Mackinnon, Robbie |title=The Battle to Save Ukraine's Economy From the War |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/10/05/russia-ukraine-war-reconstruction-european-bank-odile-renaud-basso/ |access-date=2023-03-18 |website=Foreign Policy |date=5 October 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref>
==See also== {{Portal|Ukraine}} {{Commons|Historical maps of Ukraine}} * [[Politics of Ukraine]] * [[Ruthenia]] * [[Kievan Rus]] * [[History of Christianity in Ukraine]] * [[History of the Soviet Union]] * [[List of Ukrainian rulers]] * [[Ukrainian historiography]]
== Notes == {{Notelist}}
==References== {{Reflist|refs=
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==Bibliography== {{Main|Bibliography of Ukrainian history}}
===Surveys and reference=== *''Encyclopedia of Ukraine'' (University of Toronto Press, 1984–93) 5 vol; from [https://web.archive.org/web/20121001155033/http://www.utoronto.ca/cius/webfiles/eu.htm Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies], partly online as the [http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/ ''Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine'']. *''Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia.'' ed by Volodymyr Kubijovyč; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188pp * {{cite book |last= Allen|first=W. E. D.|author-link=W. E. D. Allen|title=The Ukraine: a history|year= 1963|publisher=Russell & Russell|page=404|oclc=578666051}} * Bilinsky, Yaroslav ''The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II'' (Rutgers UP, 1964) * [[Dmytro Doroshenko|Doroshenko, Dmytro]], ''History of the Ukraine''. Institute Press (Edmonton, Alberta), 1939: [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/DORHOU/home.html ''Online''.] * [[Mykhailo Hrushevsky|Hrushevsky, Mykhailo]]. ''A History of Ukraine'' (1986 [1941]). *Hrushevsky, Mykhailo. ''History of Ukraine-Rus''' in 9 volumes (1866–1934). Available online in Ukrainian as [http://litopys.org.ua/hrushrus/iur.htm "Історія України-Руси"] (1954–57). [https://www.ciuspress.com/about-author/?v=3e8d115eb4b3 Translated into English] (1997–2014). *[[Ivan Katchanovski]]; [[Zenon Kohut|Kohut, Zenon E.]]; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav. ''Historical Dictionary of Ukraine.'' Second edition (2013). 968 pp. *Kubicek, Paul. ''The History of Ukraine'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313349207 excerpt and text search] * Liber, George. ''Total wars and the making of modern Ukraine, 1914–1954'' (U of Toronto Press, 2016). * {{Cite book |last=Magocsi |first=Paul R. |author-link=Paul R. Magocsi |title=A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples |year=2010 |orig-date=1996 |edition=2nd rev. |location=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1021-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TA1zVKTTsXUC}} * [[Clarence Manning|Manning, Clarence]], ''The Story of the Ukraine''. [[Georgetown University Press]], 1947: [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/MANSOU/home.html ''Online''.] * {{cite book |author-link=Serhii Plokhy |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45892-4 |url={{GBurl|pCdUmCWxwJ8C}} }} * {{cite book |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |date=2015 |title=The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-05091-8 |ref=none}} *Reid, Anna. ''Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine'' (2003) {{ISBN|0-7538-0160-4}} *{{cite book|author=Snyder, Timothy D.|title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC|year=2003|publisher=Yale U.P.|isbn=978-0-300-10586-5 |ref=none}} pp. 105–216. *{{cite book|first=Orest|last=Subtelny|title=Ukraine: A History|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6|author-link=Orest Subtelny|url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 |ref=none}} A Ukrainian translation is available [http://www.infoukes.com/ukremb/history/SUBTELNY/title.htm online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216193300/http://infoukes.com/ukremb/history/SUBTELNY/title.htm |date=16 December 2010 }}. *[[Andrew Wilson (historian)|Wilson, Andrew]]. ''The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation.'' Yale University Press; 2nd edition (2002) {{ISBN|0-300-09309-8}}. * {{cite book|last=Yekelchyk|first=Serhy|author-link=Serhy Yekelchyk|year=2007|title=Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation|location=[[Oxford]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-530546-3|oclc=219616283}}
===Topical studies=== * Kononenko, Konstantyn. ''Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917'' (Marquette University Press 1958) * Luckyj, George S. ''Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995.'' (1996) * Shkandrij, Myroslav. ''Ukrainian Nationalism: Politics, Ideology, and Literature, 1929–1956'' (Yale University Press; 2014) 331 pages; Studies the ideology and legacy of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists Especially by Dmytro Dontsov, Olena Teliha, Leonid Mosendz, Oleh Olzhych, [[Yurii Lypa]], Ulas Samchuk, Yurii Klen, and Dokia Humenna.
===1930s, World War II=== * [[Anne Applebaum|Applebaum, Anne]]. ''[[Red Famine: Stalin's War on Ukraine]]'' (2017); 496 pp [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=51300 online review] * {{cite book|title=Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath|last=Boshyk|first=Yuri|year=1986|publisher=Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies|isbn=0-920862-37-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ukraineduringwor0000unse |ref=none}} * [[Karel C. Berkhoff|Berkhoff, Karel C.]], ''Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule.'' Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp. *Brandon, Ray, and [[Wendy Lower]], eds. ''The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization.'' (2008). 378 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=24078 online review] * [[Robert Conquest|Conquest, Robert]]. ''[[The Harvest of Sorrow|The Harvest Of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivisation and the Terror-Famine]]'' (1986) * Gross, Jan T. ''Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia'' (1988). * Kostiuk, Hryhory. ''Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine''. Frederick A. Praeger, Inc., New York, 1960 (156 pp.): [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/KOSSRU/home.html ''Online''.] * Kudelia, Serhiy. "Choosing Violence in Irregular Wars: The Case of Anti-Soviet Insurgency in Western Ukraine," ''East European Politics and Societies'' (2013) 27#1 pp 149–181 * Lower, Wendy. ''Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine.'' U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 307 pp. * [[Clarence Manning|Manning, Clarence]], ''Ukraine under the Soviets''. Bookman Associates, New York, 1953 (219 pp.): [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/_Texts/MANUUS/home.html ''Online''.] * Narvselius, Eleonora. "The 'Bandera Debate': The Contentious Legacy of World War II and Liberalization of Collective Memory in Western Ukraine," ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' (2012) 54#3 pp 469–490. * Redlich, Shimon. ''Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945.'' Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp. * Zabarko, Boris, ed. ''Holocaust In The Ukraine'', Mitchell Vallentine & Co, 2005. 394 pp.
===Recent history=== *Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. ''Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough'' (2006) *{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/0965156X.2013.841797| title = Ukraine's Independence and Its Geostrategic Impact in Eastern Europe| journal = Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe| volume = 21| issue = 2–3| page = 165| year = 2013| last1 = Blaj | first1 = L. | s2cid = 143454991 |ref=none}} *{{cite book|author=Paul D'Anieri|title=Politics and Society in Ukraine|year=1999|publisher=Avalon |isbn=978-0-8133-3538-4 |ref=none}} *[[Anatoliy Dimarov|Dimarov, Anatoliy]] et al. ''A Hunger Most Cruel: The Human Face of the 1932–1933 Terror-Famine in Soviet Ukraine'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/096838997X excerpt and text search] *[[Askold Krushelnycky]]. ''An Orange Revolution: A Personal Journey Through Ukrainian History.'' (2006). {{ISBN|0-436-20623-4}}. 320 pages. *Kutaisov, Aleksandr. ''[https://archive.org/details/ukrainaby00kutauoft Ukraina]'' (1918). *Kuzio, Taras. ''Ukraine: State and Nation Building'' (1998){{ISBN|0-415-17195-4}} *Luckyj, George S. ''Literary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 1917–1934'' (1990).{{ISBN|0-8223-1081-3}} *Wanner, Catherine. ''Burden of Dreams: History and Identity in Post-Soviet Ukraine'' (1998) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0271030011 excerpt and text search]
===Historiography and memory=== {{See also|List of Slavic studies journals}} *{{Cite Q|Q113708200 |author=von Hagen, Mark |authorlink=Mark von Hagen |ref=none}} *[[John-Paul Himka|Himka, John-Paul]]. "The National and the Social in the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1920- The Historiographical Agenda." ''Archiv für Sozialgeschichte,'' vol 34 (1994): 95–110. *{{Cite Q|Q28703759 |author=Hrushevskyi, Mykhailo |authorlink=Mykhailo Hrushevskyi |ref=none}} * Kasianov, Georgiy, and [[Philipp Ther]], eds. ''Laboratory of Transnational History: Ukraine and Recent Ukrainian Historiography'' (Central European University Press 2009){{ISBN?}} * [[Bohdan Krawchenko|Krawchenko, Bohdan]]. "Ukrainian studies in Canada." ''Nationalities Papers'' 6.1 (1978): 26–43. * {{Cite Q|Q116456399 |editor=Plokhy, Serhii |editor-link=Serhii Plokhy |ref=none}} * {{Cite Q|Q116456336 |author=Plokhy, Serhii |authorlink=Serhii Plokhy |ref=none}} * [[Anna Reid|Reid, Anna]]. "Putin's War on History: The Thousand-Year Struggle Over Ukraine" ''Foreign Affairs'' (May/June 2022) 101#1 pp 54–63. [https://tribunecontentagency.com/article/putins-war-on-history-the-thousand-year-struggle-over-ukraine/ excerpt]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{Cite Q|Q116456099|author=Smith-Peter, Susan |ref=none}} * {{Cite Q|Q116456077 |author=Subtelny, Orest |authorlink=Orest Subtelny |ref=none}} * Velychenko, Stephen, ''National history as cultural process: a survey of the interpretations of Ukraine's past in Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian historical writing from the earliest times to 1914'' (Edmonton, 1992) * Velychenko, Stephen, ''Shaping identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet-Russian and Polish accounts of Ukrainian history, 1914–1991'' (London, 1993) * Verstiuk, Vladyslav. "Conceptual Issues in Studying the History of the Ukrainian Revolution." ''Journal of Ukrainian Studies'' 24.1 (1999): 5–20 * [[Rex A. Wade|Wade, Rex A.]] "The Revolution At Ninety-(One): Anglo-American Historiography Of The Russian Revolution Of 1917" ''Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography'' 1.1 (2008): vii-42. * [[Serhy Yekelchyk|Yekelchyk, Serhy]]. "Studying the Blueprint for a Nation: Canadian Historiography of Modern Ukraine." ''East/West: Journal of Ukrainian Studies'' 5.1 (2018).
=== Teaching and study guides ===
* John Vsetecka, "[https://clioandthecontemporary.com/2022/07/03/let-ukraine-speak-integrating-ukraine-into-syllabi/ Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom SyllabiLet Ukraine Speak: Integrating Scholarship on Ukraine into Classroom Syllabii]". * Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute, "[https://huri.harvard.edu/teaching-resources-list Teaching and Studying Ukraine: List of Resources]".
===Primary sources in English=== *Luckyj, George S. ''Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995.'' (1996)
====Ukrainian language==== *''Essays on History on Ukraine'' **Volume 1 by Natalia Yakovenko, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050110172544/http://www.vesna.org.ua/txt/yakovenkon/znaid/index.html ''"From the Earliest Times until the End of the 18th Century"''] **Volume 2: {{cite book|author=Ярослав Грицак (Yaroslav Hrytsak)|title=Формування модерної української нації XIX-XX ст. (Formation of the Modern Ukrainian Nation in the late 19th–20th centuries)|location=[[Kyiv]]|publisher=Генеза (Heneza)|year=1996|isbn=966-504-150-9 |ref=none}}. Available [https://web.archive.org/web/20050302102308/http://www.vesna.org.ua/txt/grytsakj/formuv/index.html online]. *"[http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20031/4 Ukraine: Briefly about Her Past and Present] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411070753/http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20031%2F4 |date=11 April 2016 }}", in ''Welcome to Ukraine'', 2003, 1. *[[Alexander F. Tsvirkun]] History of Ukraine.7 class electronic textbooks. Kyiv., 2005 (co-authored with [[Valentin A.Savelii]]) *[[Alexander F. Tsvirkun]] E-learning course. History of Ukraine. [[Journal Auditorium]], Kyiv 2010
==External links== *{{Commons category-inline}} *[http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Ukraine:_Primary_Documents History of Ukraine: Primary Documents (weblist)] *[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Ukraine/_Topics/history/home.html History of Ukraine]: 10 complete books *[http://www.day.kiev.ua/131109/ Ukrainian history overview] published in ''[[Den']]'' (in Ukrainian).
{{Ukraine topics}} {{History of Europe}} {{European history by country}} {{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Ukraine}} [[Category:History of Ukraine| ]] [[Category:Ukrainian studies]] [[Category:History of Austria-Hungary|Ukraine]]