Prehistoric Iberia

{{Short description|none}} {{See also|Prehistoric Europe}} {{History of Spain}} {{History of Portugal}} {{History of Gibraltar}} [[Prehistory]] in the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]] begins with the arrival of the first ''[[Homo]]'' [[genus]] representatives from [[Africa]], which may range from {{Circa}} 1.5 million years ([[Year#SI prefix multipliers|Ma]]) ago to {{Circa}} 1.25 Ma ago, depending on the [[Archaeological science#Dating techniques|dating technique]] employed, so it is set at {{Circa}} 1.3 Ma ago for convenience.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Menéndez |first=Mario |title=Prehistoria de la Península Ibérica : el progreso de la cognición, el mestizaje y las desigualdades durante más de un millón de años |publisher=Alianza Editorial |year=2019 |isbn=978-84-9181-602-7 |location=Madrid |pages=17–37 |oclc=1120111673}}</ref>

The end of Iberian prehistory coincides with the first entrance of the [[Roman people|Roman]] army into the peninsula, in 218 [[Before Christ|BC]], which led to the progressive dissolution of [[Pre-Roman People of the Iberian Peninsula|pre-Roman peoples]] in Roman culture. This end date is also conventional, since [[Paleohispanic scripts|pre-Roman writing systems]] can be traced to as early as 5th century BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Valério |first=Miguel |date=2008 |title=Origin and development of the Paleohispanic scripts: the orthography and phonology of the Southwestern alphabet |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3339686 |journal=Revista portuguesa de arqueologia |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=107–138 |issn=0874-2782}}</ref>

== Overview == Prehistory in Iberia spans around 60 percent of the [[Quaternary]], with [[written history]] occupying just 0.08 percent. For the other 40 percent, it was uninhabited by humans.<ref name=":0" /> The [[Pleistocene]], first [[Geologic time scale#Divisions of geologic time|epoch]] of Quaternary, was characterized by [[Quaternary glaciation|climate oscillations]] between [[ice age]]s and [[interglacial]]s that produced significant changes in Iberia's [[orography]]. The first and biggest period in Iberia's prehistory is the [[Paleolithic]], which starts {{Circa}} 1.3 Ma and ends almost coinciding with Pleistocene's ending, {{Circa}} 11,500 years ago (11.5 [[Year#SI prefix multipliers|ka]]). Significant evidence of an extended occupation of Iberia during this period by ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' has been discovered. The first remains of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' have been dated from towards the end of the Paleolithic.{{When|date=January 2026|reason=Could we be more specific?}} For a time, around 5 ka, both [[species]] coexisted, until the former was finally driven to extinction.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Crespo Garay |first=Cristina |date=2021-11-27 |title=¿Qué homínidos han poblado España a lo largo de la historia? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.es/historia/que-hominidos-han-habitado-en-espana-a-lo-largo-de-la-historia |access-date=2023-03-07 |publisher=[[National Geographic]] |language=es-es}}</ref>

[[Holocene]] followed Pleistocene with a more homogeneous and humid climate, and the exclusive presence of ''Homo sapiens''. It includes [[Mesolithic]] ({{Circa}} 11.5 ka ago - 5.6 ka BC), [[Neolithic]] ({{Circa}} 5.6 - 3.2 ka BC) and the [[Metal Ages|Metal Age]]s: [[Chalcolithic]] or Copper Age ({{Circa}} 3.2 - 1.9 ka BC), [[Bronze Age]] ({{Circa}} 1.9 ka - 750 BC) and [[Iron Age]] ({{Circa}} 750 - 218 BC). The Mesolithic and Chalcolithic are transition periods, where characteristics of both the preceding and following ages can be found. Holocene hosted several progressive transformations: territorial and cultural differentiation among ''Homo sapiens'' groups, birth of new [[social organization]]s and [[Economy|economies]], transition from [[hunting-gathering]] to [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]], and arrival of new peoples from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[central Europe]], with foundation of [[Colony|colonies]].<ref name=":0" />

There are prehistoric remains scattered throughout the peninsula. Of notable importance is the [[archaeological site of Atapuerca]], in northern [[Spain]], containing a million years of [[human evolution]] and declared [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]] in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archaeological Site of Atapuerca |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/989/ |access-date=8 March 2023 |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

== Paleolithic == {{main|Paleolithic Iberia}}

=== Lower Paleolithic === The [[Lower Paleolithic]] begins in Iberia with the first human habitation {{Circa}}1.3 Ma ago, and ends conventionally 128 ka ago,<ref name=":0" /> making it the longest period of Iberia's Paleolithic. It is mainly studied from the human [[fossil]]s and [[stone tool]]s found at archaeological sites, of which Atapuerca is of significant importance. It contains many animal and ''[[Homo antecessor]]'' fossils showing signs of stone tool manipulation for reaching the [[spinal cord]], which constitute the first evidence of [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]] among ''Homo''.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |date=2022 |title=Atapuerca |url=https://www.despertaferro-ediciones.com/revistas/numero/arqueologia-e-historia-45-atapuerca-prehistoria/ |journal=Desperta Ferro Arqueología e Historia |volume=45 |issn=2387-1237}}</ref>

At [[Sima de los huesos|Sima de los Huesos]] archaeologists have found ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' fossils, dated {{circa}} 430 ka ago, corresponding to around 30 individuals and with neither evidence of habitation nor of a catastrophic event, thus being hypothesized as the first evidence of ''Homo'' burial.<ref name=":4" /> [[DNA]] analysis from these fossils also suggest a process of continuous [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] among ''Homo'' [[species]] throughout this period, until the final arrival of ''Homo neanderthalensis''.<ref name=":4" />

=== Middle Paleolithic === [[Middle Paleolithic]] ({{Circa}} 128 – 40 ka ago) is dominated by an extended occupation of Iberia by ''Homo neanderthalensis'' or, more popularly, ''Neanderthals'', who had a heavier body, higher [[Lung volumes|lung volume]] and a bigger [[brain]] than ''Homo sapiens''. [[Gorham's Cave|Gorham's cave]] ([[Gibraltar]]) contains ''Neanderthal'' rock art, suggesting they had higher [[Symbolic communication|symbolic]] thought abilities than it was previously supposed. This period, like the previous one, is mainly studied from fossils and stone tools, which evolve into Mode 3 or [[Mousterian]]. There is no extended usage of [[bone]] or [[antler]]s for tool fabrication, and very little [[wood]] usage evidence remains because of [[decomposition]].

By contrast with Lower Paleolithic, when habitation was usually in open air and caves were used circumstantially (burial, tool fabrication, [[butcher]]ing), throughout this period caves are increasingly used for habitation, with remains of archaic home conditioning.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Menéndez |first=Mario |title=Prehistoria de la Península Ibérica : el progreso de la cognición, el mestizaje y las desigualdades durante más de un millón de años |publisher=Alianza Editorial |year=2019 |isbn=978-84-9181-602-7 |location=Madrid |oclc=1120111673}}</ref> The [[Châtelperronian]] culture, mostly found in southern [[France]], is contemporaneous to the period of time when both ''Homo neanderthalensis'' and ''Homo sapiens'' coexisted in Europe, and thus at first it was attributed to the latter, but the discovery of a full skeleton from the former changed its attribution to ''Homo neanderthalensis''.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Roussel |first1=M. |last2=Soressi |first2=M. |last3=Hublin |first3=J. -J. |date=2016-06-01 |title=The Châtelperronian conundrum: Blade and bladelet lithic technologies from Quinçay, France |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248416000270 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |language=en |volume=95 |pages=13–32 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.003 |pmid=27260172 |bibcode=2016JHumE..95...13R |issn=0047-2484|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some academics prefer to call it late Mousterian, and there is a debate on whether to consider it either a proper or a transitional industry, since chronologically it belongs to Middle Paleolithic but it shows characteristics of Upper Paleolithic industries.<ref name=":6" />

=== Upper Paleolithic === [[File:Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain-110113.jpg|alt=Paleolithic cave art|thumb|Paleolithic cave art]]

[[Upper Paleolithic]] ({{Circa}} 40 - 11.5 ka ago) starts with the [[Aurignacian]] culture, which is mostly found in northern Iberia (current [[Asturias]], [[Cantabria]], [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] and [[Catalonia]]) in the beginning, and is the work of ''Homo sapiens''. It later expands throughout all of the Iberian peninsula and is followed by the [[Gravettian]]. In Cantabria most Gravettian remains are found mixed with Aurignacian technology, thus it is considered "intrusive", in contrast with the Mediterranean area, where it probably means a real colonization.<ref name="Jordá">F. Jordá Cerdá et al., ''Historia de España I: Prehistoria'', 1986. {{ISBN|84-249-1015-X}}</ref> The first indications of modern human colonization of the interior and the west of the peninsula are found only in this cultural phase.

Because of the [[Last Glacial Maximum|last glacial maximum]], western Europe was isolated and developed the [[Solutrean]] culture, which shows its earliest appearances in Les Mallaetes ([[Valencian Community|Valencia]]), with radiocarbon date 20,890 BP.<ref name="Jordá" /> In northern Iberia there are two markedly different tendencies in Asturias and the [[Vasco-Cantabrian]] area. Important sites are [[Altamira (cave)|Altamira]] and [[Santimamiñe]]. The next phase is [[Magdalenian culture|Magdalenian]], even if in the Mediterranean area the Gravettian influence is still persistent.<ref name="Jordá" /> In Portugal there have been some findings north of [[Lisbon]] (Casa da Moura, Lapa do Suão).<ref name="Jordá" />

===Art=== [[Image:Techo de Altamira (replica)-Museo Arqueológico Nacional.jpg|thumb|[[Altamira Cave]] ceiling]]

Iberia is host of impressive Paleolithic [[Cave art|cave]] and [[rock art]]. [[Altamira Cave|Altamira cave]] is the most well-known example of the former, being a [[World Heritage Site]] since 1985.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/310/ |access-date=2023-03-08 |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Côa Valley]], in [[Portugal]], and [[Siega Verde]], in Spain, formed around [[Tributary|tributaries]] into [[Douro]], contain the best preserved rock art, forming together another World Heritage Site since 1998.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |title=Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley and Siega Verde |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/866 |access-date=8 March 2023 |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]]}}</ref> Artistic manifestation is found most importantly in the northern [[Cantabria]]n area, where the earliest manifestations, for example the [[Caves of Monte Castillo]] are as old as Aurignacian times. The practice of this mural art increases in frequency in the Solutrean period, when the first animals are drawn, but it is not until the Magdalenian cultural phase when it becomes truly widespread, being found in almost every cave.

Most of the representations are of animals (bison, horse, deer, bull, reindeer, goat, bear, mammoth, moose) and are painted in ochre and black colors but there are exceptions and human-like forms as well as abstract drawings also appear in some sites. In the Mediterranean and interior areas, the presence of mural art is not so abundant but exists as well since the Solutrean. The monumental Côa Valley has [[petroglyph]]s dating up to 22,000 years ago. These document continuous human occupation from the end of the Paleolithic Age. Other examples include [[Chimachias]], [[Cueva de los Casares|Los Casares]] or [[Cueva de La Pasiega|La Pasiega]], or, in general, the caves principally in Cantabria (in Spain).

<gallery> File:Teverga 06.jpg|Paleolithic sculpture File:Teverga 08.jpg|Paleolithic sculpture </gallery>

==Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic== {{One source section | date = March 2023 }}{{See also|Epipalaeolithic Europe|Mesolithic Europe}} [[File:Art rupestre chimiachas.jpg|thumb|Chimiachas rock painting]]

Around 10,000 BC, an interstadial [[Glaciation|deglaciation]] called the [[Allerød Oscillation]] occurred, weakening the rigorous conditions of the [[Last glacial period|last ice age]]. This climatic change also represents the end of the [[Upper Palaeolithic]] period, beginning the [[Epipaleolithic]]. Depending on the terminology preferred by any particular source, the [[Mesolithic]] begins after the Epipaleolithic, or includes it. If the Epipaleolithic is not included in it, the Mesolithic is a relatively brief period in Iberia.

As the [[climate]] became warmer, the late Magdalenian peoples of Iberia modified their technology and culture. The main techno-cultural change is the process of [[microlith]]ization: the reduction of size of stone and bone tools, also found in other parts of the World. Also the cave sanctuaries seem to be abandoned and art becomes rarer and mostly done on portable objects, such as pebbles or tools.

It also implies changes in diet, as the [[megafauna]] virtually disappears when the steppe becomes woodlands. In this period, hunted animals are of smaller size, typically deer or wild goats, and seafood becomes an important part of the diet where available.

===Azilian and Asturian=== The first Epipaleolithic culture is the [[Azilian]], also known as ''microlaminar microlithism'' in the Mediterranean. This culture is the local evolution of Magdalenian, parallel to other regional derivatives found in Central and Northern Europe. Originally found in the old Magdalenian territory of [[Vasco-Cantabria]] and the wider [[Franco-Cantabrian region]], Azilian-style culture eventually expanded to parts of Mediterranean Iberia as well. It reflected a much warmer climate, leading to thick woodlands, and the replacement of large herd animals with smaller and more elusive forest-dwellers.

An archetypical Azilian site in the Iberian peninsula is Zatoya ([[Navarre]]), where it is difficult to discern the early Azilian elements from those of late Magdalenian (this transition dated to 11,760 BP).<ref name="Jordá"/> Full Azilian in the same site is dated to 8,150 BP, followed by appearance of geometric elements at a later date, that continue until the arrival of pottery ([[subneolithic]] stage).

In the Mediterranean area, virtually this same material culture is often named ''microlaminar microlithism'' because it lacks of the [[bone industry]] typical of Franco-Cantabrian Azilian. It is found in parts of Catalonia, Valencian Community, Murcia and Mediterranean Andalusia. It has been dated in Les Mallaetes at 10,370 BP.<ref name="Jordá"/>

The [[Asturian culture]] was a successor to the Azilian, moved slightly to the west, whose distinctive tool was a pick-axe for picking [[limpet]]s off rocks.

===Geometrical microlithism=== [[File:064 Pintures de la cova dels Moros, exposició al Museu de Gavà.JPG|thumb|[[Roca dels Moros|The Dance of Cogul]], tracing by [[Henri Breuil]]]] In the late phases of the Epipaleolithic a new trend arrives from the north: the geometrical microlithism, directly related to [[Sauveterrian]] and [[Tardenoisian]] cultures of the [[Rhine]]-[[Danube]] region.

While in the Franco-Cantabrian region it has a minor impact, not altering the Azilian culture substantially, in Mediterranean Iberia and Portugal its arrival is more noticeable. The Mediterranean geometrical microlithism has two facies: * The Filador facies is directly related to French Sauveterrian and is found in Catalonia, north of the Ebro river. * The Cocina facies is more widespread and, in many sites ([[Málaga (province)|Málaga]], Spain), shows a strong dependence of fishing and seafood gathering. The Portuguese sites (south of the Tagus, ''Muge group'') have given dates of c.7350 .<ref name="Jordá"/>

===Art=== {{main|Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin}} The rock art found at over 700 sites along the eastern side of Iberia is the most advanced and widespread surviving from this period, certainly in Europe, and arguably in the world. It is strikingly different from the Upper Palaeolithic art found along the northern coast, with narrative scenes with large numbers of small sketchily painted human figures, rather than the superbly observed individual animal figures that characterise the earlier period.

When it appears in the same scene as animals, the human figure runs towards them. The most common scenes by far are of hunting, and there are scenes of battle and dancing, and possibly agricultural tasks and managing domesticated animals. In some scenes gathering honey is shown, most famously at Cuevas de la Araña en Bicorp (illustrated below). Humans are naked from the waist up, but women have skirts and men sometimes skirts or gaiters or trousers of some sort, and headdresses and masks are sometimes seen, which may indicate rank or status.

==Neolithic== {{See also|Neolithic Europe}} [[File:Dolmen de Menga. Interior 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Dolmen of Menga]], [[Antequera Dolmens Site]], c. 3700 BC.]] In the 6th millennium BC, [[Andalusia]] experienced the arrival of the first agriculturalists. Their origin is uncertain, but they arrived with already developed crops ([[cereals]] and [[legumes]]). The presence of domestic animals instead was unlikely, as only [[pig]] and [[rabbit]] remains have been found, and these could potentially belong to wild animals. They also consumed large amounts of [[olive]]s, but it's uncertain too as to whether this tree was cultivated or merely harvested in its wild form. There is an abundance of [[La Almagra]] style pottery found, with their style being quite variegated.<ref name="Jordá"/>

The Andalusian Neolithic also influenced other areas, notably Southern Portugal, where, soon after the arrival of agriculture, the first [[dolmen]] tombs begin to be built c. 4800 BC, being possibly the oldest of their kind anywhere.<ref name="Jordá"/>

C. 5700 BC, [[Cardium pottery]] Neolithic culture (also known as ''Mediterranean Neolithic'') arrived to Eastern Iberia. While some remains of this culture have been found as far west as Portugal, its distribution is essentially Mediterranean (Catalonia, Valencian region, Ebro valley, Balearic islands).

The interior and the northern coastal areas remained largely marginal as [[agriculture]] spread through the peninsula. In most cases it would only arrive during a very late phase of the Neolithic or even into the Chalcolithic age, together with [[Megalith]]ism.

[[Image:Megalithic Culture.PNG|thumb|An interpretation of the development of the European Megalithic Culture]]

The location of Perdigões, in [[Reguengos de Monsaraz]], is thought to have been an important location. Twenty small ivory statues dating to 4,500 years BP have been discovered there since 2011. It has constructions including a [[necropolis]], dating back to about 5,500 years. Outside of the vicinity of Perdigões, there is also a [[Dolmen|cromlech]].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.publico.pt/Cultura/estatuetas-descobertas-no-alentejo-tem-4500-anos-e-cabem-na-palma-da-mao-1558397 |title = Estatuetas descobertas no Alentejo têm 4500 anos e cabem na palma da mão |author = Lucinda Canelas and Marta Portocarrero |date = 8 August 2012 |access-date = 10 August 2012 |work = [[Público (Portugal)|Público]] |language = pt }}</ref> The [[Almendres Cromlech]] site in [[Évora]], has [[megalith]]s from the late [[6th millennium BC|6th]] to the early 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.igespar.pt/en/patrimonio/pesquisa/geral/patrimonioimovel/detail/69690/ |title = Cromeleque e menir, na Herdade dos Almendres |access-date = 14 August 2012 |work = igespar.pt |publisher = [[Government of Portugal]] |language = pt }}</ref> The [[Anta Grande do Zambujeiro]], also in Évora, is dated to between 4000 and 3000 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.igespar.pt/en/patrimonio/pesquisa/geral/patrimonioimovel/detail/70498/ |title = Anta Grande do Zambujeiro de Valverde |access-date = 14 August 2012 |work = igespar.pt |publisher = [[Government of Portugal]] |language = pt }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id=1233 |title = Anta Grande do Zambujeiro / Anta Grande do Zambujeiro de Valverde |access-date = 14 August 2012 |author = Manuel Branco |year = 1993 |work = Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico (SIPA) |publisher = Instituto da Habitação e da Reabilitação Urbana |language = pt }}</ref> The [[Antequera Dolmens Site|Antequera Dolmens]] date from after c. 3700 BC. The [[Dolmen of Cunha Baixa]], in [[Mangualde Municipality]], is dated between 3000 and 2500 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.monumentos.pt/Site/APP_PagesUser/SIPA.aspx?id=2378 |title = Anta da Cunha Baixa / Casa da Orca |author = Lina Marques |year = 1995 |access-date = 14 August 2012 |work = Sistema de Informação para o Património Arquitectónico (SIPA) |publisher = Instituto da Habitação e da Reabilitação Urbana |language = pt }}</ref> The Cave of Salemas was used as a burial ground during the Neolithic.<ref name="igespar">{{cite web |title=Gruta de Salemas |url=http://arqueologia.igespar.pt/index.php?sid=sitios.resultados&subsid=54492&vt=120614 |access-date=14 August 2012 |work=Portal do Arqueólogo |publisher=[[IGESPAR]] |language=pt}}</ref>

<gallery class="center"> File:Cromeleque dos Almendres - Portugal (4073246028).jpg|[[Almendres Cromlech]], Portugal, 6000-4000 BC File:Dolmen de Soto de Trigueros (48732082068).jpg|[[Dolmen de Soto]], Spain, c. 3000 BC File:Vas amb decoració cardial impresa, Museu de Prehistòria de València.JPG|[[Cardium pottery]], Spain, c.5500 BC File:Fragmento de cerámica impresa de pinta. Cova de l´Or.jpg|Cardium pottery fragment File:Callais necklace, 99+9.jpg|[[Callaïs]] jewellery from southwest Iberia, found at [[Carnac stones|Carnac]] in northwest France. c. 4500 BC File:Venus de Gavà.jpg|Venus de Gavà, [[Sepulcres de fossa culture|Sepulcres de Fossa culture]] </gallery>

==Chalcolithic== {{See also|Chalcolithic Europe}} [[File:Los Millares recreacion cuadro.jpg|thumb|left|A model of the prehistoric town of [[Los Millares]], with its walls. (Andalusia, Spain)|241x241px]]

The [[Chalcolithic Europe|Chalcolithic]] or Copper Age is the earliest phase of [[metallurgy]]. [[Copper]], [[silver]] and [[gold]] started to be worked then, though these soft metals could hardly replace stone tools for most purposes. The Chalcolithic is also a period of increased social complexity and stratification and, in the case of Iberia, that of the rise of the first [[civilization]]s and of extensive exchange networks that would reach to [[Baltic Sea|the Baltic]] and [[Africa]].  The conventional date for the beginning of Chalcolithic in Iberia is c. 3200 BC. In the following centuries, especially in the south of the peninsula, metal goods, often decorative or ritual, become increasingly common. Additionally there is an increased evidence of exchanges with areas far away: [[amber]] from the Baltic and [[ivory]] and [[ostrich]]-egg products from [[Northern Africa]].<ref name="Jordá"/> A notable example in that regard is the [[Tholos de Montelirio#Ivory Lady|Ivory Lady]] from [[Tholos de Montelirio]].

[[File:Dolmen de la Pastora 1.png|thumb|[[Dolmen de la Pastora]], c. 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |date=2018 |last=García Sanjuán |first=Leonardo |title=Assembling the Dead, Gathering the Living: Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Modelling for Copper Age Valencina de la Concepción (Seville, Spain)|volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=179–313 |doi=10.1007/s10963-018-9114-2 |pmid=29962659 |pmc=5984651 |bibcode=2018JWPre..31..179G }}</ref>|215x215px]]

The [[Bell Beaker culture]] was present in Iberia during the Chalcolithic.<ref name="hdp"/> [[Gordon Childe]] interpreted the presence of its characteristic artefact as the intrusion of "missionaries" expanding from Iberia along the Atlantic coast, spreading knowledge of Mediterranean copper metallurgy. Stephen Shennan interpreted their artefacts as belonging to a mobile cultural elite imposing itself over the indigenous substrate populations. Similarly, Sangmeister (1972) interpreted the "Beaker folk" (Glockenbecherleute) as small groups of highly mobile traders and artisans. Christian Strahm (1995) used the term "Bell Beaker phenomenon" (Glockenbecher-Phänomen) as a compromise in order to avoid the term "culture".

The Bell Beaker artefacts at least in their early phase are not distributed across a contiguous areal as is usual for archaeological cultures, but are found in insular concentrations scattered across Europe. Their presence is not associated with a characteristic type of architecture or of burial customs. However, the Bell Beaker culture does appear to coalesce into a coherent archaeological culture in its later phase.

More recent analyses of the "Beaker phenomenon", published since the 2000s, have persisted in describing the origin of the "Beaker phenomenon" as arising from a synthesis of elements, representing "an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background. "Archaeogenetics studies of the 2010s have been able to resolve the "migrationist vs. diffusionist" question to some extent. The study by Olalde et al. (2017) found only "limited genetic affinity" between individuals associated with the Beaker complex in Iberia and in Central Europe, suggesting that migration played a limited role in its early spread from Iberia. However, the same study found that the further dissemination of the mature Beaker complex was very strongly linked to migration. The spread and fluidity of the Beaker culture back and forth between the Rhine and its origin source in the peninsula may have introduced high levels of [[steppe-related ancestry]], resulting in a near-complete transformation of the local gene pool within a few centuries, to the point of replacement of about 90% of the local Mesolithic-Neolithic patrilineal lineages.[[File:Campaniforme M.A.N. 04.JPG|thumb|[[Bell Beaker culture|Bell Beaker]] burial]] [[File:Architectural model of the Castro do Zambujal, Portugal.png|left|thumb|203x203px|[[Castro of Zambujal]]]] The origin of the "Bell Beaker" artefact itself has been traced to the early 3rd millennium. The earliest examples of the "maritime" Bell Beaker design have been found at the Tagus estuary in Portugal, radiocarbon dated to c. the 28th century BC. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around the Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek has recorded late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of seaborne contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. In only a few centuries of their maritime spread, by 2600 BC. they had reached the rich lower Rhine estuary and further upstream into Bohemia and beyond the [[Elbe]] where they merged with [[Corded Ware culture]], as also in the French coast of Provence and upstream the Rhone into the Alps and [[Danube]].

Important Chalcolithic settlements in Iberia include [[Valencina de la Concepción]], [[:es:Marroquíes Bajos|Marroquíes Bajos]] and [[Los Millares]].

A significant Chalcolithic archeological site in Portugal is the [[Castro of Vila Nova de São Pedro]]. Other settlements from this period include Pedra do Ouro and the [[Castro of Zambujal]].<ref name="hdp"/> [[Megalith]]s were created during this period, having started earlier, during the late [[5th millennium BC|5th]], and lasting until the early [[2nd millennium BC]].<ref name="hdp"/> The [[Castelo Velho de Freixo de Numão]], in [[Vila Nova de Foz Côa Municipality]], was populated from about 3000 to 1300 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.igespar.pt/pt/patrimonio/pesquisa/geral/patrimonioimovel/detail/323273/ |title = Castelo Velho de Freixo de Numão |access-date = 14 August 2012 |work = igespar.pt |publisher = [[Government of Portugal]] |language = pt }}</ref> The Cerro do Castelo de Santa Justa, in [[Alcoutim]], is dated to the 3rd millennium BC,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.igespar.pt/pt/patrimonio/pesquisa/geral/patrimonioimovel/detail/69679/ |title = Cerro do Castelo de Santa Justa |access-date = 14 August 2012 |work = igespar.pt |publisher = [[Government of Portugal]] |language = pt }}</ref> between 2400 and 1900 BC.<ref name="hdp"/>

It is also the period of the great expansion of megalithism, with its associated collective burial practices. In the early Chalcolithic period this cultural phenomenon, maybe of religious undertones, expands along the Atlantic regions and also through the south of the peninsula (additionally it's also found in virtually all European Atlantic regions). In contrast, most of the interior and the Mediterranean regions remain refractary to this phenomenon.

Another phenomenon found in the early chalcolithic is the development of new types of funerary monuments: [[Beehive tomb|''tholoi'']] and ''artificial caves''. These are only found in the more developed areas: southern Iberia, from the [[Tagus]] estuary to [[Almería (province)|Almería]], and SE France.

From c. 3000 BC, urban communities began to appear, again especially in the south. The most important ones are [[Los Millares]] in SE Spain and Zambujal (belonging to [[Vila Nova de São Pedro]] culture) in Portuguese [[Estremadura Province (1936-1976)|Estremadura]], that can well be called [[civilization]]s, even if they lack of the literary component.

It is very unclear if any cultural influence originated in the Eastern Mediterranean ([[Cyprus]]?) could have sparked these civilizations. On one side the ''tholos'' does have a precedent in that area (even if not used yet as tomb) but on the other there is no material evidence of any exchange between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean, in contrast with the abundance of goods imported from Northern Europe and Africa.<ref name="Jordá"/>

Since c. 2150 BC, the [[Bell Beaker culture]] intrudes in Chalcolithic Iberia. After the early Corded style beaker, of quite clear Central European origin, the peninsula begins producing its own types of Bell Beaker pottery. Most important is the Maritime or International style that, associated especially with Megalithism, is for some centuries abundant in all the peninsula and southern France.

Since c. 1900 BC, the Bell Beaker phenomenon in Iberia shows a regionalization, with different styles being produced in the various regions: Palmela type in Portugal, Continental type in the plateau and Almerian type in Los Millares, among others.<ref name="Jordá"/>

Like in other parts of Europe, the Bell Beaker phenomenon (speculated to be of trading or maybe religious nature) does not significantly alter the cultures it inserts itself in. Instead the cultural contexts that existed previously continue basically unchanged by its presence.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}

<gallery class="center"> File:Botella, quesera y rejas de arado. Calcolítico. Museo Arqueológico Nacional de España.jpg|Ceramic vessels and tools File:Ídolo calcolítico M.A.N. 07.JPG|[[:de:Schieferplattenidol|Stone idols]], c. 3500-2700 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Owl-like plaques of the Copper Age |journal=Scientific Reports|date=December 2022 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=19227 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-23530-0 |last1=Negro |first1=Juan J. |last2=Blanco |first2=Guillermo |last3=Rodríguez-Rodríguez |first3=Eduardo |pmid=36456596 |pmc=9715531 }}</ref> File:Ídolo oculado (16186809078).jpg|Albaster [[:es:Ídolo de Extremadura|idol from Extremadura]], c. 3500-2700 BC File:Jabalinas de cobre procedentes del Dolmen de la Pastora (Castilleja de Guzmán, Sevilla). 2200-1800 a. C. - M.A.N. 01.jpg|Copper javelins, [[Dolmen de la Pastora]] File:Museo arqueologico Asturias discos de oro.JPG|Gold discs, Bell Beaker culture File:Blell Beaker artefacts 1.jpg|[[Bell Beaker culture|Bell Beaker]] artefacts File:Braçal de arqueiro, verso, Idade do Bronze.jpg|Gold wristguard from Vila Nova de Cerveira, Portugal.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265466361|title=Iberia. Protohistory of the far west of Europe: from Neolithic to Roman conquest|chapter=Bell Beakers in Iberia|date=January 2014|pages=113–124|last1=Garrido Pena|first1=Rafael|editor-last1=Almagro|editor-first1=M.|publisher=Universidad de Burgos. Fundación Atapuerca|isbn=978-84-92681-91-4}}</ref> File:Maqueta tholos Los Millares.jpg|[[Beehive tomb|Tholos]] tomb, [[Los Millares]] File:Stone basin in the chamber of Matarrubilla.png|Stone basin in the [[:it:Dolmen de Matàrrubilla|Matàrrubilla dolmen]] </gallery>

==Bronze Age== {{See also|Bronze Age Europe}} [[Image:Iberia Bronze.gif|thumb|242x242px|Map: Middle Bronze Age Iberia c. 1500 BC. Shows the main cultures, the two main cities and the location of strategic tin mines]] [[Image:Iberia Late Bronze.gif|thumb|242x242px|Map of Iberian Late Bronze Age since c. 1300 BC, showing the main cultural areas. Dots show isolated remains of these cultures outside their main area]]

===Early Bronze=== The center of [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]] technology is in the southeast since c. 1800 BC.<ref name="Jordá"/> There the civilization of [[Los Millares]] was followed by that of [[Argaric culture|El Argar]], initially with no other discontinuity than the displacement of the main urban center some kilometers to the north, the gradual appearance of true [[bronze]] and [[arsenical bronze]] tools and some greater geographical extension. The Argarian people lived in rather large fortified towns or cities.

From this center, bronze technology spread to other areas. Most notable are: * [[South-Western Iberian Bronze]]: in southern Portugal and SW Spain. These poorly defined archaeological horizons show bronze [[dagger]]s and an expansive trend northward. * [[Cogotas I]] culture (Cogotas II is Iron Age Celtic): the [[pastoralism|pastoral]] peoples of the plateau become for the first time culturally unified. Their typical artifact is a rough troncoconic pottery.

Some areas like the civilization of Vila Nova seem to have remained apart from the spread of bronze metallurgy remaining technically in the Chalcolithic period for centuries.

===Middle Bronze=== Basically a continuation of the previous period. The most noticeable change happens in the El Argar civilization, which adopts the Aegean custom of burial in [[pithos|pithoi]].<ref name="Jordá"/> This phase is known as El Argar B, beginning c. 1500 BC.

The Northwest ([[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and northern Portugal), a region that held some of the largest reserves of [[tin]] (needed to make true bronze) in Western Eurasia, became a focus for mining, incorporating bronze technology. Their typical artifacts are bronze axes (Group of Montelavar).

The semi-desert region of [[La Mancha]] shows its first signs of colonization with the fortified scheme of the [[Motillas]] (hillforts). This group is clearly related to the [[:es:Prehistoria en la Comunidad Valenciana#Bronce Valenciano|Bronze of Levante]], showing the same material culture.<ref name="Jordá"/>

===Late Bronze=== C. 1300 BC several major changes happen in Iberia, among them: * The Chalcolithic culture of Vila Nova vanishes, possibly in direct relation to the silting of the canal connecting the main city Zambujal with the sea.<ref>[http://www.dainst.org/index.php?id=595 Deutsches Archälogisches Institut: Zambujal, Torres Vedras] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927003004/http://www.dainst.org/index.php?id=595 |date=2007-09-27 }} (in English)</ref> It is replaced by a non-urban culture, whose main artifact is an externally burnished pottery. * El Argar also disappears as such, what had been a very homogeneous culture, a centralized state for some, becomes an array of many post-Argaric fortified cities. * The Motillas are abandoned. * [[:es:Prehistoria en la Comunidad Valenciana#Bronce Valenciano|Bronze of Levante]] develops in the [[Valencia (autonomous community)|Valencian Community]]. * The [[Celts|proto-Celtic]] [[Urnfield culture]] appears in the North-East, conquering all Catalonia and some neighbouring areas. * The Lower [[Guadalquivir]] valley shows its first clearly differentiated culture, defined by internally burnished pottery. This group might have some relation with [[Tartessos]]. * Western Iberian Bronze cultures show some degree of interaction, not just among them but also with other Atlantic cultures in Britain, France and elsewhere. This has been called the [[Atlantic Bronze Age|Atlantic Bronze complex]].<ref name="Jordá"/>

<gallery class="left"> File:Diadema de Caravaca (26824455541).jpg|Gold diadem, [[El Argar]], Spain, c. 1600 BC File:Espada de Guadalajara. Bronce Pleno. 1600-1300 a. C. - M.A.N. 01.jpg|Sword, [[El Argar]], c. 1600 BC File:El Argar M.A.N. 03.JPG|El Argar pottery File:Panorámica La Bastida (Totana).jpg|[[:es:La Bastida de Totana|La Bastida de Totana]], El Argar, Spain, c. 1600 BC File:La Almoloya.jpg|[[La Almoloya]], El Argar, Spain, c. 1700 BC File:Tholos of El Romeral 1.jpg|[[Tholos de El Romeral|Tholos of El Romeral]], Spain, c. 1800 BC File:Tholos de El Romeral (21561456945).jpg|Tholos of El Romeral, interior File:Tesoro de Villena.jpg|[[Treasure of Villena]], 1300-1000 BC File:Motilla del Azuer (29425303165).jpg|[[Motillas|Motilla del Azuer]], Spain, c. 2200-1500 BC File:Cuencos de Axtroki (M.A.N. 1973-77) 01.jpg|Gold hats or bowls from [[:es:Cuencos de Axtroki|Axtroki]], [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], Spain, c. 1000 BC. File:Colgante de bronce con barca solar procedente de la Necrópolis de Cabezo de Alcalá - M.A.N.jpg|Bronze pendant with [[Solar deity#Solar vessels and chariots|sun ship]] motif, [[Urnfield culture]], Spain File:Museo Pontevedra, Ed. Sarmiento 02-12c.JPG|Gold treasure from Caldas, Spain. [[Atlantic Bronze Age]], c. 1500 BC File:P1010042se.jpg|Bronze weapons, Spain. Atlantic Bronze Age. File:Museo Arqueolóxico do Castelo de San Antón, A Coruña.jpg|[[Casco de Leiro]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Spain. Atlantic Bronze Age, c. 1000 BC File:Sintra collar.jpg|[[Sintra Collar|Sintra collar]], Portugal, c. 10th century BC File:Cauldron1.png|Cauldron from Cantabria, Spain. Atlantic Bronze Age </gallery>

==Iron Age== {{One source section | date = March 2023 }}{{See also|Iron Age Europe}} [[Iron Age Europe|Iron Age]] Iberia has two focuses: the Hallstatt-related Urnfields of the North-East and the [[Phoenicia]]n colonies of the South.

During the Iron Age, considered the [[protohistory]] of the territory, [[Celts]] came, in several waves, possibly starting before 600 BC.<ref name="hdp">{{cite book |title = História de Portugal: Uma Visão Global |last = Garcia |first = José Manuel |year = 1989 |publisher = Editorial Presença |location = Lisboa |isbn = 978-9722309899 |pages = 28–32 }}</ref>

[[Southwest Paleohispanic script]], or Tartessian, seen in [[Algarve]] and [[Lower Alentejo]] from about the late 8th to the 5th century BC, is possibly the oldest script in [[Western Europe]]. It could have come from the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], perhaps from [[Anatolia]] or [[Greece]].<ref name="hdp"/>

[[Tempered steel]] tools were already in use on the Iberian peninsula in late 8th century BC.<ref name="freiburg/steel-2900"> *{{cite web |title=Steel Was Already Used in Europe 2900 Years Ago |date=February 28, 2023 |url=https://kommunikation.uni-freiburg.de/pm-en/press-releases-2023/steel-was-already-used-in-europe-2900-years-ago |website=Office of University and Science Communications |publisher=[[University of Freiburg]] |access-date=5 March 2023 |language=en}} *{{cite journal |last1=Araque Gonzalez |first1=Ralph |last2=Asmus |first2=Bastian |last3=Baptista |first3=Pedro |last4=Mataloto |first4=Rui |last5=Paniego Díaz |first5=Pablo |last6=Rammelkammer |first6=Vera |last7=Richter |first7=Alexander |last8=Vintrici |first8=Giuseppe |title=Stone-working and the earliest steel in Iberia: Scientific analyses and experimental replications of final bronze age stelae and tools |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=April 2023 |volume=152 |article-number=105742 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105742 |s2cid=256815389 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023JArSc.152j5742A }}</ref>

Since the late 8th century BC, the [[Urnfield culture]] of North-East Iberia began to develop iron metallurgy, and eventually elements of [[Hallstatt culture]]. The earliest elements of this culture were found along the lower Ebro river, then gradually expanded upstream to [[La Rioja (autonomous community)|La Rioja]] and in a hybrid local form to [[Alava]]. There was also expansion southward into [[Castelló (province)|Castelló]], with less marked influences reaching further south. Some offshoots have been detected along the [[Iberian Mountains]], possibly a prelude to the formation of the [[Celtiberi]].<ref name="Jordá"/>

In this period, the social differentiation became more visible with evidence of local chiefdoms and a horse-riding elite. These transformations may represent the arrival of a new wave of cultures from central Europe.

From these outposts in the Upper Ebro and the Iberian mountains, Celtic culture expanded into the plateau and the Atlantic coast. Several groups can be described:<ref name="Jordá"/> * The Bernorio-Miraveche group (northern [[Burgos (province)|Burgos]] and [[Palencia (province)|Palencia]] provinces), that would influence the peoples of the northern fringe. * The northwest [[Castro culture]], in Galicia and northern [[Portugal]], a Celtic culture with peculiarities, due to persistence of aspects of an earlier Atlantic Bronze Age culture. * The Duero group, possibly the precursor of the Celtic [[Vaccei]]. * The Cogotas II culture, likely precursor of the Celtic or Celtiberian [[Vettones]] (or a pre-Celtic culture with substantial Celtic influences), a markedly cattle-herder culture that gradually expanded southward into Extremadura. * The Lusitanian culture, the precursor of the [[Lusitani]] tribe, in central Portugal and Extremadura in western Spain. Generally not considered Celtic since [[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]] does not meet some the accepted definitions of a Celtic language.<ref name="koch2011" /> Its relationship with the surrounding Celtic culture is unclear. Some believe it was essentially a pre-Celtic Iberian culture with substantial Celtic influences, while others argue that it was an essentially Celtic culture with strong indigenous pre-Celtic influences. There have been arguments for classifying its language as either Italic, a form of archaic Celtic, or proto-Celtic.

All these Indo-European groups have some common elements, like combed pottery since the 6th century and uniform weaponry.

After c. 600 BC, the Urnfields of the North-East were replaced by the Iberian culture, a process that wasn't completed until the 4th century BC.<ref name="Jordá"/> This physical separation from their continental relatives would mean that the Celts of the Iberian peninsula never received the cultural influences of [[La Tène culture]], including [[Druid]]ism.

===Phoenician colonies and influence=== {{Main|Carthaginian Iberia}}

{{See also|Phoenicians and wine}} [[Image:Anthropoid sarcophagus discovered at Cadiz - Project Gutenberg eText 15052.png|thumb|upright|[[Phoenicia]]n [[sarcophagus]] found in [[Cádiz]]]] The [[Phoenicia]]ns of the [[Levant]], [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] of [[Europe]], and [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]]s of Africa all colonized parts of Iberia to facilitate trade. In the 10th century BC, the first contacts between Phoenicians and Iberia (along the [[Mediterranean]] coast) were made. This century also saw the emergence of [[City|towns and cities]] in the southern littoral areas of eastern Iberia.

The Phoenicians founded the colony of ''Gadir'' (now [[Cádiz]]) near Tartessos. The foundation of Cádiz, the oldest continuously inhabited city in western Europe, is traditionally dated to 1104 BC, though, as of 2004, no [[archaeology|archaeological]] discoveries date back further than the 9th century BC. The Phoenicians continued to use Cádiz as a trading post for several centuries leaving a variety of artifacts, most notably a pair of sarcophaguses from around the 4th or 3rd century BC. Contrary to myth, there is no record of Phoenician colonies west of [[Algarve]] (namely [[Tavira Municipality|Tavira]]), though there might have been some voyages of discovery. Phoenician influence in what is now [[Portugal]] was essentially through cultural and commercial exchange with Tartessos.

In the 9th century BC, the Phoenicians, from the city-state of [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] founded the colony of ''Malaka'' (now [[Málaga]])<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=B7SLWT2vpNcC&q=Phoenician%20Malaka&pg=PA305 |title = The Phoenicians and the West: politics, colonies and trade |first = María Eugenia |last = Aubet|author-link=María Eugenia Aubet|access-date = 26 January 2014 |isbn = 9780521795432 |date = 2001-09-06 |publisher = Cambridge University Press }}</ref> and [[Carthage]] (in [[North Africa]]). During this century, Phoenicians also had great influence on Iberia with the introduction the [[Iron#History|use of Iron]], of the [[Potter's wheel]], the production of [[olive oil]] and [[wine]]. They were also responsible for the first forms of Iberian writing, had great religious influence and accelerated urban development. However, there is no real evidence to support the myth of a Phoenician foundation of the city of [[Lisbon]] as far back as 1300 BC, under the name ''Alis Ubbo'' ("Safe Harbour"), even if in this period there are organized settlements in ''Olissipona'' (modern Lisbon, in [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Estremadura Province (1936-1976)|Estremadura]]) with Mediterranean influences.

There was strong Phoenician influence and settlement in the city of ''Balsa'' (modern [[Tavira Municipality|Tavira]], [[Algarve]]), in the 8th century BC. Phoenician-influenced Tavira was destroyed by violence in the 6th century BC. With the decadence of Phoenician colonization of the [[Mediterranean]] coast of Iberia in the 6th century BC many of the colonies are deserted. The 6th century BC also saw the rise of the colonial might of [[Carthage]], which slowly replaced the Phoenicians in their former areas of dominion.

===Greek colonies=== The Greek colony at what now is [[Marseille]] began trading with the Iberians on the eastern coast around the 8th century BC. The Greeks finally founded their own colony at [[Empúries|Ampurias]], in the eastern [[Mediterranean]] shore (modern [[Catalonia]]), during the 6th century BC beginning their settlement in the Iberian peninsula. There are no Greek colonies west of the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], only voyages of discovery. There is no evidence to support the myth of an ancient Greek founding of ''Olissipo'' (modern [[Lisbon]]) by [[Odysseus]].

===Tartessian culture=== [[File:El Carambolo Treasury - 7th-5th cent. b.C. - Seville - Museo Arqueológico de Sevilla.jpg|thumb|[[Treasure of El Carambolo]], 8th-6th century BC]] [[File:Getty villa 627 (6571480109).jpg|thumb|Winged lion, 500 BC|217x217px]] The name ''Tartessian'', when applied in [[archaeology]] and [[linguistics]], does not necessarily correlate with the semi-mythical city of [[Tartessos]] but only roughly with the area where it is typically assumed it should have been.

The Tartessian culture of southern Iberia is actually the local culture as modified by the increasing influence of eastern Mediterranean elements, especially Phoenician. Its core area is Western Andalusia, but soon extends to Eastern Andalusia, Extremadura and the lands of Murcia and Valencia, where a Tartessian complex, rooted in the local Bronze cultures, is in the last stages of the Bronze Age (9th-8th centuries BC) before Phoenician influence can be seen clearly.

The full Tartessian culture, beginning c.720 BC, also extends to southern Portugal, where is eventually replaced by Lusitanian culture. One of the most significant elements of this culture is the introduction of the [[potter's wheel]], that, along with other related technical developments, causes a major improvement in quality of pottery. There are other major advances in craftsmanship, affecting [[jewelry]], [[weaving]] and [[architecture]].<ref name="Jordá"/> This latter aspects is especially important, as the traditional circular huts were then gradually replaced by well finished rectangular buildings. It also allowed for the construction of the tower-like burial monuments that are so typical of this culture.

Agriculture also seems to have experienced major advances with the introduction of steel tools and, presumably, of the [[yoke]] and animal traction for the [[plow]]. In this period it's noticeable the increase of [[cattle]] accompanied by some decrease of [[sheep]] and [[goat]] types.<ref name="Jordá"/>

Another noticeable element is the major increase in economical specialization and social stratification. This is very noticeable in burials; some show off great wealth (chariots, gold, ivory), while the vast majority are much more modest. There is much diversity in burial rituals in this period but the elites seem to converge in one single style: a chambered mound. Some of the most affluent burials are generally attributed to local monarchs.

One of the developments of this period is writing, a skill which was probably acquired through contact with the Phoenicians. [[John T. Koch]] controversially claimed to have deciphered the extant Tartessian inscriptions and to have tentatively identified the language as an earlier form of the Celtic languages now spoken in the British Isles and Brittany in the book 'Celtic from the West', published in 2010.<ref name=koch2010>{{cite book |last = Koch |first = John T |title = Celtic from the West Chapter 9: Paradigm Shift? Interpreting Tartessian as Celtic |year = 2010 |publisher = Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK |isbn = 978-1-84217-410-4 |pages = 187–295 }}</ref><ref name=koch2011>{{cite book |last = Koch |first = John T |title = Tartessian 2: The Inscription of Mesas do Castelinho ro and the Verbal Complex. Preliminaries to Historical Phonology |year = 2011 |url = http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/91450//Location/Oxbow |publisher = Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK |isbn = 978-1-907029-07-3 |pages = 1–198 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110723195518/http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/91450//Location/Oxbow |archive-date = 2011-07-23 }}</ref> However, the linguistic mainstream continues to treat Tartessian as an unclassified, possibly [[Pre-Indo-European languages|pre-Indo-European]] language, and Koch's decipherment of the Tartessian script and his theory for the evolution of Celtic has been strongly criticized.<ref name=Broderick>{{cite book |last = Broderick |first = George |editor-first = Uwe |editor-last = Hinrichs |title = Das Handbuch der Eurolinguistik |edition = 1st |year = 2010 |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |location = Wiesbaden, Germany |language = de |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3VDH7oKtViYC&pg=PA305|isbn=978-3-447-05928-2 |pages = 304–305 |contribution = Die vorrömischen Sprachen auf der iberischen Halbinsel }}</ref>

===Iberian culture=== {{Main|Iberians}}

[[File:Dama de Elche.jpg|thumb|The [[Lady of Elche]], 4th century BC|266x266px]]

In the [[Iberian culture]] people were organized in chiefdoms and states. Three phases can be identified: the Ancient, the Middle and the Late Iberian period.

With the arrival of Greek influence, not limited to their few colonies, the Tartessian culture begins to transform itself, especially in the South East. This late period is known as the Iberian culture, that in Western Andalusia and the non-Celtic areas of Extremadura is called Ibero-Turdetanian because of its stronger links with the Tartessian substrate.

Greek influence is visible in the gradual change of the style of [[Iberian sculpture|their monuments]] that approach more and more the models arrived from the Greek world.<ref name="Jordá"/> Thus the obelisk-like funerary monuments of the previous period now adopt a column like form, totally in line with Greek architecture.

By mid 5th century, aristocratic power was increased and resulted in the abandonment and transformation of the orientalizing model. The [[oppidum]] appeared and became the socio-economic model of the aristocratic class. The commerce was also one of the principal sources of aristocratic control and power. In the southeast, between the end of the 5th and the end of the 4th century BC, appeared a highly hierarchical aristocratic society. There were different forms of political control. The power and control seemed to be in the hand of kings or reguli.

Iberian funerary customs are dominated by [[cremation]] necropolis, that are partly due to the persistent influences of the [[Urnfield culture]], but they also include burial customs imported from the Greek cultural area (mudbrick rectangular mound).<ref name="Jordá"/>

[[File:MurallesUllastret.JPG|thumb|Remains of the walls of [[Ullastret]], Catalonia, c. 250 BC|201x201px]]

Urbanism was important in the Iberian cultural area, especially in the south, where Roman accounts mention hundreds of ''oppida'' (fortified towns). In these towns (some quite large, some mere fortified villages) the houses were typically arranged in contiguous blocks, in what seems to be another Urnfield cultural influx.

The [[Iberian script]] evolved from the Tartessian one with Greek influences that are noticeable in the transformation of some characters. In a few cases a variant of [[Greek alphabet]] (Ibero-Ionian script) was used to write [[Iberian language|Iberian]] as well.

The transformation from Tartessian to Iberian culture was not sudden but gradual and was more marked in the East, where it begins in the 6th century BC, than in the south-west, where it is only noticeable since the 5th century BC and much more tenuous. A special case is the northeast where the Urnfield culture was Iberized but keeping some elements from the Indo-European substrate.<ref name="Jordá"/>

===Post-Tartessos Iron Age=== [[Image:Iberia 300BC-en.svg|thumb|right|331x331px|Main language areas of pre-Roman Iberia, according to epigraphy and toponymy.]]

Also in the 6th century BC there was a cultural shift in southwest Iberia (southern Portugal and nearby parts of Andalusia) after Tartessos fell; with a strong Mediterranean character that prolonged and modified Tartessian culture. This occurred mainly in Low [[Alentejo]] and [[Algarve]], but had littoral extensions up to the [[Sado River|Sado]] mouth (namely the important city of ''Bevipo'', modern [[Alcácer do Sal]]). The first form of writing in western Iberia (south of [[Portugal]]), the [[Southwest Paleohispanic script]] (still to be translated), dated to the 6th century BC, denotes strong Tartessian influence in its use of a modified [[Phoenician alphabet]]. In these writings the word "Conii" (similar to Cunetes or [[Cynetes]], the people of [[Algarve]]) appears frequently.

In the 4th century BC, the [[Celtici]] appear, a late expansion of Celtic culture into the southwest (southern [[Extremadura]], [[Alentejo]] and northern [[Algarve]]). The [[Turduli]] and [[Turdetani]], probably descendants of the Tartessians, though Celticized, became established in the area of the [[Guadiana]] river, in southern Portugal. A series of cities in Algarve, such as ''Balsa'' (Tavira), ''Baesuris'' ([[Castro Marim]]), ''Ossonoba'' ([[Faro, Portugal|Faro]]) and ''Cilpes'' ([[Silves, Portugal|Silves]]), became inhabited by the [[Cynetes]].

===Arrival of Romans and Punic Wars=== {{main|Carthaginian Iberia}}

In the 4th century BC, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] began to rise as a [[Mediterranean]] power rival to the [[North Africa]]n based [[Carthage]]. After suffering defeat to the Romans in the [[First Punic War]] (264–241 BC), the Carthaginians began to extend their power into the interior of Iberia from their south eastern coastal settlements but this empire was to be short lived. In 218 BC the [[Second Punic War]] started and the Carthaginian general [[Hannibal]] marched his armies, which included Iberians, from Iberia, across the Pyrenees and the Alps and attacked the Romans in Italy. Starting in the north-east, Rome began its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

==See also== * [[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula]] * [[Timeline of Portuguese history]] * [[Timeline of Spanish history]] * [[Prehistory of the Valencian Community]]

==References== {{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading== * [[:pt:José Mattoso|Mattoso, José]] (dir.), ''História de Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes de Portugal'', Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores, 1992. (in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]])

==External links== {{Commons category|Prehistoric Iberia}} * [http://atlasnacional.ign.es/wane/Archivo:Espana_Segunda-Edad-de-Hierro.-Pueblos-prerromanos_2014_mapa_13985-00_spa.jpg Detailed map of the pre-Roman peoples of Iberia in the Iron Age (National Geographic Institute of Spain, in spanish)] * [https://www.atapuerca.org/ Atapuerca Foundation]

{{Prehistoric Europe}} {{Spain topics|state=collapsed}} {{Portugal topics|state=collapsed}} {{Pre-Roman peoples in Iberia}}