Pratihara dynasty

{{Short description|Northern Indian dynasty (730–1036)}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}} {{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}} {{Infobox former country | conventional_long_name = Gurjara Pratihara dynasty | common_name = Gurjara Pratihara | continent = | region = | era = Medieval India | religion = Hinduism | status = Empire | government_type = Monarchy | title_leader = | leader1 = Nagabhata I (first) | year_leader1 = {{circa|730}}–{{circa|760}} | leader2 = Yasahpala (last) | year_leader2 = {{circa|1024}}–{{circa|1036}} | year_start = {{circa|730}} | year_end = 1036 | event2 = Conquest of Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni | date_event2 = 1018 | p1 = Chavda dynasty | p2 = Varman dynasty of Kannauj | s1 = Pala Empire | s2 = Chandela dynasty | s3 = Paramara dynasty | s4 = Kalachuris of Tripuri | s5 = Tomara dynasty | s6 = Chavda dynasty | s7 = Chahamanas of Shakambhari | s8 = Ghaznavid Empire | s9 = Guhila dynasty | image_map = {{Location map+ |South Asia |overlay_image= Map of the Gurjara-Pratiharas (circa 800-950 CE).png | width=290  | float = center | border =none | nodiv = 1 | mini = 1 | relief = yes | places = {{Annotation|230|5|South-Asia 800–950 CE|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|125|180|PALLAVAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|115|225|PANDYAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|125|200|CHOLAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|105|210|CHERAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|70|34|HINDU SHAHIS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|150|155|KALINGAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|100|40|UTPALAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|170|45|TIBETAN EMPIRE|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|140|2|TANG DYNASTY|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|230|110|PALAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|145|135|KALACHURIS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|60|65|MULTAN EMIRATE|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|35|100|HABBARI EMIRATE|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|95|165|RASHTRAKUTAS|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|5|45|SAFFARID SULTANATE|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}} {{Annotation|262|250| ◁ ▷ |text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}} |caption={{center|Extent of the Pratihara Empire at its peak ({{circa|800—950}} CE) and neighbouring polities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (i)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183}}</ref>}} }} | image_map_alt = Extent of the Pratihara Empire | image_map_caption = | map_width = 300px | image_coat = Pratihara_bhoja.JPG | coa_size = 250px | symbol_type = Gurjara-Pratihara coinage of Mihira Bhoja, King of Kanauj. Obv: Boar, incarnation of Vishnu, and solar symbol. Rev: Traces of Sasanian type. Legend: ''Srímad Ādi Varāha'' "The fortunate primaeval boar".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Vincent Arthur |last2=Edwardes |first2=S. M. (Stephen Meredyth) |title=The early history of India : from 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan conquest, including the invasion of Alexander the Great |date=1924 |publisher=Oxford : Clarendon Press |page=Plate 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofi00smit/page/76}}</ref><ref name="HPR164">{{cite book |last1=Ray |first1=Himanshu Prabha |title=Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History |date=2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781000227932 |pages=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT162 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr B. |title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter |date=20 March 2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18074-8 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MhJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |language=en}}</ref> | capital = {{plainlist| *Avanti *Kannauj }} | common_languages = Sanskrit, Prakrit | today = {{ubl|India|Bangladesh|Nepal}} | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = }}

The '''Pratihara dynasty''', also called the '''Gurjara-Pratiharas''', the '''Pratiharas of Kannauj''' or the '''Imperial Pratiharas''', was a prominent medieval Indian dynasty which initially ruled the Gurjaradesa until its victory in the Tripartite Struggle in 816 which secured its right to the throne of Kannauj. Cadet branches of the dynasty ruled other minor states in the subcontinent.

The Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River.<ref>{{cite book|title=Al-Hind: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries |first=André |last=Wink |location=Leiden |publisher=BRILL |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-391-04173-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA284 |page=284}}</ref> Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin in the Caliphate campaigns in India. Under Nagabhata II, the Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara dynasty reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the Gupta Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south.{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=303}}{{sfn|Sircar|1971|p=146}} The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title of ''Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta'' (''Great King of Kings of Aryan Lands'').

Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples. The greatest development of their style of temple building was at Khajuraho, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.<ref name="Partha Mitter pp. 66">Partha Mitter, Indian art, Oxford University Press, 2001 pp. 66</ref>

The power of the Pratihara dynasty was weakened by dynastic strife. It was further diminished as a result of a great raid led by the Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III who, in about 916, sacked Kannauj. Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the dynasty never regained its former influence. Their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their allegiance until, by the end of the tenth century, the dynasty controlled little more than the Gangetic Doab. Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018.{{sfn|Sircar|1971|p=146}}

== Etymology and origin == {{Main|Origin of the Gurjara-Pratiharas}} [[File:A panel depicting the Saptamatrikas , Kannauj,9th-10 century, Pratihara dynasty.jpg|thumb|A panel depicting the Saptamatrikas, Kannauj, 9th-10 century, Pratihara dynasty]] The origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term "Gurjara" in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan, and never referred to themselves as Gurjaras.{{sfn|Sanjay Sharma|2006|p=188}} They claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana, who is said to have acted as a ''pratihara'' ("door-keeper") for his brother Rama.{{sfn|Tripathi|1959|p=223}}{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=7}} <ref>{{cite book |last=Agnihotri |first=V. K. |year=2010 |title=Indian History |volume=26 |page=B8 |quote=Modern historians believed that the name was derived from one of the kings of the line holding the office of Pratihara in the Rashtrakuta court}}</ref>

Multiple inscriptions of their neighbouring dynasties describe the Pratiharas as "Gurjara".{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=9-13}} The term "Gurjara-Pratihara" occurs only in the Rajor inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva, who describes himself as a "Gurjara-Pratihara". According to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory (see Gurjara-desha) originally ruled by the Pratiharas; gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory is that Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, and Pratihara was a clan of this tribe.{{sfn|Majumdar|1981|pp=612–613}}

Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are disagreements over whether they were native Indians or foreigners.{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=1-2}} The proponents of the foreign origin theory point out that the Pratihars suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the Hunas invasion of that region.{{sfn|Puri|1957|p=2}} According to them Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian elements, and can probably be considered as a Hunnic state, although its precise origins remain unclear.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun Jin |title=The Huns |date=19 November 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34091-1 |pages=62–64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |language=en|quote="Although it is not certain, it also seems likely that the formidable Gurjara Pratihara regime (ruled from the seventh-eleventh centuries AD) of northern India, may had a powerful White Hunnic element. The Gurjara Pratiharas who were likely created from a fusion of White Hunnic and native Indian elements, ruled a vast Empire in northern India, and they also halted Arab Muslim expansion in India through Sind for centuries..."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=André |title=Al-hind: The Making of the Indo-islamic World |date=1991 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |page=279 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA279 |language=en}}</ref> Critics of the foreign origin theory argue that there is no conclusive evidence of their foreign origin: they were well-assimilated in the Indian culture. Moreover, if they invaded India through the north-west, it is inexplicable why would they choose to settle in the semi-arid area of present-day Rajasthan, rather than the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain.{{sfn|Puri|1957|pp=4–6}} While scholars such as R.K. Gupta and S.R Bakshi who have doubted the theory of foreign origin for Gurjaras have also opined that Gurjara-Pratiharas were among the first Rajput dynasties.<ref name="heritageofrajputs" >{{cite book|series=Studies In Indian History: Rajasthan Through The Ages|title=The Heritage Of Rajputs|volume=1|publisher=Sarup & Sons|year=2008|first1=R.K.|last1=Gupta|first2=S.R.|last2= Bakshi|publication-place=New Delhi|isbn=9788176258418|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHNoU2zcDnIC|chapter=Origin of Rajputs|quote=The Gurjara-Pratiharas were chronologically the earliest, and historically the most important of the Rajput dynasties.|page=3}}</ref>

The Agnivansha legend first recorded in the 11th century ''Navasahananka charita'' by Padmagupta narrates the official origin for the Parmara dynasty. This legend was later appropriated by other dynasties including Chaulukyas, eventually making its way into Prithviraj Raso.<ref name="heritageofrajputs"/>{{rp|6-8}}According to the legend, the Pratiharas, Parmar, Chauhan and Chaulukya dynasties originated from a sacrificial fire-pit (agnikunda) at Mount Abu. Some colonial-era historians interpreted this myth to suggest a foreign origin for these dynasties. According to this theory, the foreigners were admitted in the Hindu caste system after performing a fire ritual.{{sfn|Yadava|1982|p=35}} However, this legend is not found in the earliest available copies of ''Prithviraj Raso''. It is based on a Paramara legend composed when the threat of Muslim invasions was not considered serious by Rajput states of North West and Central India.<ref name="heritageofrajputs"/>{{rp|9-10}} This legend was utilised in the 16th century by bards to claim a heroic descent of clans in order to foster Rajput unity against the Mughals.{{sfn|Singh|1964|pp=17–18}}

== History == thumb|Pashupatinath, Uttar Pradesh, 9th -10th century, Pratihara dynasty [[File:Vishnu and Lakshmi bronze, 10th-11th Century, Pratihara dynasty.jpg|thumb|Vishnu and Lakshmi bronze, 10th-11th century, Pratihara dynasty]] thumb|300x300px|Extent of the Pratihara Empire at its peak ({{circa|800—950}} CE) and neighbouring polities. The original centre of Pratihara power is a matter of controversy. R. C. Majumdar, on the basis of a verse in the Harivamsha-Purana, 783 CE, the interpretation of which he conceded was not free from difficulty, held that Vatsaraja ruled at Ujjain.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Majumdar|first1=R.C.|title=The Age of Imperial Kanauj|date=1955|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|pages=21–22|edition=First}}</ref> Dasharatha Sharma, interpreting it differently located the original capital in the Bhinmala Jalor area.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Dasharatha|title=Rajasthan through the Ages|date=1966|publisher=Rajasthan State Archives|location=Bikaner|pages=124–30}}</ref> M. W. Meister<ref>{{cite book|last1=Meister|first1=M.W|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. 2, pt.2, North India: Period of Early Maturity, c. AD 700–900|date=1991|publisher=American Institute of Indian Studies|location=Delhi|isbn=0195629213|page=153|edition=first}}</ref> and Shanta Rani Sharma<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Shanta Rani|title=Origin and Rise of the Imperial Pratihāras of Rajasthan: Transitions, Trajectories and Historical Chang|date=2017|publisher=University of Rajasthan|location=Jaipur|isbn=978-93-85593-18-5|pages=77–78|edition=First}}</ref> concur with his conclusion since the writer of the Jaina narrative ''Kuvalayamala'' states that it was composed at Jalor in the time of Vatsaraja in 778 CE, which is five years before the composition of Harivamsha-Purana.

=== Early rulers === thumb|Trivikrama, Pratihara, 11th c. CE, Kashipur- UP Nagabhata I (739–760), was originally perhaps a feudatory of the Chavdas of Bhillamala. He gained prominence after the downfall of the Chavda kingdom in the course of resisting the invading forces led by the Arabs who controlled Sindh. Nagabhata Pratihara I (730–756) later extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering Malwa as far as Gwalior and the port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at Avanti in Malwa, and checked the expansion of the Arabs, who had established themselves in Sind. In this battle (738 CE), Nagabhata led a confederacy of Pratiharas to defeat the Muslim Arabs who had till then been pressing on victorious through West Asia and Iran. An inscription by Mihira Bhoja ascribes Nagabhata with having appeared like Vishnu "in response to the prayers of the oppressed people to crush the large armies of the powerful Mleccha ruler, the destroyer of virtue".<ref>A New History of Rajasthan, Rima Hooja pg – 270–274 University of Rajasthan</ref> Nagabhata I was followed by two weak successors, his nephews Devraj and Kakkuka, who were in turn succeeded by Vatsraja (775–805).

=== Resistance to the Caliphate === {{Main|Caliphate campaigns in India|Caliphal province of Sind}}

In the Gwalior inscription, it is recorded that Pratihara emperor Nagabhata "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king." This large army consisted of cavalry, infantry, siege artillery, and probably a force of camels. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of Syrian cavalry from Damascus, local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the Turkics. All together the invading army may have had anywhere between 10 and 15,000 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and 2000 camels.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

The Arab chronicler Sulaiman describes the army of the Pratiharas as it stood in 851 CE, "The ruler of Gurjara maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of rulers. Among the princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous."<ref name="Chaurasia">{{cite book |title=History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D. |first=Radhey Shyam |last=Chaurasia |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |year=2002 |page=207 |isbn=978-81-269-0027-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207}}</ref>

===Conquest of Kannauj and further expansion=== thumb|300px|The Kanauj triangle. After bringing much of Rajasthan under his control, Vatsaraja embarked to become "master of all the land lying between the two seas." Contemporary Jijasena's ''Harivamsha Purana'' describes him as "master of western quarter".<ref name="8129108909_p274-278">{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan |pages=274–278 |isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

According to the Radhanpur Plate and Prithviraja Vijaya, Vatsaraja led an expedition against the Palas under Dharmapala of Bengal As such, the Palas came into conflict from time to time with the Imperial Pratiharas. According to the above inscription Dharmapala, was deprived of his two white Royal Umbrellas, and fled, followed by the Pratihara forces under general Durlabharaja Chauhan of Shakambhari. The Prithviraja Vijaya mentions Durlabhraj I as having "washed his sword at the confluence of the river Ganga and the ocean, and savouring the land of the Gaudas". The Baroda Inscription (AD 812) states Nagabhata defeated the Dharmapala. Through vigorous campaigning, Vatsraj had extended his dominions to include a large part of northern India, from the Thar Desert in the west up to the frontiers of Bengal in the east.<ref name="8129108909_p274-278"/>

The metropolis of Kannauj had suffered a power vacuum following the death of Harsha without an heir, which resulted in the disintegration of the Empire of Harsha. This space was eventually filled by Yashovarman around a century later but his position was dependent upon an alliance with Lalitaditya Muktapida. When Muktapida undermined Yashovarman, a tri-partite struggle for control of the city developed, involving the Pratiharas, whose territory was at that time to the west and north, the Palas of Bengal in the east and the Rashtrakutas, whose base lay at the south in the Deccan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chopra |first=Pran Nath |title=A Comprehensive History of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA194|year=2003 |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |pages=194–195}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Hermann |last1=Kulke |author1-link=Hermann Kulke |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |author2-link=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&pg=PA114 |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |publisher=Routledge |orig-year=1986 |year=2004 |edition=4th |page=114}}</ref> Vatsaraja successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta king, for control of Kannauj.

Around 786, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva (c. 780–793) crossed the Narmada River into Malwa, and from there tried to capture Kannauj. Vatsraja was defeated by the Dhruva Dharavarsha of the Rashtrakuta dynasty around 800. Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II (805–833), who was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III (793–814), but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas, conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, and again checked the Muslims in the west. He rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from Sindh. Kannauj became the center of the Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak of their power, c. 836–910.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

=== Mihira Bhoja === {{Main|Mihira Bhoja}}

[[File:Teli ka mandir fort Gwalior - panoramio - Gyanendrasinghchauha… (1).jpg|thumb|Teli ka Mandir is a Hindu Temple built by Mihira Bhoja.<ref name="Bajpai2006">{{cite book|author=K. D. Bajpai|title=History of Gopāchala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31|year=2006|publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith|isbn=978-81-263-1155-2|page=31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date=31 December 1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0824-9 |pages=429–430 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA429 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rajan |first1=K. V. Soundara |title=Early Kalinga Art and Architecture |date=1984 |publisher=Sundeep |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ydojAAAAMAAJ |language=en|quote="When we have to compare a khākhärä temple of Kalinga with anything outside its borders, the most logical analogue coming to our mind will be that of Teli ka Mandir at Gwalior of the time of Pratihara Mihira Bhoja."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Dr Shiv |title=India – A Travel Guide |date=2008 |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. |isbn=978-81-284-0067-4 |page=531 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COHI7LlpkSAC&pg=PA531 |language=en}}</ref>]]

Mihira Bhoja first consolidated his territories by crushing the rebellious feudatories in Rajasthan, before turning his attention against the old enemies the Palas and Rastrakutas.<ref name="8129108909 p277-285">{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ |pages=277–280|isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

After consolidating his rule, he stepped into a war of succession for the throne of Gujarat between Dhruva II of the Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty and his younger brother. Bhoja led a cavalry raid into Gujarat against the Dhruva while supporting his Dhruva's younger brother. Although the raid was repulsed by Dhruva II, Bhoja was able to retain dominion over parts of Gujarat and Malwa.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ|pages=187|quote=Perhaps after initially consolidating his inheritance, Bhoja I then turned towards Central India, the Deccan and Gujarat. Stepping into a struggle for the throne of Gujarat between Dhruva Il of the Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty and his younger brother, Bhoja led a cavalry raid into Gujarat, with the stated objective of supporting the claim of the latter. The raid was repulsed by Dhruva II. Amoghavarsha's army may also have taken up arms against the Imperial Pratiharas at this point. Bhoia I was able to retain dominion over parts of Gujarat and Malwa, but further expansion in that direction was effectively checked. This may have led Bhoja to concentrate on the lands other than those under the Rashtrakutas for the time being.|isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

Bhoja's feudatory, the‌ Guhilas Samanta named Harsha of Chatsu, is described as : {{blockquote|“defeating the northern rulers with the help of the mighty elephant force”, and “loyally presenting to Bhoja the special ‘Shrivamsha’ breed of horses, which could easily cross seas of sand."<ref name="8129108909 p277-285"/>}} Besides being a conqueror, Bhoja was a great diplomat.<ref name="RSC_207">{{cite book | title =History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D. | author = Radhey Shyam Chaurasia | publisher =Atlantic Publishers & Distributors | year =2002 | page =207 | isbn=978-81-269-0027-5| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=cWmsQQ2smXIC&pg=PA207 | quote=He was undoubtedly one of the outstanding political figures of India in ninth century and ranks with Dhruva and Dharmapala as a great general and empire builder. }}</ref> The kingdoms which were conquered and acknowledged his suzerainty includes Travani, Valla, Mada, Arya, Gujaratra, Lata Parvarta and Chandelas of Bundelkhand. Bhoja's Daulatpura-Dausa Inscription (AD 843), confirms his rule in Dausa region. Another inscription states that,"Bhoja's territories extended to the east of the Sutlej river." Kalhana's Rajatarangini states that the territories of Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north, and Bhoja had conquered Punjab by defeating ruling 'Thakkiyaka' dynasty .<ref name="8129108909 p277-285"/><ref>Dasharatha Sharma, Rajasthan Through the Ages "a comprehensive and authentic history of Rajasthan" Bikaner, Rajasthan State Archives 1966, pp.144–54</ref> After Devapala's death, Bhoja defeated the Pala emperor Narayanapala and expanded his boundaries eastward into Pala-held territories near Gorakhpur.

In the early 8th century, Arabs fought on and off to take over Sindh. Imran ibn-Musa, who governed Sindh, tried to expand Arab rule to nearby areas. When Bhoja became powerful the Pratiharas fought back repulsed them from fort of Sindan, pushing the Arabs out of Kutch between 833 and 842 AD. Later on, the Arabs lost a best part of Sindh. This was the major conflict between the forces of Mihirbhoja and Imran ibn-musa <ref>{{Cite book |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1WgAAAAMAAJ |title=The Age of Imperial Kanauj |date=1955 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |pages=xi-xii |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Hem Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zAduAAAAMAAJ |title=The Dynastic History of Northern India (early Mediaeval Period) |date=1973 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |pages=12–13 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/early-Hindu-islamic-conflict-richards |title=early-Hindu-islamic-conflict-richards |pages=96 |language=English}}</ref>

Around 880, the Gurjara-Pratiharas were defeated in large battle in Ujjain by Krishna II, the Rastrakuta king of Gujarat. However, retribution likely soon followed on the part of the Pratiharas, as by the end of his reign, Bhoja had successfully exterminated the Gujarat Rashtrakuta line.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Rajasthan |first1=Rima |last1=Hooja |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2006 |location=Rajasthan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ|pages=187|isbn=8129108909}}</ref>

Hudud-ul-Alam, a tenth-century Persian geographic text, states that most of the kings of India acknowledged the supremacy of the powerful 'Rai of Qinnauj', (Kannauj was the capital of the Imperial Pratiharas) whose mighty army had 150,000 strong cavalry and 800 war elephants.<ref name="8129108909 p277-285"/>

===Decline=== {{See also|Pratihara War of Succession}} {{South Asia in 1000||Much reduced territory of the Gurjara-Pratihara in 1000, and neighbouring South Asian polities, on the eve of the Ghaznavid invasions of the subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |date=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA19 |language=en|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=32, 146|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=069}}</ref>|{{Annotation|128|86|50px}}}} Bhoja II (910–912) was overthrown by Mahipala I (912–944). Several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari.<ref name="SC19" /> The south Indian Emperor Indra III (c. 914–928) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty briefly captured Kannauj in 916, and although the Pratiharas regained the city, their position continued to weaken in the tenth century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously fighting off Turkic attacks from the west, the attacks from the Rashtrakuta dynasty from the south and the Pala advances in the east.<ref name="SC19" /> The Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to their feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India around 950.<ref name="SC19" /> By the end of the tenth century the Pratihara domains had dwindled to a small state centered on Kannauj.<ref name="SC19">{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |date=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA19 |language=en|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)}}</ref>

Mahmud of Ghazni captured Kannauj in 1018, and the Pratihara ruler Rajapala fled. He was subsequently captured and killed by the Chandela ruler Vidyadhara.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA25 |title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti |first=R. K. |last=Dikshit |publisher=Abhinav |year=1976 |isbn=9788170170464 |page=72 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA27 |title=The Early Rulers of Khajurāho |first=Sisirkumar |last=Mitra |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=9788120819979 |pages=72–73 }}</ref><ref name="SC19" /> The Chandela ruler then placed Rajapala's son Trilochanpala on the throne as a proxy. Jasapala, the last Pratihara ruler of Kannauj, died in 1036.<ref name="SC19" />

The Imperial Pratihara dynasty broke into several small states after the Ghaznavid invasions. These branches fought each other for territory and one of the branches ruled Mandore till the 14th century. This Pratihara branch had marital ties with Rao Chunda of the Rathore clan and gave Mandore in dowry to Chunda. This was specifically done to form an alliance against the Turks of the Tughlaq Empire.<ref name=DQ>{{Cite book|first=Melia|last=Belli|title=Royal Umbrellas of Stone: Memory, Politics, and Public Identity in Rajput funerary arts|publisher=Brill|year=2005|pages=142|isbn=9789004300569|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dR0CgAAQBAJ&dq=rao+chunda+of+mandore&pg=PA142}}</ref>

==Pratihara art== There are notable examples of architecture from the Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels.<ref>{{cite book|title=Epic scenes in Indian plastic art|first=Jayantika |last=Kala|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1988|isbn=978-81-7017-228-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLcGKezqdDIC&pg=PA5|page=5}}</ref> Their temples, constructed in an open pavilion style. One of the most notable Pratihara style of architecture was Khajuraho, built by their vassals, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand.<ref name="Partha Mitter pp. 66"/>

=== Māru-Gurjara architecture === Māru-Gurjara architecture was developed during Pratihara Empire.

* Mahavira Jain temple, Osian temple was constructed in 783 CE,{{Sfn|Kalia|1982|p=2}} making it the oldest surviving Jain temple in western India.{{sfn|Cort|1998|p=112}} * Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh was constructed during the Pratihara Empire between 8th to 11th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/asi-to-resume-restoration-of-bateshwar-temple-complex-in-chambal/story-kBaxGfcRWVsrNbw3Vw8dLN.html |title=ASI to resume restoration of Bateshwar temple complex in Chambal |date=21 May 2018 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> * Baroli temples complex are eight temples, built by the Pratiharas, is situated within a walled enclosure.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4"> File:Teli ka Mandir (15702266503).jpg|One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir. This Hindu temple was built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.<ref name="Bajpai2006"/> File:Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg|Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside Siddhachal Caves, Gwalior Fort. File:Baroli Temple Complex1.jpg|Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. The complex of eight temples, built by the Pratiharas, is situated within a walled enclosure. File:Bateshwar Temples (15695822503).jpg|Bateshwar Hindu temples in Madhya Pradesh was built by the Pratiharas. </gallery>

==Legacy== {{Continental Asia in 800 CE|right|{{center|The Gurjara-Pratihara and contemporary Asian polities, circa 800.}}|{{Annotation|119|114|40px}} }} Historians of India, since the days of Elphinstone, have wondered at the slow progress of Muslim invaders in India, as compared with their rapid advance in other parts of the world. The Arabs possibly only stationed small invasions independent of the Caliph. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Currently it is believed that it was the power of the Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "Chief contribution of the Pratiharas to the history of India".<ref name="Chaurasia"/>

== List of rulers == {| class="wikitable" |+List of Imperial Pratihara dynasty rulers ! Serial No. ! Ruler ! Reign (CE) |- |1 |Nagabhata I |730–760 |- |2 |Kakustha and Devaraja |760–780 |- |3 |Vatsaraja |780–800 |- |4 |Nagabhata II |800–833 |- |5 |Ramabhadra |833–836 |- |6 |Mihira Bhoja or Bhoja I |836–885 |- |7 |Mahendrapala I |885–910 |- |8 |Bhoja II |910–913 |- |9 |Mahipala I |913–944 |- |10 |Mahendrapala II |944–948 |- |11 |Devapala |948–954 |- |12 |Vinayakapala |954–955 |- |13 |Mahipala II |955–956 |- |14 |Vijayapala II |956–960 |- |15 |Rajapala |960–1018 |- |16 |Trilochanapala |1018–1027 |- |17 |Yasahpala |1024–1036 |- |}

== Mandavyapura branch == {{main|Pratiharas of Mandavyapura}} thumb|Copper plate inscription Pratiharas

== Baddoch branch == {{Expand section|date=August 2024}} Known Baddoch rulers are-

*Dhaddha I (600 – 627 CE) *Dhaddha II (627 – 655 CE) *Jaibhatta (655 – 700 CE)

== Rajogarh branch == {{Expand section|date=August 2024}} Badegujar were rulers of Rajogarh

*Parmeshver Manthandev, (885 – 915 CE) *No records found after Parmeshver Manthandev

==References== {{reflist}}

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Category:Pratihara Empire Category:States and territories established in the 8th century Category:States and territories disestablished in 1036 Category:History of Rajasthan Category:History of Gujarat Category:Medieval Indian dynasties Category:History of Malwa Category:Agnivansha Category:8th-century establishments in India Category:1036 disestablishments in Asia Category:11th-century disestablishments in India Category:Dynasties of India

Pratihara dynasty

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